AP Biology: Most Important Topics

follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

!!!Secreted by the pituitary gland to stimulate maturation of the egg cell (ovum)!!!

sodium-potassium pump

!!!a carrier protein that uses ATP to actively transport sodium ions out of a cell and potassium ions into the cell!!!

hypothalamus

!!!a neural structure lying below the thalamus; directs eating, drinking, body temperature; helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion!!!

luteinizing hormone (LH)

!!!hormone produced by the pituitary gland; promotes ovulation!!!

pheromones

!!!odorless chemicals that serve as social signals to members of one's species!!!

epidermis

!!!outer layer of skin!!!

channel proteins

!!!proteins that provide passageways through the membrane for certain hydrophilic (water-soluble) substances such as polar and charged molecules!!!

pharynx

!!!throat!!!

aldosterone

"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure

polar nuclei

2 nuclei, within the same cell, created from the mitotic division of the megaspore during angiosperm reproduction; unite in the ovule to form a fusion nucleus, which gives rise to endosperm when fertilized

blood type A

A antigen and B antibodies

biomes

A broad, regional type of ecosystem characterized by distinctive climate and soil conditions and a distinctive kind of biological community adapted to those conditions.

bundle of His

A bundle of modified heart muscle that transmits the cardiac impulse from the atrioventricular node to the ventricles causing them to contract

Paramecium

A ciliated (it propels itself via cilia) protist that lives in fresh water and eats other tiny organisms for food.

nucleoid

A dense region of DNA in a prokaryotic cell.

phospholipid bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes

vegetative propagation

A form of asexual reproduction in which plants produce genetically identical offshoots (clones) of themselves, which then develop into independent plants.

actin

A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.

collagen

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.

gibberellins

A growth hormone that causes a wide variety of effects. One role is to stimulate growth of stems by promoting cell division. Farmers use it to make fruit grow larger.

progesterone

A hormone produced by the ovaries which acts with estrogen to bring about the menstral cycle.

secretin

A hormone secreted by the small intestine (duodenum) in response to low pH (e.g., from stomach acid). It promotes the release of bicarbonate from the pancreas to act as a buffer.

brain hormone

A hormone, produced by the neurosecretory cells in the insect brain, that promotes development by stimulating the prothoracic glands to secrete ecdysone.

double fertilization

A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.

lateral meristem

A meristem that thickens the roots and shoots of woody plants. The vascular cambium and cork cambium are lateral meristems.

bryophytes

A moss, liverwort, or hornwort; a nonvascular plant that inhabits the land but lacks many of the terrestrial adaptations of vascular plants.

esophagus

A muscular tube that connects the mouth to the stomach

action potential

A neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

myosin

A protein present in muscle fibers that aids in contraction and makes up the majority of muscle fiber

vessel elements

A specialized short, wide cell in angiosperms; arranged end to end, they form continuous tubes for water transport.

megaspores

A spore from a heterosporous plant that develops into a female gametophyte bearing archegonia.

ecdysone

A steroid hormone, secreted by the prothoracic glands, that triggers molting in arthropods.

ovule

A structure that develops within the ovary of a seed plant and contains the female gametophyte.

morphogen

A substance, such as Bicoid protein in Drosophila, that provides positional information in the form of a concentration gradient along an embryonic axis.

bolus

A term used to describe food after it has been chewed and mixed with saliva

transport proteins

A transmembrane protein that helps a certain substance or class of closely related substances to cross the membrane.

neural tube

A tube of cells running along the dorsal axis of the body, just dorsal to the notochord. It will give rise to the central nervous system.

agonistic behavior

A type of behavior involving a contest of some kind that determines which competitor gains access to some resource, such as food or mates.

tracheids

A water-conducting and supportive element of xylem composed of long, thin cells with tapered ends and walls hardened with lignin.

roots

Absorbs water and minerals from the ground. Anchors plant in ground.

AIDS

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)

All microtubules are nucleated from structures known as microtubule-organizing centers, or MTOCs. In most cases th e(-) end of the microtubule stays anchored in the MTOC.

endotherm

An animal whose body controls and regulates its temperature by controlling the internal heat it produces

yolk sac

An embryonic structure particularly important in egg-laying animals because it contains the yolk, the only source of nutrients for the embryo developing inside the egg. IN humans, the yolk sac is very small (since mammals get their nutrients via the placenta) and is the site of synthesis of the first red blood cells.

Malpighian tubules

An excretory organ that is unique to insects, empties into digestive tract and removes nitrogenous wastes from the hemolymph, also plays a role in osmoregulation.

