AP Euro Chapter 29 Test

Mein Kampf

"My Struggle" *Autobiography written by Hitler in prison.* Outlined his basic themes: -"Race", with a stress on Anti-Semitism. -"Living space" (Lebensraum), with a vision of war and territorial expansion. -Dictatorship with unlimited power. -Believed that the masses were driven by fanaticism not knowledge.

Nuremberg Laws

*A series of anti-Semitic laws.* -Classified as Jewish anyone having one or more Jewish grandparents. -Deprived Jews of their citizenship. -Jewish professionals lost their right to practice. -Marriages between Jews and non-Jews was prohibited.

What were the circumstances under which Mussolini and the fascists rose to power in Italy?

-After returning wounded from World War I, Mussolini began to organize a band of fascists, or a "band of forces". -At first, Mussolini's program called for territorial expansion, benefits for workers, and land reform for peasants. -Mussolini shifted politically to the right realizing he could gain more support from conservatives and the frightened middle class. -Mussolini's private army, the Black Shirts, used violence to intimidate political rivals and destroy socialist newspapers, union halls, and socialist party headquarters. -Mussolini was a skillful politician; he promised the peasants and workers a movement that would help the little people against the established interests; yet he was content to compromise with the conservative forces. -The government was breaking down in 1922 (largely because of the chaos created by fascist supporters). -In October 1922, the fascists threatened to march on rome to threaten the king, Victor Emmanuel III, and force him to call on Mussolini. -Mussolini was "legally" granted dictatorial authority for one year by the king and parliament. -A new electoral law, the Acerbo Law, was passed given 2/3 of the representatives in the parliament to the party that won the most votes - it gave the fascist party and overwhelming majority in 1924.

Fascism

-Anti-democratic and anti-socialist. -Extreme, expansionist nationalism. -Antisocialism aimed at destroying working class movements. -Alliances with powerful capitalists and landowners. -A dynamic and violent leader. -Glorification of war and the military. -Fascism was a product of class conflict, capitalist crisis, and post-war upheaval. -Sprang up all over Europe, but was only successful in Italy and Germany. -Began in Italy.

Henry-Philippe Pétan

-Formed a new French government - the Vichy government - which surrendered after the fall of France. -Later collaborated with the Nazis.

The communist party congress of 1927, which ratified Stalin's consolidation of power, marked the end of the NEP, and the beginning of the era of Five-Year Plans. What was Stalin's justification for his "second revolution"?

-Ideological: Stalin was a committed socialist; he feared a restoration of capitalism and was opposed to the capitalist elements of the NEP. -Economic: Stalin believed a new socialist offensive was needed to spark the sluggish economy. -International: Stalin said in 1931 that Russia was " fifty or a hundred years behind the advanced countries" - failure to catch up threatened Russia. -Domestically: The "Cursed Problem" - Peasants who had wanted land for centuries finally had it - Stalin viewed them as future capitalists and a threat to the regime. -Stalin's intent to create a new society, and strong society, and a powerful army.

How does one explain that despite a falling standard of living, many Russians in the 1920s and 1930s willingly worked harder and were happy?

-Ideology had real appeal for many communists; *they believed they were building the world's first socialist society*. -Social benefits: old age pensions, free medical services, free education, and day care centers for children. -Unemployment was almost unknown. -There was the possibility for personal advancement. -The government paid high salaries and offered special privileges to its growing technical and managerial elites. -This elite joined with the political and artistic elites in a new upper class.

Describe the political, social, and economic characteristics of early twentieth century Italy.

-In the early 20th century, Italy was a liberal state and a constitutional monarchy. -Parliament granted universal male suffrage;Italy seemed to be moving toward democracy. -Much of the population lived in poverty. -Catholics, conservatives, and landowners were opposed to liberal reform. -Relations between the church and state were often tense. -Class differences were extreme; a revolutionary socialist movement had developed. -By 1912, the left wing of the socialist party gained leadership. -The socialist party had been opposed to World War I. -Italy had joined the war for territorial expansion and were disappointed by the modest gains at Versailles. -Workers and peasants felt cheated; the government had promised social and land reform to gain their support for the war; the government did not deliver. -The socialist, emboldened by the success of the Bolsheviks, began occupying factories and seizing land; these actions mobilized the property-owning class. -The pope had lifted his band on participation of Catholics in Italian politics. -By 1921, socialists, conservatives, and property owners were all opposed, for different reasons to the liberal government.

