AP Euro Chapter 21-22 Review

Monroe Doctrine

-President James Monroe not trust UK so alone in 1823, got Latin American independence + warn against other European intervention in the New World with the Monroe Doctrine -was a US foreign policy regarding Latin American countries in 1823. It stated that further efforts by European nations to colonize land or interfere with states in North or South America would be viewed as acts of aggression, requiring U.S. intervention.

utopian socialism

-came from the bad conditions found in mines, factories, etc of the Industrial Revolution. Term associated with Marxist analysis of human society, but early socialism was from political theorists or intellectuals who wanted to introduce equality into social conditions. Believe that human cooperation was more powerful than competition of early industrial capitalism -later Marxists, ideas were impractical and labeled the theorists as utopian socialists. -utopian socialists: against private property and competition of capitalism. If eliminating those things and making systems of social organization, then a better environment for humanity can be made

realism (art)

-first half of 19th: romanticism + classical school of painting were about the same until realism became dominant after 1850. Realistic art: depict everyday life of ordinary people, attempt at photographic realism, + interest in natural environment -French were leaders of realist painting. Gustave Corbert: most famous; really good at portraying everyday life. Subjects were all types of workers + wives of saloon keepers -Stonebreakers: 1849 showed 2 road workers breaking down stones to build a road. This human misery was to embarrass those who rejected his "cult of ugliness". To him, no one was too harsh/ugly/ordinary to paint -Jean-Francois Millet: preoccupied with scenes of rural life like peasants laboring in fields. His realism still had element of romantic sentiment. -in The Gleaners: 3 peasant women gather grain in a field. This centuries-old practice showed the symbolic relationship b/w human + nature. -Millet made landscape + country life an important subject matter. He was also criticized for this rough subject matter + unorthodox technique

American Civil War (effect on warfare)

-American nationalism threatened by issue of slavery. -South: cotton economy + social structure based on slaves -when trying to maintain slavery -> S became defensive + isolated then a abolitionist movement was rising in the N which challenged the S order that led to civil war -1850s, slavery caused Whig Party to be dysfunctional + Democrats split b/w N + S -Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854: issue of slavery in Kansas + Nebraska determined by popular vote -> North to create a new sectional party = Republicans -Republicans: united through anti-slavery principles + fear that slavery would spread throughout country -these opposite opinions became harder to control. When Abraham Lincoln became president in 1860, he only convinced 2 of the countries of the S. -December 20, 1860, S Carolina convention voted to repeal their ratification of the U.S. Constitution. February 1861, 6 more states repealed -> new nation: Confederate States of American (S states) -American Civil War: 1861-1865 b/w N + S. more than 600K died from battle or disease from unsanitary camp conditions. Over 4 years, the Union (N) states slowly tired out the S + radicalized public opinion. First it was a war to save Union, but now a war against slavery. -Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation January 1, 1863: made most of slaves "free". Union blocking the S + the South's lack of men to fight = Confederate loss in 1864 -Union troops under General Ulysses S. Grant pushed Confederate troops of General Robert E. Lee to surrender on April 9, 1865. Union victory confirmed that US would be "one nation, indivisible"

Italian Unification

-Prussians indirectly completed Italian Unification in Austro-Prussian War of 1866: new Italian state was now ally of Prussia. Italians defeated by Austrians, but Prussia's win let Italy have Venetia -1870: Franco-Prussian War led to withdrawal of French troops in Rome. Then Venetia annexed September 20, 1870 + Rome was new capital of the united Italian nation

Catholic Revivalism

-after 1815, Christianity revived. Before, it lost attention b/c the elites more attracted to Enlightenment. But the restoration of nobility help create hope for Christianity b/c the nobles can be the force for order in society -better with Romantics b/c of their emphasis on emotion -> their own Christian revival -Catholicism esp benefited the most. Many Germany Romantics esp converted to Catholicism -Catholicism seen as harmony of everything and cathedrals brought the presence of God -Protestant revival: (awakening) start in 18th with emotional experiences of Methodism in UK and Pietism in Germany. Methodist missionaries from UK + Scotland spread idea of sin + redemption to Protestant churches of France + Switzerland -> many converts -Germany had Protestant awakening as preachers spread idea of hellfire + methods of emotional conversion which got a huge response from those alienated by educated elite clergy