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

An extensive membranous network in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer nuclear membrane and composed of ribosome-studded (rough) and ribosome-free (smooth) regions.

glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch.

lysosomes

An organelle containing digestive enzymes

ectotherm

Animal that relies on interactions with the environment to help it control body temperature

vertebrates

Animals with backbones

interferons

Antiviral proteins secreted by T cells

homeotic genes

Any of the genes that control the overall body plan of animals by controlling the developmental fate of groups of cells.

intercalated discs

Attachment sites between the transverse lines between cardiac muscle cells

blood type B

B antigena and A antibodes

distal convoluted tubule

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium

osteoclasts

Bone-destroying cells

central nervous system

Brain and spinal cord

pulmonary vein

Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart

interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

nonvascular

Containing no plant tissue through which water and food move.

pyloric sphincter

Controls passage of food from stomach to small intestine

glucocorticoids

Cortisol and Cortisone are types of these hormones, produced in the Adrenal cortex, which increase blood glucose levels through stimulation of gluconeogenesis and the decrease of protein synthesis. They also reduce the body's immunological and inflammatory responses.

cyclic AMP (cAMP)

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells. It is also a regulator of some bacterial operons.

desertification

Degradation of land, especially in semiarid areas, primarily because of human actions like excessive crop planting, animal grazing, and tree cutting.

osmosis

Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane

style

El estilo

stomach

El estómago

bone

El hueso

apical meristem

Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length.

pancreatic lipase

Enzyme in pancreatic juice that breaks down triglycerides (fats and oils), creating fatty acids and monoglycerides

pepsin

Enzyme that breaks down proteins in the stomach

suberin

Fatty material found in the cell walls of cork tissue and in the Casparian strip of the endodermis

estrogen

Female sex hormone

pioneer organisms

First organisms to colonize a community

urine

Fluid wastes removed from the body by the kidneys

endosperm

Food-rich tissue that nourishes a seedling as it grows

macrophages

Found within the lymph nodes, they are phagocytes that destroy bacteria, cancer cells, and other foreign matter in the lymphatic stream.

extraembryonic membranes

Four membranes (yolk sac, amnion, chorion, allantois) that support the developing embryo in reptiles, birds, and mammals.

crop

Grain or fruit gathered from a field as a harvest during a particular season.

human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

Hormone produced by the placenta to sustain pregnancy by stimulating (-tropin) the ovaries to produce estrogen and progesterone

gastrulation

In animal development, a series of cell and tissue movements in which the blastula-stage embryo folds inward, producing a three-layered embryo, the gastrula.

apoplast

In plants, the continuum of cell walls plus the extracellular spaces.

symplast

In plants, the continuum of cytoplasm connected by plasmodesmata between cells.

sporophyte generation

In plants, the phase where they reproduce asexually; (Diploid generation); evolutionary trend has been towards increased dominance of this phase

gametophyte generation

In plants, the phase where they reproduce sexually; the haploid gametophyte generation produces gametes by mitosis; union of male and female gametes at fertilization restores the diploid sporophyte generation

territoriality

In political geography, a country's or more local community's sense of property and attachment toward its territory, as expressed by its determination to keep it inviolable and strongly defended.

mouth

La boca

eukaryotic cells

Larger, complex, with nucleus, membrane bound organelles, DNA tightly wrapped around histone proteins in chromosomes, cellulose in plant cell walls.

cell body

Largest part of a typical neuron; contains the nucleus and much of the cytoplasm

sepals

Leaflike parts that cover and protect the flower bud

density-independent factors

Limiting factor that affects all populations in similiar ways, regardless of population size.

root tip

Made up of the root cap, meristematic zone, elongation zone, and maturation zone

tight junctions

Membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

myofibrils

Micorsopic, fiber-like structures that occupy most cytoplasm in skeletal muscle cells

ammonia

NH3

left ventricle

Name this chamber.

right ventricle

Name this chamber.

cytoskeleton

Network of protein filaments within some cells that helps the cell maintain its shape and is involved in many forms of cell movement

atrioventricular (AV) node

Neurological tissue in the center of the heart that receives and amplifies the conduction of impulses from the SA node to the bundle of His

chymotrypsin

One of the main pancreatic proteases; it is activated (from chymotrypsinogen) by trypsin.

chloroplasts

Organelles that capture the energy from sunlight and convert it into chemical energy in a process called photosynthesis

parathyroid hormone

PTH

adrenal cortex

Part of the adrenal gland that produces three mayor groups of steroid hormones called corticosteroids.

companion cells

Phloem cells. Surround sieve tube elements to aid transport.

runners

Plant stems that run above and along the ground and form a new plant near the main plant.

