AP Euro Chapters 19-26

Cubism: Pablo Picasso

In the 20th century, he painted the first Cubist painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, which used geometric shapes to recreate reality in the viewer's mind.

Cult of domesticity

19th century ideology that the main role of women is to stay home, satisfy her husband, and take care of her children.

Friedrich Nietzche

19th century intellectual who idealized the irrational, opposed reason, and blamed Christianity for society's weaknesses (no cultural creativity).

Marie Curie

20th century Western scientist whose research on radium led to disintegrative research on atoms and influenced the new physics.

Zollverein

A German customs union established in 1834 by King Frederick IV, eliminating tolls on rivers and roads in member states (all German states except Austria in 1853), allowing trade and members to be very prosperous.

Irish Great Famine

A bad potato harvest led to famine from 1845-1851 because most of Ireland relied on potatoes. This caused millions to die from starvation and people to move to the United States and Britain to escape poverty and agricultural fails.

Conservatism/Conservatives

A political ideology in the early 19th century that emphasized tradition and order, opposed evolution, compliance to political authority, and suppressed liberalism and nationalism.

Women's suffrage

After the war ended in 1918, women were granted voting rights in Germany, Austria, and Britain, as well as in America with the 19th Amendment.

Revolution of 1905 (Russia)

After the war, the middle class wanted liberal institutions and political systems (constitutional monarchy instead of autocracy), so they presented their grievances to Nicholas II on Bloody Sunday (troops hurt and killed protestors) and later achieved their goal with the October Manifesto.

China's Boxer Rebellion

From 1900-1901, antiforeign rebellions involved murdering missionaries, Christian Chinese converts, and other foreigners after being humiliated by Western powers.

Versailles Treaty/War Guilt Clause/War Reparations

Article 231 of the final peace settlement blamed Germany and Austria for causing the war, so Germany had to make amends with the Allies they had caused damage or suffering to; Germany also lost territory and had to shrink their army (gave Alsace-Lorraine to France and parts of Prussia to Poland).

Evolutionary Socialism/Revisionism

Bernstein's challenge to Marxist Socialism in which he argued that capitalism had not collapsed, the middle class was growing, and the proletariat's conditions were improving, and emphasized change through democratic channels.

Civil Constitution of Clergy

Clergy had to pledge their allegiance to this document, which stated that bishops and priests must be appointed by the people and were to be paid by the state. However, the clergy didn't like pledging to the government, so the Catholic Church refused and became an enemy of the revolution.

Congress of Vienna

Conferences of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia from 1814-1815 who enforced conservatism with the principle of legitimacy, balance of power, and the policy of intervention.

Concert of Europe

Conferences of the Quintuple Alliance to prevent Bonapartist power, preserve peace, and enforce conservatism through the principle of intervention.

Klemens von Metternich

Conservative Austrian leader of the Congress of Vienna who believed in the principle of legitimacy and the principle of intervention.

Count Otto von Bismarck

Conservative German statesmen who was a practitioner of Realpolitik and rearranged the army in 1862 for the Danish, Austro-Prussian, and France-Prussian Wars, allowing him to succeed in uniting Germany.

Child labor

Cotton factory owners employed children because of their small size and they were seen as a cheap source of labor. They were extremely overworked and underpaid, but the Factory Acts reduced their work day.

Dadaism - Hannah Hoch

Dadaism sought to portray life's lack of purpose with anti-art. Hoch was a Dada artist who used photomontage to reflect women's issues, such as in Dada Dance.

Post-Impressionism: Paul-Cezanne

In the 19th century, he painted Mount Sainte-Victoire in which he expressed the geometric structure of the subjects and used cubes of color to portray shapes in nature.

Committee of Public Safety/Danton

Due to the foreign crises (wanted to put down anti-monarchy revolutions in France and re-establish the old regime), the National Convention gave its power to the committee; they worked to resolve these crises (used the Reign of Terror and militarization). Danton led the sans-culottes, who were radical middle and lower class patriots that wanted revenge on people who helped the king; they ignored popular will (great approval of the general public).

Social Democratic Party

During the 19th century, German social-democrats wanted to impose laws to improve the conditions of the working class and have more representation in Reichstag.

Mass consumerism

During the 19th century, mass consumption allowed Europeans to buy a variety of things because the reconstruction of cities created department stores.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

During the Haitian Revolution, he fought off the French, Spanish, and British empires and advocated for liberty and justice for all of Saint-Domingue (French colony). He later established control over the republic, made himself governor for life, and gave himself the power to choose his successor, meaning there would be a military dictatorship (angered Napoleon and Thomas Jefferson).