Revolution of 1848 in France

-an industrial + agricultural depression started in 1846 that brought hardship to French lower middle class, workers + peasants. Third of workers unemployed by 1847. Scandals + corruption spread + gov. refusal to extend right to vote angered the middle class -Louis-Phillippe's gov. still didn't make changes so opposition grew. Radical repub. + socialists joined the upper middle class under Adolphe Thiers who wanted Guizot gone -illegal to have political rallies so used political banquet to call for reforms. Around 70 banquets in 1857-1848. Grand banquet in Paris Feb 22. People came even tho gov. forbid it. So people put up barriers in Paris -Louis-Phillippe now want reform but couldn't make another ministry + resigned Fed 24 + went to UK -group of moderate/provisional repub. Made a provisional gov. which ordered that rep. need to be elected for an assembly where they meet to make a new constitution. This chosen by universal male suffrage -also made national workshops under influence of Louis Blanc. Workers were to be cooperative + run by the workers. These were to provide jobs like leaf raking + ditch digging for the unemployed. -but the cost for this program was hard on the gov. split b/w moderate rep (support from France) + radical repub (support from Paris working class) -in elections for National Assembly, moderate had 500 seats. 300 to monarchists + 100 to radical -March-June: numbers in national workshops from 10K to 120K which take away money from treasury which scared the mod. So they closed the workshops June 23 -workers refuse + had 4 days of bloody fighting until gov. crush this working class revolt. Many killed + 4K prisoners deported from French colony of Algeria to N Africa -new constitution: passed November 4, 1848 made a republic (the Second Republic) with a one house legislature of 750 (3 yrs)+ a president (4 yrs) who were elected by universal male suffrage -elections for president December 1848: 4 repub. Who were with the 2nd Republic were beat by Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte (nephew of Napoleon). In 4 years, he would become the Emperor Napoleon

Edmund Burke

-conservatism comes from his "Reflections on the Revolution" in France which had democratic + radical republican ideas (Burke conservatism) -society was a contract, it was a partnership that applies to all generations. Each generation has duty to preserve this society + pass it onto the next. He also advised not to overthrow gov. through violent revolutions, but didn't deny the possibility of change. evolutionary/gradual improvements > sudden changes

Napoleon III Reforms

-gov. was authoritarian. He controlled armed forces, police + civil service. Only he can introduce legislation + declare war. Legislative Corps was the new rep. gov. since members were chosen by suffrage for 6 yr terms, but they can't do much -believe using gov. in economy + encourage industrial growth. Gov. would control construction of railroads, harbors, roads, + canals (major French railways lines during Napoleon III). Also industrial expansion with tripling of iron production -to improve social welfare, he gave hospitals + free medicine + support better housing for working class -reconstruction of Paris: with Baron Haussmann: medieval Paris w/ narrow streets + old walls destroyed + replaced with broad boulevards, big buildings, circular plazas, public squares, underground sewage system, public water supply, + gaslights. Paris now military purpose + looked beautiful -broad streets made it harder for people to make blockades and easier for troops to move through city -1860s, start of opposition to his policies so Napoleon III liberalized his regime -reach working class by legalizing trade unions + give them right to strike. Also liberalize political process. Now the Legislative Corps given more freedom to campaign, + more say in state affairs like debate over $ -his liberalization policies strengthened gov. in vote of May 1870 on constitution on maybe allowing parliamentary regime, French agreed with Napoleon again -but foreign policy fails led to more critics. War with Prussia in 1870 killed Napoleon III's regime completely

Latin American + Europe

-most of N America free from Europe in 18th with American Rev., but Latin America stayed under Spanish + Portuguese. But when monarchy of Spain toppled by Napoleon's Continental wars, Spanish authority weakened. 1810: Argentina became independent b/c of the dissipation of royal power presence. -Venezuela: fight led by Simon Bolivar (Liberator). He freed Colombia 1819 + Venezuela 1821. -2nd Liberator: Jose de San Martin: freed Chile 1817 then Lima 1821 in Peru which was center of authority -later joined by Bolivar + crushed last Spanish army 1824. Mexico + C American provinces also got independence. 1825, Brazil became independent. Now almost all Latin America free from royal powers. -So Alliance wanted to use troops to restore Spanish control in Latin America. But UK wanted to join with US against the Alliance b/c it wanted access to the continent for trade + investment. -also, since British ships were b/w Latin America + Europe, Alliance hesitant to fight against UK naval power -new independence brought economic independence but old patterns returned. Now UK dominate their economy since British merchants moved in quickly + UK investors gave funds (esp. in mining industry) -Latin America seen as source of raw materials for industrializing nations in Europe + US -> exports to N Atlantic increased quickly (wheat, tobacco, wool, sugar, coffee, hides). And finished good (esp. textiles) were imported quickly = decrease in industrial production of Latin America = show the returned dominance of foreigners over Latin America's economy

Greek Revolt

-principle of intervention can prevent rev. + also support rev. if Alliance believed it was for the best. -1821: Greeks revolt against Ottoman Turks. They had been able to keep their language + Greek Orthodox religion even though land Muslim. But revival of Greek sentiment in 19th added to desire for liberation. So Greek revolt became supported by European powers b/c of their sentiment for the Greeks' struggle. 1827: British + French went + defeat Ottoman armada -1828: Russia declare war on Ottoman Empire + invade its provinces of Moldavia + Wallachia -Treaty of Adrianople 1829: ended Russia-Turkish war. Russia got protectorate over the two territories. And Ottoman Empire agree to let Russia, France, + UK decide fate of Greece -1830: they let Greece become independent then 1832, a royal dynasty was established. Revolution was successful b/c great powers had supported it. Until 1830, Greece revolt had been the only successful revolt, while conservative domination still stayed