gap junctions

Points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins. Also called communicating junctions.

luteal surge

Positive feedback of rising estrogen levels increases LH levels, which increases estrogen again. This causes follicle to burst and release egg (secondary oocyte).

mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production

exocytosis

Process by which a cell releases large amounts of material

light microscopes

Produce magnified images by focusing visible light rays

liver

Produces bile

peripheral proteins

Protein appendages loosely bound to the surface of the membrane and not embedded in the lipid bilayer.

recognition and adhesion proteins

Proteins such as glycoproteins that are exposed on the extracellular surface and help play a role in cell recognition and adhesion

saltatory conduction

Rapid transmission of a nerve impulse along an axon, resulting from the action potential jumping from one node of Ranvier to another, skipping the myelin-sheathed regions of membrane.

homebox genes

Regulate the expression of other genes

pollution

Release of harmful materials into the environment

seminiferous tubules

Small convoluted tubules in the testes where spermatogenesis takes place.

vesicles

Small membrane sacs that specialize in moving products into, out of, and within a cell

glomerulus

Small network of capillaries encased in the upper end of a nephron; where the filtration of blood takes place

lenticels

Small raised areas in the bark of stems and roots that enable gas exchange between living cells and the outside air.

prokaryotic cells

Small, simple, no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles, single loop of DNA (nucleosome), no cellulose, cytoplasm, cell membrane, cell wall (made of carbs), somtimes have cilia or flagella (movement).

morula

Solid ball of cells

antibodies

Specialized proteins that aid in destroying infectious agents

cytokinins

Stimulates cell division and growth of lateral buds. Causes dormant seeds to sprout.

antigen

Substance that triggers an immune response

simple diffusion (or passive transport)

Substances moving across the membrane, down the concentration gradient, for high to low concentration. Doesn't need energy.

Schwann cells

Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.

cytotoxic T-cells

T cells that can kill other cells. Almost all cytotoxic T cells are CD8 T cells. Cytotoxic T cells are important in host defense against viruses and other cytosolic pathogens, because they recognize and kill the infected cells.

helper T-cells

T cells that help the immune system by increasing the activity of killer cells and stimulating the suppressor T cells

thyroxine

T4

muscle fascicles

TRUE

circadian rhythms

The 24-hour biological cycles found in humans and many other species.

cells

The basic unit of all living things

cell-mediated response

The branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells.

intercellular junctions

The connections between one cell and the other

fluid-mosaic model

The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.

embryo

The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

morphogenesis

The development of body shape and organization.

sympathetic nervous system

The division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

pistil

The female reproductive part of a flower

follicular phase

The first phase of the ovarian cycle, during which a follicle (an oocyte and its surroudning cells) enlarges and matures. This phase is under the control of FSH from the anterior pituitary, and typically lasts from day 1 to day 14 of the menstrual cycle. The follicle secretes estrogen during this time period.

blastula

The hollow ball of cells marking the end stage of cleavage during early embryonic development

endodermis

The innermost layer of the cortex in plant roots; a cylinder one cell thick that forms the boundary between the cortex and the vascular cylinder.

intracellular digestion

The joining of food vacuoles and lysosomes to allow chemical digestion to occur within the cytoplasm of a cell.

synapse

The junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

rectum

The last part of the digestive tract, through which stools are eliminated

pancreatic duct

The main duct of the pancreas. The pancreatic duct carries the exocrine secretions of the pancreas (enzymes and bicarbonate) to the small intestine (dueodenum).

receptor-mediated endocytosis

The movement of specific molecules into a cell by the inward budding of membranous vesicles containing proteins with receptor sites specific to the molecules being taken in; enables a cell to acquire bulk quantities of specific substances.

bulk flow

The movement of water due to a difference in pressure between two locations.

peritubular capillaries

The network of tiny blood vessels that surrounds the proximal and distal tubules in the kidney

nucleolus

The organelle where ribosomes are made, synthesized and partially assembled, located in the nucleus

autonomic nervous system

The part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

stamen

The pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and a filament.

deforestation

The removal of trees

bulbs

The round parts of some plants that are underground

peripheral nervous system

The sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

sarcoplasmic reticulum

The smooth ER of a muscle cell, enlarged and specialized to act as a Ca2+ reservoir. The SR winds around each myofibril in the muscle cell.

ureters

The tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

right atrium

The upper right chamber of the heart, where deoxygenated blood is received from the vena cava and then sent to the right ventricle.

plasma membrane

Thin outer boundary of a cell that regulates the traffic of chemicals between the cell and its surroundings

posterior pituitary

This part of the pituitary does not produce hormones, but stores and releases oxytocin and ADH.