Materialism

During the second half of the 19th century, people believed that all things mental, spiritual, or ideal resulted from physical forces and that truth was found in the material existence of people.

David Ricardo

Economic liberal who created the "iron law of wages": increased population = more workers = low wages = misery and poverty, decreased population = high wages = bigger families = population growth.

Thomas Malthus

Economic liberal who created the Malthusian theory: uncontrolled population growth caused overpopulation and famine, as well as how the uncontrollable forces of nature cause misery and poverty.

Japan's Meiji Restoration

Emperor Mutsuhito tried to Westernize Japan to make it more modern in economic (American methods), political (German army, British navy, French administrative system), and social (Western education) aspects.

Napoleon III

Emperor of France who established the Second Republic, had an authoritarian government (controlled legislation, war, military, police, civil service), and was a practitioner of Realpolitik (maintain liberal support).

J.M.W Turner

English artist who painted The Great Western Railway with general colors to give the impression that the train was approaching. He wanted to convey the moods of nature with light and color.

Factory system

Factory workers had to be disciplined to maintain machine production, so they had strict work hours and were fined for minor infractions. Factory owners used Methodism to encourage workers to be productive (believed laziness and wastefulness were sins).

Post-Impressionism: Vincent Van Gogh

In the 19th century, he painted Starry Night, used colors to communicate his feelings, and believed art was a spiritual experience.

Franco-Prussian War

France rejected when Prince Leopold II (loosely related to King William I of Prussia) became king of Spain, while Prussia supported it, leading to war in 1870. Prussia was more organized and they won in 1871, resulting in south German states joining the North German Confederation and a new balance of power.

Francisco Franco and Spanish Civil War

Franco was a military general who led a revolt against the Popular Front (antifa coalition of democrats, socialists, Communists, and leftists), leading to a civil war where France and Germany tested out war weapons on Guernica (violated the 1936 Non Intervention Agreement with Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and the Soviet Union).

Eugene Delacroix

French artist who painted The Death of Sardanapalus which portrayed the final moments of the Assyrian king with bold colors and theatricality.

Factory Acts

From 1802-1809, laws were passed to limit the working hours of children and women, ensuring that children had 12 hour work days and a proper education. Initially, they only applied to cotton mills, but it was extended to mines and factories in 1833.

Kaiser William II

German Emperor (1888-1918) whose foreign policy sought to increase German authority (caused the Entente Cordiale with Britain and France); he also got rid of the Bismarckian System (France and Russia became allies like Bismarck predicted).

Caspar David Friedrich

German artist who painted The Wanderer Above the Sea Fog. He believed nature was a manifestation of life and used mysticism in his natural landscapes.

Karl Marx

German co-creator of The Communist Manifesto and Marxism, member of the Communist League, and advocate for the radical working-class movement.

Triple Alliance and Triple Entente

Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy of the Triple Alliance had tensions with Britain, France, and Russia of the Triple Entente due to the crises in the Balkans (decline of Ottoman Empire = Serbia and Russia vs. Austria to create a Serbian kingdom); this caused national division in WWI.

Herbert Spencer - Social Darwinism

He argued that societies evolved over time due to a struggle with their environment and that superior (white) races must advance the weak (POC) races, which was later used to justify racism and imperialism.

Sigmund Freud - Psychoanalysis

He believed the unconscious influenced human behavior, the inner life is a war between the id versus ego and superego, and that repressed memories can emerge with psychoanalysis (explores the patient's memory for the chain of repression).

J.M. Keynes and Keynesianism

He believed unemployment was caused by a decrease of demand, which could be increased through public works (opposed the traditional idea that in a free economy, depressions should be left alone to fix themselves).

Louis Pasteur

He discovered germs and how different types were responsible for fermentation, leading to the development of pasteurization in 1863, and developed several vaccines.

Adolf Hitler 1933-1945

He led the Nazis and gained power through propaganda and the Enabling Act; he wanted to create a "total state" of Aryans, so he used secret police (SS and SA), indoctrination (HJ), and persecuted Jews (Kristallnacht).

Impressionism: Claude Monet

He painted Impression, Sunrise that used the interplay of light, water, and atmosphere, which received harsh criticism at first.