Romantic Movement vs. Reason

-romanticism came at the end of 18th and started challenging Enlightenment (use reason) -romanticism want to balance use of reason with importance of intuition -Romantics tried finding the unusual in own lives through: states of experience in own dreams, nightmares, frenzies, + suicidal depression; try cocaine, opium, + hashish to try and go into a state of unconsciousness

Nicholas I

-then death of Alexander in 1825 let them do this. His brother, Constantine was rightful heir but gave it to his brother, Nicholas. But this wasn't clear to the public so the Northern Union had revolted 1825 at Nicholas at the throne. Called the Decembrist Revolt: later crushed by troops loyal to Nicholas. Leaders were killed. -revolt changed Nicholas I from conservative to reactionary who wanted to avoid other rebellions. He strengthened bureaucracy + secret police. Political police, Third Section of the tsar's chancellery, were given power of most of Russian life. 1) deport suspicious/dangerous people 2) close surveillance over foreigners in Russia 3) report regularly to tsar of the public opinion -feared rev. at home and also rev. abroad even though there were no other rev. during his reign. He was called the Policeman of Europe since he was willing to use Russian troops to crush rebellions

The Peterloo Massacre

-two political factions in Parliament of UK: Tories + Whigs. Both dominated by people from landed classes, but Whigs also gaining support from industrial middle class. Tory ministers dominated gov. until 1830 and didn't want to change the existing political electoral system -discontent grew after 1815 from economic difficulties. Tory's gov. response to the falling agricultural prices was the Corn Law 1815: put high tariffs on foreign grain. This benefited landowners, but hard for working class. Mass protest meetings turned into an event where cavalry attacked 60K demonstrators at Saint Peter's Fields in Manchester 1819 (Peterloo Massacre) had 11 deaths -led for Parliament to be more repressive. Gov. restrict large public meetings + dissemination of pamphlets among the poor. By making minor reforms in 1820s, Tories managed to avoid meeting the demands for electoral reforms until 1830

"On the Subjection of Women"

-written by John Stuart Mill and expanded meaning of liberalism by being supportive of women rights. Failed in trying to include women in his voting reform bill 1867, so wrote "On Subjection of Women": written with his wife Harriet Taylor -argue that legal differences based on sex was wrong. Differences b/w men and women not from different natures but b/c of social practices. With same education, women can accomplish just as much as men

Ausgleich 1867 (Compromise of 1867)

After Austro-Prussian War, this compromise made the dual monarchy of Austria + Hungary since Hungary acted so violently after being alienated so many times by Empire. -each empire: own constitution, own two-house legislature, own gov. machinery for domestic affairs, + own capital (Vienna for Austria + Buda for Hungary) single monarch holding them together: Francis Joseph -shared common army, foreign policy, + system of finances. Hungarians independent in domestic affairs -but this still isolated the rest of the minorities of Austro-Hungarian Empire

Klemens von Metternich

Austrian foreign minister. Experienced diplomat and very conceited. Always thought of himself as being right over everyone else in the congress. Head of the Congress of Vienna and came up with the concept of the principle of legitimacy

Benjamin Disraeli

British Tory leader who wanted to win over new reformers to the Conservative Party. -Reform Act of 1867: step towards democratization. -Disraeli thought this would benefit Conservatives, but industrial workers got a big Liberal victory 1868 -new voting requirements forced Liberal + Conservative Parties to organize carefully in order to manipulate elections -> increased party discipline, rivalry b/w Conservatives + Liberal became regular in parliament -came from opposition b/w leaders of parties: William Gladstone (Liberals) + Disraeli (Conservatives)

Belgian Nationalism + Revolt 1830

Congress of Vienna had added the old area of Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) to the Dutch Republic to make a bigger state on France's N border -combining these two states with different languages was bad to Belgium and 1830: they rose against the Dutch so Congress ended up making them an independent + neutral state -new king of it was Leopold Saxony of Germany (minor German prince). Then Belgium became a constitutional monarchy for the nation

Auguste Comte

French who wrote "System of Positive Philosophy" in 1837 + 1842. he made a system of "positive knowledge" based on hierarchy of all sciences. -Mathematics was foundation where all other sciences were built on. The top was sociology: science of human society which combined economics, anthropology, history, + social psychology -the discovery of general laws of society would be based on collection + analysis of data on humans + their environment. Comte helped the growing popularity of science + materialism in mid-19th

Louis Blanc and national workshops

French who wrote "The Organization of Work": saying that social problems can be solved by gov. help. Called out competition as the main cause of economic evils. Called for the establishment of workshops that can make goods for public sale. State would finance the workshops, but workers own + operate them -utopian socialists got many female supporters who believe that reordering the society would help women.

Zollverien

German customs union 1834 that eliminate tolls on rivers + roads, stimulate trade + help prosperity of member states; coalition of German states formed to manage tariffs and economic policies within their territories.