calcitonin

Thyroid hormone that tends to lower the level of calcium in the blood plasma and inhibit resorption of bone

microvilli

Tiny hair-like projections of the cytoplasmic membrane located only in the small intestine to facilitate absorption by increasing surface area.

facilitated transport (or facilitated diffusion)

Type of transport across the cell membrane that have proteins help substances. Down the concentration gradient, no energy needed.

integral proteins

Typically transmembrane proteins with hydrophobic regions that completely span the hydrophobic interior of the membrane.

blood type AB

Universal recipient

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

emulsifier

a compound with both water-soluble and fat-soluble portions that can attract fats and oils into water, combining them.

umbilical cord

a cord or funicle connecting the embryo or fetus with the placenta of the mother and transporting nourishment from the mother and wastes from the fetus

epiglottis

a flap of tissue that seals off the windpipe and prevents food from entering

grafting

a form of artificial asexual reproduction in which the branch of one plant is inserted into the stem of another plant

tubulin

a globular protein; constructs microtubules

community

a group of interdependent organisms inhabiting the same region and interacting with each other

cytoplasm

a jellylike fluid inside the cell in which the organelles are suspended

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

flagellum

a long, hairlike structure that grows out of a cell and enables the cell to move

stele

a monument, vertical in style, small or large, that contained writing or pictures to commemorate or record something

all-or-none response

a nerve or muscle fibre responds completly or not at all to a stimulus

lymphatic system

a network of veinlike vessels that returns the fluid that leaks out of blood vessels to the bloodstream

acetylcholine

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

liverworts

a nonvascular plant that's shaped like a human liver. found growing as a thick crust on moist rocks or soil along the sides of a stream.

"fight-or-flight" response

a physical reaction triggered by the sympathetic nervous system preparing the body to fight or run from a threatening situation

photoperiodism

a plant's response to seasonal changes in length of night and day

dialysis

a procedure to remove waste products from the blood of patients whose kidneys no longer function

negative feedback system

a process that results in a response that reverses the original stimulus

filtration

a process that separates materials based on the size of their particles

Euglena

a protist that has a single flagellum to move itself and obtains its nutrients by the process of photosynthesis.

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

food chain

a series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten

lymph node

a small knob of tissue in the lymphatic system that filters lymph

bone marrow

a soft tissue inside the bone that produces blood cells

cell sap

a solution of sugars, amino acids and many other substances, found in the vacuoles of plant cells

r-strategists

a species that grow exponentially whe environmental conditions allow them to reproduce

climax community

a stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time

ovary

a structure containing egg cells; the base of a pistil in a flower

bile

a substance produced by the liver that breaks up fat particles

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

cholesterol

a type of fat made by the body from saturated fat; a minor part of fat in foods

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

biomagnification

accumulation of pollutants at successive levels of the food chain

epinephrine

adrenaline; activates a sympathetic nervous system by making the heart beat faster, stopping digestion, enlarging pupils, sending sugar into the bloodstream, preparing a blood clot faster

sinuses

air-filled spaces in the skull that open into the nasal cavity

phagocytes

allow lysosomes to fuse with the vesicles that contain the ingested bacteria and viruses

trypsin

an enzyme from the pancreas that digests proteins in the small intestine

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

herbivores

an organism that eats only plants.

cerebrum

area of the brain responsible for all voluntary activities of the body

maturation region

area where cells are fully differentiated (where roots hairs are)

renal arteries

arteries that diverge from the descending aorta and supply blood to each kidney. it contains approximately 1/4 of the total blood flow of the body.

spines

backbones

oxygenated blood

blood that carries an abundant amount of oxygen

deoxygenated blood

blood that is oxygen poor

arteries

blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart

veins

blood vessels that carry blood back to the heart

osteoblasts

bone forming cells

dendrites

branching extensions of neuron that receives messages from neighboring neurons

inspiration

breathing in

expiration

breathing out

spiracles

breathing tubes of insects located on abdomen

pons

bridge

secondary consumers

carnivores that eat herbivores

tertiary consumers

carnivores that eat other Carnivores

inferior vena cava

carries blood from lower regions of the body to right atrium

superior vena cava

carries blood from upper regions of the body to right atrium

pulmonary artery

carries deoxygentated blood from the heart to the lungs

phloem vessels

carry nutrients throughout the plant (such as glucose). made up of sieve tube elements (actually carry nutrients) and companion cells

sperm cells

cells produced in the testes

repolarized

cells relaxed because K+ comes out of the cell

target cells

cells that have receptors for a particular hormone

hormones

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

neurotransmitter

chemical used by a neuron to transmit an impulse across a synapse to another cell

pulmonary circulation

circulation of blood from the pulmonary artery through the vessels in the lungs and back to the heart via the pulmonary vein, providing for the exchange of gases

islets of Langerhans

clusters of endocrine cells that secrete two hormones directly into the circulatory system. Each islet has a population of alpha cells, which secrete the peptide hormone glucagons, and a population of beta cells, which secrete the hormone insulin.