What are the characteristics of modern totalitarianism? How does it differ from conservative authoritarianism?

-Modern totalitarianism started during World War I when everything was subordinate to victory. -Lenin and the Bolsheviks carried this concept further and showed how a dedicated small group could overcome a large group. -Totalitarian states used modern technology and communication to exercise complete political power and tried to control the economic, social, intellectual, and cultural aspects of people's lives. -Deviation from the norm became a crime. -Liberalism was seen as sentimental slop. -The individual was less valuable than the state.

How did the fascist regime in Italy affect women?

-Mussolini abolished divorce and told women to stay at home and raise children. -Decreed a special tax on bachelors in 1934. -In 1938 women were limited to a maximum of 10% of the better paying jobs. -Women appear not to have changed their attitudes or behaviors in any way under fascist rule.

Lateran Agreement

-Mussolini recognized the Vatican as a tiny independent state and agreed to give the state financial support. The Pope urged Italians to support Mussolini.

Kulaks

-Originally meant the better off peasants. -Later the term was applied to peasants opposed to collectivization.

How successful was Stalin's program of five-year plans for the industrialization of Soviet Russia? What were its strengths and weaknesses?

-Soviet industry produced about 4x as much in 1937 as it had in 1928. -Industrial growth led to urban development. -The government decreed that 1/3 of net national income be invested in industrial development leaving only 2/3 to be consumed by people and the increasingly voracious military. -Trade unions lost most of their power - the government could assign a worker to any job anywhere in the country. -Real wages declined from 1928 through 1938. -Highly skilled foreign engineers were hired to plan and construct factories.

Describe how Stalin was able to overcome competition by Trotsky to become Lenin's successor.

-Stalin used his office as the general secretary of the Communist party, Central Committee to win friends and allies with jobs and promises; "You scratch my back, I'll scratch your's". -Stalin's theory of "socialism in one country" was more appealing than Trotsky's doctrine of "permanent revolution". -Stalin allied with Trotsky's enemies to crush Trotsky and expel him from the Soviet union (murdered in Mexico on Stalin's orders). -Stalin aligned with moderates to suppress Trotsky's radicals, then suppressed the moderates. -In December 1927. the party, under Stalin, condemned all "deviation from the general party line".

What was the impact of Stalinist terror and the great purges? How have historians attempted to explain them?

-Stalin's wife complained about the misery of the people - she dies the same night. -At least 8 million party members were arrested - millions of those were executed or died in labor camps. -A new generation of Stalin-formed communists, loyal to Stalin replaced those that were purged. -Some historians blame Stalin for the purges: they believe those purged presented no threat. -Some argue that it is the nature of a totalitarian state to always be fighting real or imaginary enemies.

What was the purpose of Lenin's New Economic Policy? (NEP)

-The Bolshevik policy of war communism had devastated the economy - *50-90% of the population was starving* - industry broke down completely. -The NEP re-established limited economic freedom to rebuild agriculture and industry. -Heavy industry, railroads, and banks became nationalized. -Peasants were permitted to sell their surpluses in free markets. -*The NEP was a compromise with the peasants* - the only force capable of overturning Lenin's government. -*Was a mixture of capitalism and socialism.*

Generally, did women gain or lose power in the new Stalinist Russian state?

-The Russian Revolution of 1917 proclaimed complete equality of rights for women. -in the 1920s divorce and abortion were made easily available. -Women were urged to work outside the home and liberate themselves sexually. -After Stalin came to power, sexual and familial liberation were played down. -Women worked on farms, in factories, in heavy construction, etc. -Medicine became a women's profession - *by 1950, 75% of doctors in the USSR were women. -The majority of women had to work; since wages were low, it was almost impossible to live on the husband's earning. -Men continued to occupy the best jobs. -The massive mobilization of women was a striking characteristic of the Soviet state.

Describe the impact of forced collectivization. How was forced collectivization am economic and human disaster?

-The number of horses, cattle, sheep, and goats fell by at least half. -The output of grain barely increased between 1928 and 1938. -The state had to invest heavily in agriculture, buildings thousands of tractors to replace slaughtered draft horses. -Collectivized agriculture failed to make any substantial financial contribution to industrial development. -Stalin told Winston Churchill at Yalta in 1945 that 10 million people had died in the process of collectivization. -In the Ukraine, Stalin's war against the peasantry led to a an-made famine which claimed 6 million lives in 1932 and 1933. -The state was assured of cheap grain for the urban workers. -Peasants' resistance did force the "all powerful state" to make modest compromises - to limit a family's labor on farms and the right to cultivate small family plots.