Camillo de Cavour

Italian prime minister and liberal nobleman rich from farming, banking, railroads, + shipping. Wanted a constitutional gov. he was good at persuading others to support his beliefs. As prime minister: had policy of economical expansion and also expand investment in new industries -> growing Piedmont economy. Increase in revenues let Cavour use it for a big army -Cavour knew that he would need French help so made deal with Napoleon III: 1) French would help drive Austrians out of Italy 2) after, Italy would be reorganized + extended into Upper Italy by adding Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena + some Papal States 3) French would get Piedmontese provinces (Nice + Savoy) 4) a new kingdom of C Italy would be made for Napoleon's cousin (Prince Napoleon) who would be married to younger daughter of king Victor Emmanuel (king at the time) -this agreement let French have advantage of controlling Italy. So April 1859, Austrians invaded Piedmont -French mostly did fighting + beat Austrians at battles Magenta + Solferino. They also made peace with Austrians July 11, 1859 without telling Italy -Napoleon withdrew quickly b/c can't fight two at once so peace b/w Napoleon + Austria: 1) Piedmont got Lombardy 2) Austria got Venetia -Cavour was angry but in N, some Italian states (Parma, Modena, Tuscany + some of Papal States) were taken over by Italian nationalists. In 1860, these states agreed to join Piedmont. Napoleon agreed in exchange for Nice + Savoy.

Serjents

March 1829, the new police called serjents became visible. dressed in blue uniforms. lightly armed with a white cane (day) + sword (night) = showing that they were citizens themselves, not a military body -first appearance of these police in France

Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand

Romantic French who wrote" Genius of Christianity": 1802 was labeled "Bible of Romanticism" defended Catholicism based on history and largely Romantic sentiment

Austro-Prussia War of 1866

War between the Austrian Empire and Prussia, part of the wars of German unification, led to Prussia's surprising victory as the dominant power in German unification. Otto von Bismarck showed that nationalism + authoritarianism can be combined , and also that liberalism + nationalism can be separated. Bismarck had allied with Italy and beat Austrians at Koniggratz. Austria lost Venetia (given to Italy) and were executed from any German affairs. North German Confederation now under control of Prussia. The South remained independent but their military agreements were under Prussian control.

Flora Tristan

a female utopian socialist: tried to foster a "utopian synthesis of socialism + feminism". She went through France preaching her need for liberation of women. Wrote "Worker's Union" 1843 which supported application of Fourier's ideas to reconstruct family + works -she saw absolute equality as only way to free working class + transform civilization -she like other utopian socialists were ignored for their unreasonability. But they made groundwork for future attacks on capitalism. But now, socialism was a minority to liberalism or nationalism

German Unification

achieved by the Prussians from the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871

Franco-Prussian War

after Austro-Prussian War when Bismarck + king William I now dominant all of N Germany, + Austria excluded from German affairs -but Bismarck realize that France isn't happy w/ Prussia on the E b/c it's a threat to French security. Also, Napoleon III was looking for a diplomatic triumph to balance his domestic problems. French didn't like what happened for Germany + wanted to humiliate Prussians -after rev. had removed Queen Isabella II, throne of Spain now given to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen: relative of king of Prussia. Napoleon rejected to it -if this happened, France would be surrounded by nations of the Hohenzollern dynasty. French objections made William I to force Leopold not to take the throne which Bismarck disapproved of -But now French push William I to make an apology to the French + promise to never let Leopold be king. But Bismarck edited the telegram so it would be more of an insulting apology making the French angry. -so French declared war on Prussia on July 15, 1870 which they lost. S states honor military alliance + join Prussia against French. Prussian armies capture Napoleon III at Sedan -Second French Empire now collapsed. Four months of resistance, Paris finally surrender peace treaty signed. France had to pay 5 billion francs (around $1 billion) and give up provinces Alsace + Lorraine to Prussia -before war ended, S German states had agreed to enter N German Confederation -1871 at Hall of Mirrors in Versailles, William I was named Kaiser (emperor) of Second German Empire (first was HRE). German unity achieved by Prussia -Germany technically combined into Prussia, not vice versa. German liberals even celebrated since now they cared more about unity than both unity + freedom -Prussian leadership of German unification = authoritarian, militaristic views won over liberal + constitutional ideas. With industrial resources + military power, Germany now strongest power in Europe

Red Shirts

army created by Guiseppe Garibaldi during the Italian Unification

Charles Darwin

born in middle class family + study theology at Cambridge Uni. With interest in geology + biology. 1831: accept job as naturalist to study animals + plants on Royal Navy scientific expedition on H.M.S Beagle at age 22. Purpose: study landmasses of S America + S Pacific. Darwin's assignment was to study structure of different forms of plant + animal life -he observed animals that weren't touched by external influence then compare them to the animals in UK -had belief that animals evolved over time depending on their environment. Back in UK, he explained evolution with principle of natural selection in 1859 "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" -basic idea: plants + animals have evolved over time from an earlier + simpler form of life = organic evolution -believe in Thomas Malthus' theory of population: in every species, there are more species that are born than the number of species that can survive = "struggle for existence" -and the ones who succeed in this struggle were able to adapt better to their environment = natural selection -those that were naturally selected for survival (survival of the fittest) would live; the unfit would become extinct. The passed characteristics let them survive until a new species came. -in "On the Origin of Species": he talked about animal + plant life only. Didn't include humans + only later applied them to his theory of natural selection -in "The Descent of Man" in 1871: argued for the animal origins of humans. Humans came from original animal structure. Humans also not an exception to the rule of "survival of the fittest" -his theories were controversial at first b/c people didn't like how he made humans a product of nature rather than as unique individuals. Others didn't like how he made life seem like a struggle for survival "nature red in tooth and claw" and it also seemed to take out any moral values -Darwin's theory took out purpose + design from the universe. But gradually, his theory was accepted by scientists + other intellectuals. people would try to apply them to society (show science prestige increasing)