ecosystem

collection of all the organisms that live in a particular place, together with their nonliving environment

complement proteins

commonly inactive proteins from the liver circulate in blood, when activated enhance certain immune responses.

bone remodeling

compact bone replaces spongy bone

chitin

complex carbohydrate that makes up the cell walls of fungi; also found in the external skeletons of arthropods

hypothyroidism

condition of hyposecretion of the thyroid gland causing low thyroid levels in the blood that result in sluggishness, slow pulse, and often obesity

subcutaneous tissue

connective and adipose tissue layer just under the dermis

major histocompatibility complex markers (MHC markers)

contained in plasma membranes of immune cells; distinguish between self and non-self cells

systole

contraction

Bowman's capsule

cup-shaped strucutre of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place.

tree rings

date lines that determine the age of a tree

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner

ecological pyramid

diagram that shows the relative amounts of energy or matter within each trophic level in a food chain or food web

extracellular digestion

digestion that takes place outside of the cell

small intestine

digestive organ in which most chemical digestion takes place

polarized

divided into two extremes

sere

dry and withered

ova

egg

behavior

el comportamiento

bladder

elastic, muscular organ that holds urine until it leaves the body

radicle

embryonic root

axon bulb

end of the axon

corpus luteum

endocrine tissue which produces hormones, estrogen, and progesterone which prepares the uterine lining for receiving an embryo

intestine

enter

pancreatic amylase

enzyme from pancreas that breaks down starch

acetylcholinesterase

enzyme that catalyzes breakdown of acetylcholine, preventing sustained muscle contraction from a single nerve impulse

bicarbonate ions

enzyme that changes carbon dioxide into water so it is not poisonous to the body

gastric juices

enzymes, mucus and acid secreted from stomach glands

hyperthyroidism

excessive activity of the thyroid gland

nephridia

excretory organs that filter fluid in the coelom

prostate gland

exocrine gland, in men, at the base of the urinary bladder that secretes the fluid part of semen into the urethra during ejaculation

induction

factual reasoning

muscle bundles

fascicles

seedless vascular

ferns

egg nucleus

fertilize to produce zygote

zygote

fertilized egg

Purkinje fibers

fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles, causing them to contract

microfilaments

fine, threadlike proteins found in the cell's cytoskeleton

proximal convoluted tubule

first section of the renal tubule that the blood flows through; reabsorption of water, ions, and all organic nutrients

filtrate

fluid that passes from the blood through the capillary walls of the glomeruli of the kidney

B-lymphocytes

form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections

sieve tube elements

found in phloem; stacked end to end; have holes so materials can get in and out of the phloem

white blood cells (or leukocytes)

function as part of the body's defense mechanisms

nodes of Ranvier

gaps in the myelin sheath

pituitary

gland that is the master gland of the endocrine system

pancreas

gland that secretes pancreatic juice into the duodenum, where it mixes with bile to digest food

endocrine glands

glands of the endocrine system that release hormones into the bloodstream

ecological succession

gradual change in living communities that follows a disturbance

calcium salts

ground substance; crystalline matrix of bone; very rigid structure ~ gives bone excellent support & protection

population

group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area

ganglia

groups of nerve cells

logistic growth

growth pattern in which a population's growth rate slows or stops following a period of exponential growth

exponential growth

growth pattern in which the individuals in a population reproduce at a constant rate

exoskeleton

hard protective structure developed outside the body, as the shell of a lobster

pulmonary semilunar valve

heart valve opening from the right ventricle to the pulmonary artery

parathyroids

help regulate the level of calcium in the blood

primary consumers

herbivores

microtubules

hollow tubes of protein about 25 nanometers in diameter, support the cell and moves organelles within the cell

juvenile hormone

hormone in arthropods, secreted by the corpora allata glands, that promotes the retention of larval characteristics

gastrin

hormone produced in the stomach wall that stimulates sustained secretion of gastric juice

cholecystokinin

hormone the small intestine secretes to stimulate release of pancreatic juice from pancreas and bile from gallbladder

salivary amylase

in mouth, released by salivary glands and begins chemical breakdown of starch

interstitial cells

in the testes, these cells lie between the seminiferous tubules and produce the hormone testosterone

oxytocin

induces contraction of the uterine muscles during childbirth and causes the mammary glands to eject milk during nursing

growth hormone (GH)

influences growth

fixed action pattern

innate behavior that occurs as an unchangeable sequence of actions

blastocoel

inner fluid filled space in the blastocyst, The fluid-filled cavity that forms in the center of the blastula embryo.