Realism - Millet

He painted scenes of rural life with an element of Romantic sentiment, notably The Gleaners of 3 peasant women gathering grain in a field to represent the symbiotic relationship of people and nature.

Theodor Herzl and Zionism

He wanted Jews to have their own state in Palestine due to the rise of Jewish nationalism, but Ottoman authorities didn't like Jewish immigration.

Abstract: Kandinsky

In the 20th century, he painted Square with White Border and completely avoided representing reality in art, believing it should speak to one's soul instead.

Charles Dickens

He was a Victorian novelist who wrote about the British lower and middle classes during the early industrial revolution.

Napoleon Bonaparte

He was a military general who seized power through a coup in 1799 and established a dictatorial republic. He imposed the Civil Code, censorship of the press, and waged wars with anti-French coalitions in order to maintain France's power.

Charles Darwin

He was a naturalist who proposed the theory of natural selection (survival of the fittest flora and fauna) and theory of evolution (flora and fauna go through organic evolution), which was later applied to society.

Maximillien Robespierre

He was a radical democrat, leader of the Committee of Public Safety, and sought to purify corrupt politics. He initiated the Reign of Terror to protect France from enemies of revolution and the republic.

Joseph Stalin 1929-1953

He was a totalitarian Communist dictator who emphasized sacrifice for the new socialist state; pursued a policy of rapid industrialization, undid women's rights legislation, and restricted worker's freedom of movement.

Vladimir Lenin

He was an anti-Tsar and Marxist who led the Bolsheviks; they created a Socialist Russia led by him.

Edwin Chadwick

He was an urban reformer who wanted to improve poverty and the filthy conditions. He held an investigation that concluded that disease was a direct product of the filthy streets (animal and vegetable substances), but it could be resolved with proper drainage, removing waste, and better water supply.

Archduke Franz Ferdinand

He was murdered by a Serbian terrorist, causing Germany to send Austria a "blank check" (ensured they could rely on Germany's "full support") and Austria to send an ultimatum to Serbia as a war threat.

Giuseppe Mazinni

He was the leader of the 1848 national group Young Italy who wanted to create a united Italian republic and wrote The Duties of the Man where he encouraged Italian citizens to dedicate their lives to the country.

Benito Mussolini 1926-1945

He won the national election through anti-Communism and the squadristi (attacked Socialist newspapers) and created a fascist dictatorship in 1926; used the OVRA secret police, Young Fascists, and had support from the Catholic Church (Lateran Accords of 1929)

Realism - Courbet

His subjects were factory workers, peasants, and saloon keeper wives and he painted The Stonebreaker in 1849 of 2 workers breaking stones to build a road to portray their misery.

Bismarckian System

In the 19th century, Bismarck formed the Three Emperors' League and Triple Alliance to compensate for ruining the balance of power (Congress of Vienna) and to prevent wars with France and Russia; it was successful until William II became emperor.

India's Sepoy Revolution

In 1858, Indian troops of the East India Company revolted against British rule, causing Parliament to give the company's powers to the London government and later officiating Indians as colonial subjects.

Austro-Prussian War

In 1866, Bismarck wanted to isolate Austria from German politics, so he promised Napoleon III Rhineland and Italy Venetia if Prussia won. The war resulted in the North German Confederation, increasing nationalism, and Prussian expansion.

Armenian Genocide

In 1915, the Turkish government killed Armenian men and deported women and children, which they excused with a rebellion by the Armenian minority and a suspected collaboration with Russia.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

In 1918, Lenin (Bolshevik, anti-Tsar, Marxist) issued this treaty with Germany because he promised peace in Russia; it surrendered Poland, Ukraine, Finland, and the Baltic Provinces.

National Insurance Act of 1911

In Great Britain, this law gave benefits to workers in cases of sickness or unemployment with required contributions from workers, employers, and the state.

Purges

In order to strengthen the bureaucracy to achieve rapid industrialization, Stalin purged Old Bolsheviks from the Communist Party to have complete control over decision making and sent all enemies of the state to Siberian labor camps.

The Directory

In the bicameral legislature, the Council of 500 was in charge of legislation and the Council of Elders accepted or denied new laws. The executive authority heavily relied on the military, which led to a coup d'etat in 1799 and Napoleon's rise to power.

Old regime

It had an unfair social structure in which the first estate (clergy) and second estate (nobles) were exempt from the tailles and held more privileges than the third estate (everyone else). The third estate did not have an equal say in the Estates General because they were always outvoted, which was one of the causes of the French Revolution.