Beethoven

bridge between the classical and romantic periods. There was a revolutionary mood from the events in France + Beethoven wanted to spread his ideas. Let music express his deepest inner feelings -born in Bonn, family of musicians + was assistant organist at 13 at court. later went to Vienna (musical capital of Europe) + learned under Haydn + lived there after that 1792. First period of composing: 1792-1800 -still classical in 18th + seen by influence by Mozart + Haydn. But in "Eroica": (Third Symphony) for Napoleon, he transitioned to Romanticism w/ odd rhythms to make dramatic + uplifting resolutions said by E.T.A. Hoffman - ended up writing many more works, but had difficulty b/c he was becoming more deaf. The chorale finale of "Ninth Symphony" was written when he was completely deaf

Quadruple Alliance

created in the Congress of Vienna between Britain, Russia, Austria, + Prussia. Later, France was added and it became the Quintuple Alliance. Allied to prevent any more revolutions like the French

Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy

dedicated Italian nationalist who led the "risogimento" ("resurgence") who founded Young Italy organization in 1831. Group had goal to create a united Italian republic -wrote "Duties of Man": encourage Italians to dedicate lives to Italian nation. Even attracted women.

Joseph Lister

developed antiseptic principle: believed that bacteria could enter a wound and cause infection. So by using carbolic acid, he discovered a disinfectant which was effective in eliminating infections during surgery. This transformed surgery wards since patients no longer had to suffer with "hospital gangrene" (death tissue)

John Stuart Mill

dominant supporter of liberalism. Wrote "On Liberty": 1859 classic statement on liberty of individual; argued for "absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects" that should be protected from gov. censorship and tyranny of the majority

Charles Dickens

greatest Victorian realist novelist whose novels focused on lower + middle class in UK early industrial age. His description of the urban poor + brutality of life was vividly realistic

Congress of Vienna

held from September of 1814 to June of 1815. After the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte, this international conference was called to create a balance among the European powers in such a way so as to prevent future wars and maintain peace and stability on the European continent. The means of achieving this goal would be through a major reshaping of European interior borders. Leader was Austrian Klemens von Metternich who came with the idea of the principle of legitimacy: had to restore legitimate monarchs to reestablish peace + stability

19th Nationalism

ideology based on the premise that the individual's loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual or group interests. Came from being aware of being in a community that has common institutions, traditions, language, + customs = "nation." Didn't become popular force for change until French Rev. then nationalists believe that each nationality should have own gov. Threatened existing political order internationally + politically. -in first half of 19th, liberalism + nationalism were allies. Liberals believed that liberty can only be realized by those who ruled themselves. Nationalists believe that once people get their own state, all nations can be linked together in a bigger community of all humanity

Reform Bill of 1832

introduced by the Whig Party that recognized the horrible changes made in British life caused by the Industrial Revolution. 1) broke down 56 horrible boroughs + made 42 new towns + cities. 2) this gave the new industrial communities voice in the gov. 3) property qualification of 10 pounds for rent to vote still stayed. Voters from 478K to 814K which meant 1 per 30 were rep = controlled mostly by upper middle class (lower middle + working had no rep) 4) House of Commons composition basically stayed the same 5) most importantly: it now included the interests of the industrial middle class - aristocrats would have power to pass legislature that instituted gov. regulations over working conditions + this saved gov. from making abusive conditions. But now with manufacturers + industrialists in Parliament, they argued against this idea by promoting ideas of Economic Liberalism

19th Conservatism

keeping the old traditions and it wants to contain any liberal or nationalist forces that came from the French Revolution. This was expressed by people like Edmund Burke. Others were like French Joseph de Maistre who advocated authoritarian conservatism where the restoration of hereditary monarchs is the only way to avoid chaos from movements like the Rev. Most conservatives believed in: 1) want obedience to political authority 2) organized religion was needed for social order 3) hate revolutionary upheavals 4) unwilling to accept demands for civil liberties/rep. gov/ or national aspirations. Basically: society should organized and tradition was the best guide. This was supported by monarchs, bureaucracies, aristocracies, + revived churches.