endometrium

inner lining of the uterus

adrenal medulla

inner part of adrenal gland; secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine

renal medulla

inner portion of the kidney

amnion

innermost membranous sac surrounding the developing fetus

endoskeleton

internal skeleton or supporting framework in an animal

peristalsis

involuntary waves of muscle contraction that keep food moving along in one direction through the digestive system

hemoglobin

iron-containing protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen for delivery to cells

skin

la piel

diaphragm

large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing

aorta

largest artery in the body

carrying capacity

largest number of individuals of a population that a environment can support

perennial

lasting for a long time, persistent; a plant that lives for many years

cork cambium

lateral meristematic tissue that produces the outer covering of stems

vascular cambium

lateral meristematic tissue that produces vascular tissues and increases the thickness of the stem over time

organizers

leaders in the industry as well as leaders in the economy

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

density-dependent factors

limiting factor that depends on population size

aortic semilunar valve

located between the left ventricle and the aorta

uterine walls

long and lies upper border of the broad ligament; connects peritoneal cavity in the region of ovary with cavity of uterus

notochord

long supporting rod that runs through a chordate's body just below the nerve cord

memory T-cells

long-lived antigen-specific T cells that are activated in secondary and subsequent immune responses to an antigen.

nerve net

loosely organized network of nerve cells that together allow cnidarians to detect stimuli

GABA

major inhibitory neurotransmitter

ribosomes

make proteins

stigma

mark of disgrace

adhesion proteins

membrane proteins that form junctions between adjacent cells

chyme

mixture of stomach fluids and food produced in the stomach by contracting stomach muscles

petals

modified leaves which are usually bright in color to attract pollinators.

carbohydrate side chains

molecules on the outer surface of the plasma membrane that attach to the surface of some proteins

seeded vascular

most advanced plants, have vascular tissues and seeds

oral cavity

mouth

cardiac muscles

muscles found only in the walls of your heart

greenhouse effect

natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases

neurons

nerve cells

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

norepinephrine

neurotransmitter that is involved in arousal and the fight-or-flight system (also mood, sleep, and learning)

amine

nitrogen compound

uric acid

nitrogenous waste excreted in the urine

inflammatory response

nonspecific defense reaction to tissue damage caused by injury or infection

population density

number of individuals per unit area

nephrons

one of a million tiny filtered structures found in the kidneys that removes wastes from blood and produces urine.

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

one of the principal chemical compounds that living things use to store and release energy

fallopian tube

one of two fluid-filled tubes in human females through which an egg passes after its release from an ovary

10% rule

only 10% of the total energy produced at each trophic level is available to the next level. The amount of energy passed up to the levels of the food pyramid reduces as you go up.

anus

opening through which wastes leave the digestive tract

placenta

organ in placental mammals through which nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and wastes are exchanged between embryo and mother

kidney

organ that removes urea, excess water, and other waste products from the blood and passes them to the ureter

Golgi bodies

organelles that package cellular materials and transport them within the cell or out of the cell

niche

organism's role, or job, in its habitat

gills

organs that exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with water

renal cortex

outer region of the kidney

chorion

outermost layer of the two membranes surrounding the embryo; it forms the fetal part of the placenta

sinoatrial (SA) node

pacemaker of the heart

biosphere

part of Earth in which life exists including land, water, and air or atmosphere

systemic circulation

pathway of circulation between the heart and the rest of the body except the lungs

secondary growth

pattern of plant growth in which stems increase in width

Vitamin K

phytonadione

vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)

pituitary hormone that raises blood pressure and enables the kidneys to reabsorb water and therefore to secrete highly concentrated urine

joints

places where bones connect: hinge, pivot, gliding, ball and socket

phototropism

plant growth in response to light

thigmotropism

plant growth in response to touch

abscisic acid

plant hormone that inhibits cell division in buds and vascular cambium

ethylene

plant hormone that stimulates fruits to ripen

auxins

plant hormones that promote cell elongation

phytochrome

plant pigment responsible for photoperiodism

meristems

plant tissue that remains embryonic as long as the plant lives, allowing for indeterminate growth.