In 1923, the Nazis had an insignificant 12 seats in the Reichstag. By 1932, they were the largest party. What factors account for Nazi success and the rise of Hitler to chancellor of Germany?

-To appeal to middle class voters, Hitler de-emphasized the anti-capitalist elements of national socialism and vowed to fight Bolshevism. -The impact of the great Depression - in 1932, unemployment rose to 43% and industrial production increased by 1/2 between 1929 and 1932 - Hitler promised economic, political, and international salvation. -To appeal to middle and lower class voters, Hitler rejected free-market capitalism and advocated government programs to bring recovery. -To appear more mainstream, Hitler downplayed his anti-Jewish hatred and racist nationalism. -Hitler believed all propaganda must be limited to a few simple, endlessly repeated slogans - "national rebirth" or "crime" of the Versailles treaty. -Hitler's message of national recovery, exciting and rapid change, and personal advancement appealed to German youth. -The breakdown of democratic government - Chancellor Brüning's policies led to economic collapse, convincing many voters that republican leaders were stupid and corrupt. -Hitler excelled at dirty, backroom politics; he gained support from key people in the army and business who thought they could use Hitler to the advantage to gain increased military spending, fat contracts, and tough treasurers against workers; they believed they could control Hitler.

Hitler's New Order

1) Nordic people - the Dutch, Norwegians, and Danes were seen as racially related to the "master race"; received preferential treatment. 2) The French, as "inferior" Latin people, occupied a middle position. 3) Slavs were veiwed as "sub-humans"; Hitler envisoned

Enabling Act

BEcause of the Reichstag fire, the Nazis were able to push this act through the Reichstag. -It gave Hitler absolute dictatorial power for 4 years. -Allowed the Nazis to consolidate their power.

What evidence does McKay present to argue that Italy under the fascists was somewhere between conservative authoritarian and a totalitarian regime?

Conservative Authoritarian -Freedom of the press abolished. -Fixed elections. -Government ruled by decree. -Political opponents were arrested. -Independent labor unions were disbanded. -Placed fascists in control of ITaly's schools. -Created a fascist youth group, fascist labor unions, and many fascist organizations. -By the end of 1926, Italy was under a one-party dictatorship. Mussolini did not completely establish a totalitarian state because: -He never destroyed the old power structure like the Bolsheviks in the USSR or dominate it like the Nazis in Germany.

What evidence does McKay present to argue that Italy under the fascists was somewhere between conservative authoritarian and a totalitarian regime?

Conservative authoritarian -Freedom of the press abolished. -Fixed elections. -Government ruled by decree. -Political opponents were arrested. -Independent labor unions were disbanded. -Placed fascists in control of Italy's schools. -Created a fascist youth group, fascist labor unions, and many fascist organizations. -By the end of 1926, Italy was under a one-party dictatorship. Mussolini did not completely established a totalitarian state because: -He never destroyed the old power structure like the Bolsheviks in the USSR or dominate it like the Nazis in Germany. -He was content to compromise with the old conservative classes that controlled the army, the economy, and the state. -He never tried to purge these classes or even move very vigorously against them. -He controlled and propagandized labor but left big business to regulate itself. -There was no land reform. -Mussolini never established a truly ruthless police state. -Only 23 political prisoners were executed between 1926 and 1944.

What was the one country in Eastern Europe that remained liberal in 1938?

Czechoslovakia

Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

Each dictator promised to remain neutral if the other became involved in a war. -Contained a secret clause to divide Eastern Europe.

Spanish Civil War

General Francisco Franco's fascist movement defeated republican Spain. -Germany and Italy supported Franco with arms. -Only the Soviet Union aided the leftist government in Spain.

Battle of Britain

German air attacks on Britain, designed to soften-up the British for a future invasion. -In late 1940, Britain was beating Germany 3 to 1 in the air war.

Germany's Invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941)

Hitler broke the pact with Stalin; with Britain still unconquered, this was a huge gamble by Hitler.

Danzig

Hitler used the question of German minorities living there as a pretext to confront Poland. -France and Britain declared they would fight if Germany attacked Poland.

Heinrich Himmler

Leader of the SS, the group tasked with carrying out the work of the concentration camps.