Victor Emmanuel II

king of Italy at the time of Italian Unification with help of Cavour + Garibaldi. was the first king of the new united Italian state

Giuseppe Garibaldi

leader of Italian unification. Patriot who support Mazzini + repub. cause of Young Italy. Got an army called Red Shirts + May 11, 1860: went to Sicily where there was a revolt against the Bourbon king of the Two Sicilies -Red Shirts won with Garibaldi's tactics. End of July 1860, most of Sicily under Garibaldi. Then August, he + army went to mainland + started going up N. Naples + kingdom of Two Sicilies fell later. But Cavour knew of Garibaldi's plan of going up to Rome, but Cavour was scared since this might bring war with France -Garibaldi + army wanted a democratic republicanism which Cavour didn't want. So sent Piedmontese army to Papal States + went for kingdom of Naples. This is when Garibaldi retreated. -this causes Papal States + kingdom of Two Sicilies to support joining with Piedmont. March 17, 1861: new kingdom of Italy under centralized gov. under control of Piedmont + king Victor Emmanuel of Savoy -unification still not complete since Venetia in N still held by Austria + Rome under papal control supported by French. If attacking, that meant major war w/ a strong power. -unification finished with Austro-Prussia War

William Gladstone

leader of the Liberal Party of the UK. William Gladstone Liberal administration: 1868-1874 where legislation + gov. open civil service positions to exams rather than through funding/support. -also introduce secret ballot of voting, abolish practice of buying military jobs -Education Act of 1870: try to make elementary schools for all children. All reforms typically liberal -by eliminating abuses and letting people w/ talent complete, it strengthen nation + its institution

Gustave Flaubert

leading novelist 1850s + 1860s during Realist movement. wrote "Madame Bovary:" description of barren + dirty small-town life in France. Character named Emma Bovary, women of vitality, is trapped in marriage to a doctor. She searches for the romantic images she finds in novels in adulterous affairs. Unfulfilled, she commits suicide to end her life. This shows Flaurbert's disdain for bourgeoisie society through his portrayal of the middle class hypocrisy + smugness

Party of Resistance

led by Guizot and against the Party of Movement led by Adolphe Thiers: favored ministerial responsibility, pursuit of active foreign policy, + limited expansion of franchise. This was in France during rule of Louis-Philippe -there were differences of opinion on how the bourgeoisie monarchy would grow so two groups emerged but both had upper middle class rep. (the two Parties)

Francois Guizot

led the Party of Resistance: believe that France had reached its perfect form of gov. and needed no other changes. -after 1840, Party of Resistance dominated Chamber of Deputies. Guizot worked with Louis-Philippe to suppress ministerial responsibility + pursue policy which favored wealthier manufacturers + tradespeople -this was after the July Revolution in France from Charles X and Louis-Philippe took over by making a bourgeoisie monarchy

New German School (music)

new group of musicians that emphasized emotional content rather than abstract form + wanted new methods of using music to express literary ideas -helped Romanticism reach its peak

Otto von Bismarck

new prime minister under Frederick I who thought every king was too conservative. Until 1890, he dominated German + European politics -born in aristocracy of Prussia (Junker class). In college, he spent time with wine, women + reading German history. Got law degree + start career in Prussian civil service but got bored + retired to estates -1847, he wanted more excitement + power to reenter politics. Started making base of diplomatic experiences while being the Prussian delegate of the Germanic Confederation. Also had experience from being Prussian ambassador to Russia then France let him have knowledge of European affairs -was politician + opportunist. Was moderate + called for war only when he believed that he had to military + diplomatic advantages. Seen as a political realist + 19th practitioner of Realpolitik -open to showing his dislike for people who opposed him as well -1862, resubmitted army bill to parliament + appeal to the liberalists, but rejected again. But he didn't listen + got the taxes to make the army anyway blaming liberals for the breakdown of constitutional gov. -1863-1866: Bismarck governed Prussia + ignored Parliament (who didn't do anything back). Opposition to his domestic policy led him on active foreign policy -> 1864 Austro-Prussian war where he led Prussia to victory

Karlsbad Decrees

of 1819: closed Burschenschaften, gave censorship of press, put universities under supervision + control. Then after (except a few minor things 1830-1832), Metternich + German rulers kept their conservative status quo

19th Liberalism

political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the individual to be the central problem of politics. People should be as free from restraint as possible. in economic liberalism (classical economics): want laissez-faire b/c gov duties were to defend country, have police protection for the individuals, + construction of maintenance. The individuals would bring the maximum amount of benefit for the general welfare of society. Liberal common set of belief: 1) protection of civil liberties/ basic rights of all people (equality before law, freedom of assembly, speech + press, freedom from unreasonable arrest) 2) these freedoms should be guaranteed in a document like the Bill of Rights or French Declaration. 3) separation of church and state 4) right of opposition to the gov. in or out of parliament 5) making of laws by rep. assembly (legislature) elected by voters. Also believed in ministerial responsibility + limited suffrage.

Policy of Legitimacy

principle introduced by Metternich at the Congress of Vienna. It meant that: to reestablish peace + stability in Europe, it was necessary to restore the legitimate monarchs who would preserve the traditional institutions. It was sometimes ignored in places by more practical considerations of power like in Poland. The principle was followed in places like France + Spain. They believed this balance of power would keep any one country from dominating Europe.