microspores (pollen grains)

plant's male gametophyes, or sperm cells; they are produced and released into the air

tropisms

plant's responses to touch, gravity, and sunlight

day-neutral plants

plants whose flowering cycle is not sensitive to periods of light and dark

right AV (tricuspid) valve

prevents backflow of blood from right ventricle to right atrium

left atrioventricular valve (or bicuspid or mitral valve)

prevents blood from flowing back into the left atrium from the left ventricle.

pinocytosis

process by which a cell takes in liquid from the surrounding environment

endocytosis

process by which a cell takes material into the cell by infolding of the cell membrane

homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

fertilization

process in sexual reproduction in which male and female reproductive cells join to form a new cell

reabsorption

process in the kidney that puts useful substances (water, glucose, amino acids) back into the blood

ovulation

process in which an egg is released from the ovary

differentiation

process in which cells become specialized in structure and function

phagocytosis

process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell

anterior pituitary

produces and secretes several peptide hormones that regulate many physiological processes including stress, growth, and reproduction

thyroid gland

produces hormones that regulate metabolism, body heat, and bone growth

anther

produces pollen

nitrogenous wastes

products of cellular metabolism that contain nitrogen

bronchioles

progressively smaller tubular branches of the airways

mineralocorticoids

promote reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ in kidneys

receptor proteins

protein providing binding sites for hormones or other trigger molecules. In response to the hormone or trigger molecule, a specific cell response is activated

T-lymphocytes

provide cell-mediated immunity and are processed by the thymus gland.

acid rain

rain containing high amounts of chemical pollutants

dominance hierarchy

ranking of individuals in a group based on aggressive behavior

left atrium

receives oxygenated blood from the lungs

insulin (beta cell)

reduces the glucose in the blood

elongation region

region in root where cells elongate, grow in size and increase root length

diastole

relaxation phase of the heartbeat

gravitropism

response of a plant to the force of gravity

vacuoles

saclike structures that store materials such as water, salts, proteins, and carbohydrates

saliva

saliva

ecology

scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment

striations

scratches left on rocks and bedrock by glacier movement

dermis

second layer of skin, holding blood vessels, nerve endings, sweat glands, and hair follicles

loop of Henle

section of the nephron tubule that conserves water and minimizes the volume of urine

gymnosperms

seed plant that bears its seeds directly on the surfaces of cones

altruistic behavior

self-sacrificing behavior that benefits another individual

chemoreceptors

sensory receptors which respond to chemicals

Hox genes

series of genes that controls the differentiation of cells and tissues in an embryo

cilia

short structures projecting from a cell and containing bundles of microtubules that move a cell through its surroundings or move fluid over the cell's surface

left bronchus

slightly narrower and more horizontal; gives off superior and inferior lobar bronchi

organelles

small structures in the cytoplasm that do special jobs

venules

small vessels that gather blood from the capillaries into the veins

arterioles

small vessels that receive blood from the arteries

capillary

smallest blood vessel; brings nutrients and oxygen to the tissues and absorbs carbon dioxide and waste products

mosses

soft, small, green and nonvascular and are found on the ground near water

desmosomes

specialized junctions that hold adjacent cell together, consist of dense plate at point of adhesion plus extracellular cementing material

lacteals

specialized lymph vessels in the small intestine that absorb fat into the bloodstream

k-strategists

species where organisms tend to reproduce later in life, have a smaller number of offspring, and are long living

humoral immunity

specific immunity produced by B cells that produce antibodies that circulate in body fluids

cortex

spongy layer of ground tissue just inside the epidermis of a root

filament

stalk that supports the anther

prolactin

stimulates milk production

thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

stimulates secretion from thyroid gland

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

stimulates the adrenal cortex

glucagon (alpha cell)

stimulates the the liver to convert glycogen into glucose to be released into the blood

gall bladder

stores bile

cartilage

strong connective tissue that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bone

cell wall

strong layer around the cell membrane in plants, algae, and some bacteria

epididymis

structure in the male reproductive system in which sperm fully mature and are stored

solutes

substances dissolved in a liquid

secondary succession

succession on a site where an existing community has been disrupted

primary succession

succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists

mutualism

symbiotic relationship in which both species benefit from the relationship

commensalism

symbiotic relationship in which one member of the association benefits and the other is neither helped nor harmed

parasitism

symbiotic relationship in which one organism lives in or on another organism (the host) and consequently harms it

closed circulatory system

system in which blood is contained within a network of blood vessels

open circulatory system

system in which blood is not always contained within a network of blood vessels

accessory organs

teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

cerebellum

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; it helps coordinate VOLUNTARY MOVEMENT and BALANCE

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing

sarcomere

the basic contractile unit of striated muscle; the segment of a myofibril between two adjacent z-lines