Alexander Herzen + People's Will

radical writer influencing one of the most popular reforms against Alexander II. Was a Russian exile living in London. Slogan: "Land and Freedom" showed his belief that Russian peasants should be sole instruments for social reform. The village commune should be an independent, self-governing body that would be the basis of a new Russia -populism: formed by groups of Herzen's followers. Goal was to create a new society through revolutionary acts from the peasants. But due to lack of participation from the peasants populists used violence to overthrow tsarist autocracy -People's Will: a group of radicals who assassinated Alexander II in 1881. His heir + son Alexander III went against reforms + used traditional methods of repression

Alexander I + Northern Union

raised with ideas of Enlightenment and wanted to make reforms. With help of adviser, Michael Speransky, he relaxes censorship, free political prisoners, + reform educational system -but didn't want to have a constitution that free serfs b/c that would make him seem like he's against nobles. After defeat of Napoleon, he became conservative and revert to strict censorship -opposition to Alexander rose from a group of secret societies. One of them, known as Northern Union, had young aristocrats that knew of the world outside Russia and noticed the lack of academic freedom in Russian universities. So this society want establishment of constitutional monarchy + abolition of serfdom which Alexander's death let them do

realpolitik

refers to politics or diplomacy based primarily on power and on practical and material factors and considerations, rather than ideological notions or moralistic or ethical premises. politics based on practical objectives rather than on ideal, hence a politics of adaptation to things as they are.

Gothicism and the Romanticism

romanticism emphasizes emotion, sentiment + inner feelings in their works + individualism: interest in unique traits of each person. revival of medieval Gothic architecture → psuedo-medieval castles + cities with neo-Gothic cathedrals, city halls, buildings, + railway stations

phalansteries

self-contained cooperatives that had around 1620 people. Communally housed, live + work together for mutual benefit. Work assignments rotated to relieve workers of undesirable tasks. -idea given by socialist Charles Fourier

Elizabeth Blackwell

she had the first breakthrough for women in medicine. She was accidentally accepted to Geneva College of Medicine in New York but her intelligence got her the respect from the other male students. she got her M.D. degree in 1849 + later made a clinic in New York City

Charles Fourier

socialist wants the creation of small model communities called phalansteries: self-contained cooperatives that had around 1620 people. Communally housed, live + work together for mutual benefit. Work assignments rotated to relieve workers of undesirable tasks. His plan was untested b/c no support

British Reform Act of 1867

step towards democratization. Lower requirements for voting while let many male urban workers vote. From 1 million to a little over 2 mil.

Burschenshaften

student societies that supported a free, united Germany. Gave from new nationalism that came after Napoleon -their ideas + motto "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland" inspired by Friedrich Ludwing Jahn: who had made gymnastic societies during Napoleonic wars to promote regeneration of German youth. He wanted Germans to disrupt the lectures of their professors if their views were not nationalistic -1817-1819: Burschenschaften did things that alarmed the German gov. Assembly at Wartburg Castle 1817: marking 300th anniversary of Luther's 95 Theses, they burned books written by conservative authors -when a deranged student assassinated a reactionary playwright, Metternich had diet of German Confederation made Karlsbad Decrees of 1819: closed Burschenschaften. Metternich + German rulers kept their conservative status quo

King Louis-Phillipe

successor after the July Revolution in France. called the bourgeoisie monarch b/c political support for his rule was fro upper middle class. He even dressed like a member of the class in business suits + hats. -constitutional changes favored interests of upper middle class were made. Financial qualifications for voting were reduced but stayed high. -Louis-Phillippe's gov. still didn't make changes so opposition grew. Radical repub. + socialists joined the upper middle class under Adolphe Thiers who wanted Guizot gone -illegal to have political rallies so used political banquet to call for reforms. Around 70 banquets in 1857-1848. Grand banquet in Paris Feb 22. People came even tho gov. forbid it. So people put up barriers in Paris -Louis-Phillippe now want reform but couldn't make another ministry + resigned Fed 24 + went to UK

Alexander II + Emancipation Edict + zemstovs

successor to Nicholas I. Alexander realized the need to abolish serfdom so March 3, 1661: Alexander passed emancipation edict: 1) peasants can own property, marry + bring suits to law courts. But this still had limits. 2) gov. gave the peasants after buying it from landlords, but the landlords would keep all the best land. 3) peasants ended up with lots of non-growing land so couldn't support themselves. This was worse in addition to the peasant pop. Increase in second half of 19th 4) state gave the land to peasants, but they were expected to repay the state in long-term installments 5) to make sure payments were made, peasants under control of mir (their village commune) which were responsible in paying the gov -so technically the village commune owed the gov., not peasants themselves so village didn't let peasants leave their land. Emancipation led to starvation + peasants stuck to old way of farming, not free + landowning -1864, Alexander II made system of zemstvos: (local assemblies) = kind of a way of gov. Representatives elected from noble landowners, townspeople + peasants but advantage to the nobles -zemstvos had power to give public services (education, famine relief, public works), also levy taxes which were usually stopped by bureaucrats who feared a self-gov -legal reforms of 1864: made system of local + provincial courts + judicial code that accepted principle of equality before the law was successful -reformers wanted more change, conservatives didn't like the tsar's changes to the Russian society. 1870, Russia had increasing reform movements

Communist Manifesto

treatise by Karl Marx + Friedrich Engels. Goal was to arouse working class to take action. Mix b/w French and German influence = French: gave enough documentation for Marx to conclude that rev. would restructure society. Germans: idea of dialectic from philosophers: everything evolves, and all change in history comes from clashes b/w opposing elements -start with theory that history is from history of class struggles. Like how struggle b/w feudal classes of Middle Ages ended with dominance of middle class. So Engels + Marx thought gov. of state reflected + defended the interests of the industrial middle class + allies. -They predict that this struggle would end with working class overthrowing middle class leaders -then proletariat would make a dictatorship to reorganize methods of production. Then a classless society would come + state would dissipate since it no longer represented the views of a certain class -class struggles would then be over -> process of science, technology + industry + to greater wealth for all

Crimean War

war b/w Russia + Ottomans 1853 when Russians wanted to protect Christian shrines in Palestine (which was a privilege for the French). So when Ottomans said no, Russians invaded Moldavia + Wallachia -no negotiations reached so Ottomans declared war on Russia October 4, 1853 -then March 8, Britain + France declared war on Russia b/c of their concern for the balance of power in jeopardy. Britain scared Russians would take the Ottoman land or Dardanelles which would make Russia a major power in E Europe + control E Mediterranean -Napoleon III felt that Russians had insulted French 1) at Congress of Vienna 2) now by wanting to be the protectors of the Christians instead of the rightful French -Russians thought they had support from Austrians since they helped save their gov in 1849 but Austria stayed neutral and thought it was best if they didn't get involved -Crimean War: poorly planned + poorly fought. Britain + France wanted to attack Russia's Crimean peninsula in Black Sea + later, main Russian fortress of Sevastopol fell September 1855 after death of Tsar Nicholas I -his successor Alexander II wanted peace -Treaty of Paris: March 1856, Russia had to give up Bessarabia at Danube + accept neutrality of Black Sea. Danubian principalities of Moldavia + Wallachia under protection of all 5 great powers -costly to both sides. > 250K died, 60% from disease. More from Britain could've died if not for Florence Nightingale: insisted on sanitary conditions which saves lives + made nursing a job for middle class women -war broke European power relationships + destroy Concert of Europe. Austria + Russia (two chief powers) kept status quo in 19th, but now enemies since Austria didn't help Russia in the war since Russia now weak, it pulled back from Continental affairs to reorder its nation -Austria now had no powerful friends.

Karl Marx

wealthy middle class family in Trier in W Germany. Came from line of rabbis even though his dad was a lawyer + became Protestant to keep his job -Marx went to school at University of Bonn in 1835 but father later sent him to University of Berlin where Marx met German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Later got Ph.D in philosophy -wanted to teach at university but couldn't b/c of his atheism so career in journalism + became editor of liberal bourgeois newspaper in Cologne 1842 -newspaper repressed b/c of his writings, Marx moved to Paris + met Engels: his lifelong friend + financial patron -1847, Marx + Engels joined group of German socialist revolutionaries known as Communist League. Now, they were already supporters of radical working class movement + drafted a statement of their ideas -> Communist Manifesto -after failed rev. of 1848, Marx went to London + continued writing on political economy. Esp his famous "Das Kapital "(Capital): volume which he completed. After death, the other volumes edited by Engels -Marx didn't finish Capitals b/c he was busy reorganizing working class movement. They had the ability to understand all the hardships. Marx saw himself as one of them + participated in the International Working Men's Association: 1864 by French + British trade unionists -Marx was dominant in the General Council + spent much time of their activities. Internal arguments b/w the ranks hurt the organization + it failed 1872. Later revived 1889, but socialism was now under control of national socialist parties

Thomas Malthus

wrote "Essay on Principles of Population": where he says pop. Increases at geometric rate while food supply increases slower at arithmetic rate -result would be overpopulation and starvation for humans if this rate isn't kept in check. He says nature imposes a major restraint but misery + poverty were basically the result of the law of nature. And no person or gov. should interfere with this process. supporter of laissez-faire

David Ricardo *

wrote "Principles of Political Economy": 1817 develop "iron law of wages". He agreed with Malthus saying that increase in pop. Means more workers. And that means wages will fall below the minimum level resulting in misery + starvation which will reduce the pop. then workers decline and wage increases above the min. level which encourages people to have bigger families and this cycle is repeated again. He says raising wages would be pointless since it won't do anything

The Sorrows of the Young Werther

written by German Johann Wolfgang von Geothe: later rejected Romanticism to convert to Classicism. he searched for freedom, but misunderstood + rejected by society. continue to believe in own worth . but his deep love for a girl who didn't love him back led him to commit suicide -after this book, books + plays came out with stories about women dying at young age (around 23) by disease (usually tuberculosis) which cause their male lovers to get sad