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

immune system

the cells, tissues, and organs that protect the body from disease. the immune system is composed of the white blood cells, bone marrow, thymus gland, spleen and other parts

mastication (or mechanical digestion)

the chewing, softening and breaking up of food

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

allantois

the extraembyonic membrane of birds, reptiles and mammals that serves as an area of gaseous exchange and as a site for the storage of noxious excretion products

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

large intestine

the last section of the digestive system, where water is absorbed from food and the remaining material is eliminated from the body

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

plasma

the liquid part of blood

collecting duct

the location in the kidney where processed filtrate, called urine, is collected from the renal tubules

thermoregulation

the maintenance of body temperature within a range that enables cells to function efficiently.

midbrain

the middle division of brain responsible for hearing and sight; location where pain is registered; includes temporal lobe, occipital lobe, and most of the parietal lobe

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

stratum corneum

the most superficial layer of the epidermis consisting of dead cells

carbon cycle

the movement of carbon from the nonliving environment into living things and back

active transport

the movement of materials through a cell membrane using energy

skeletal muscles

the muscles attached to bones that enable you to move

smooth muscles

the muscles found in organs, blood vessels, and glands

hypocotyl

the part of a plant embryo directly below the cotyledons, forming a connection with the radicle.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

epicotyl

the portion of the stem of a plant embryo that is between the cotyledons and the first true leaves

Rh factor

the presence, or lack, of antigens on the surface of red blood cells that may cause a reaction between the blood of the mother and fetus, resulting in fetal anemia

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

depolarization

the process during the action potential when sodium is rushing into the cell causing the interior to become more positive

reasoning

the process of drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence

transmembrane proteins

the proteins of a membrane that span the entire membrane

secretion

the release of biosynthesized substances

menstruation

the shedding of the uterine lining

cleavage

the tendency of a mineral to break along flat surfaces

tubers

the thick, fleshy parts of underground stems, such as potatoes

lymphocytes

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system: B lymphocytes form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections; T lymphocytes form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

short-day plants

these plants flower when nights are LONGER than a critical length

long-day plants

these plants flower when nights are SHORTER than a critical length

sperm nuclei

these travel down pollen tube to fertilize the egg cells which develop into seeds

ozone depletion

thinning of Earth's ozone layer caused by CFC's leaking into the air and reacting chemically with the ozone, breaking the ozone molocules apart

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

salivary glands

three pairs of exocrine glands in the mouth that secrete saliva; the parotid, submandibular (submaxillary), and sublingual glands

endodermal cells

tightly-packed cells that regulate the selective passage of water and minerals into the vascular tissue

alveolus

tiny air sac at the end of a bronchiole in the lungs that provides surface area for gas exchange to occur

root hairs

tiny hair-like extensions that increase the surface area of the root allowing it to absorbs more water and nurtients

capillaries

tiny vessels that join arterioles and venules

platelets

tiny, disk-shaped bodies in the blood, important in blood clot formation

villi

tiny, finger-like structures that protrude from the wall of the intestine

ligaments

tissue that connects bone to bone

tendons

tissue that connects muscle to bone

motor (effector) neurons

transmits the impulse to muscles or glands to produce a response

red blood cells (or erythrocytes)

transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

urethra

tube leading from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body

vas deferens

tube that carries sperm from the epididymis to the urethra

oviduct

tube that conveys egg cells away from the ovary toward the uterus; the usual site of fertilization

right bronchus

two primary airways branching from the area of the carina into the lungs

seminal vesicles

two small glands that secrete a fluid rich in sugar that nourishes and helps sperm move

lungs

two spongy organs, located in the thoracic cavity enclosed by the diaphragm and rib cage, responsible for respiration

centrioles

two tiny structures located in the cytoplasm near the nuclear envelope

primary growth

type of plant growth that occurs at the tips of roots and shoots

feces

undigested food material and other waste products that exit the body through the anus

muscle fiber cells

units of a muscle that compose muscle fascicles; contain contractile fibrils

blood type O

universal donor

electron microscopes

use beams of electrons, rather than light, to produce images

tracheophytes

vascular plants

neurula

vertebrate embryo in the stage during which the nervous system begins to develop

larynx

voice box

counter current exchange

warm and cold blood flow in opposite directions in two adjacent blood vessels

urea

waste product formed in the liver, filtered out of the blood by the kidneys, and excreted in urine

Casparian strip

waterproof strip that surrounds plant endodermis cells

lymph

watery fluid

operant conditioning (or trial-and-error learning)

when the animal's behavior determines whether it gets the reward or the punishment ex. B.F. Skinner rat and lever experiment

trachea

windpipe

vascular tissues

xylem and phloem