Nationalism

It refers to identifying with the nation's interests, which creates a sense of brotherhood and solidarity. Although it created a sense of patriotism and demonstrated what a nation in arms could do during the French Revolution, foreign nationalism (everyone disliked Napoleon) led to the decline of Napoleon.

1924 Dawes Act

It stabilized German war reparations based on how much they could pay at the time; Germany was granted a $200 million loan for recovery, which allowed America to invest in Europe and create a period of economic prosperity.

Albert Einstein - Theory of Relativity

It states that space and time are relative to the observer and are intertwined in a 4D space-time continuum (space and time did not exist before humans).

Weimar Republic

It was a democratic republic established after WWI, but it was unpopular (social unrest, extremist parties, unemployment) and unstable (no leader, economic struggles); this allowed for the rise of Hitler and the Nazis.

Crystal Palace/The Great Exhibition 1851

It was an industrial fair in London to display the achievements of the Industrial Revolution; it took place in a castle made of glass and iron. It demonstrated British imperial power and proved that humans were on the right track of conquering nature to their use.

Estates General

It was the legislative body with representatives from each estate, but the third estate was always outvoted by the first and second estates; this is especially true for when they divided over whether voting should be done by head or by order.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Italian nationalist who supported Mazzini and created his own band of Red Shirts. In 1860, he asserted control over Sicily and yielded to Cavour, resulting in the establishment of a new kingdom of Italy in 1861.

Compulsory education

Legally required education for children in the 19th century (middle and upper class) to prepare them for the workforce, leading to a rise in literate adults.

John Stuart Mill

Liberal author of On the Subjection of Women who supported women's rights and complete freedom of opinion and sentiment.

Haitian Revolution

Marginalized groups in Saint-Domingue (mixed people, black slaves) wanted liberty and equality, so they violently revolted against their oppressors (plantation owners). Haiti became the first independent black republic in 1803; it abolished slavery and discrimination based on skin color.

The Communist Manifesto

Marx and Engels's 1848 book that supported the radical working-class movement, believed a classless society would resolve class struggles and lead to societal advancements.

Military tactics of Napoleon/continental system

Napoleon established the Grand Empire (French empire, dependent states, allied states) to create a common front against Britain, but Britain's survival led to the creation of the continental system. This was a blockade on British goods from entering the Grand Empire, but it backfired.

Women's March on Versailles

On October 5, 1789, women demanded Louis XVI to supply bread for their starving children, so the next day he brought wagons of flour to stores. The march proved that the king was now a prisoner of the people and that the National Assembly was affected by insurrectionary politics.

Nationalism/Nationalists

Political ideology that emphasized community and unity, which motivated Italian and German unification and the revolutions of 1848 (France, Germany, Italy, Austria).

Realpolitik

Practitioners of Realpolitik, like Napoleon III (liberalization of the regime) and Bismarck, approached situations based on the reality of the situation, rather than being guided by a single ideology or religion. This allowed rulers to maintain support and satisfy all of their subjects.

David Lloyd George

Prime minister of England who supported social reform, passed the National Insurance Act of 1911, and increased taxes on the rich to pay for it.

Count Camillo di Cavour

Prime minister of Italy (1861) with a constitutional government but conservative economic policies to build a large army for Italian unification. He went to war with Napoleon III against Austria from 1858-1859 to drive them out of Piedmont.

Utopian Socialism

Radical political ideology that wanted equality in all social conditions and opposed private property and industrial capitalism.

Anarchists

Radical working class advocates who wanted to abolish state institutions, have equality, and a state based on voluntary cooperation.

Policy of intervention

Revolts against Conservatism in Italy gave rise to this policy that allowed great European powers to put down revolution in foreign countries.

Russo-Japanese War

Russian expansion to Korea caused Japan to attack them in 1904, but Russia sued for peace in 1905; it caused a desire for liberal institutions in Russia and food shortages.

Maria Montessori

She was a 20th century "new woman" (not married nor a mother) who was the first Italian woman to receive a medical degree and created Montessori schools for kids to learn at their own pace.

Emile Zola

She was a Naturalist author who wrote about the struggle for survival and natural and social history of families, as well as the effects of alcoholism and different environments on life.

Emmeline Pankhurst

She was a radical leader of the Women's Social and Political Union in Britain, which used unusual publicity stunts to bring attention to women's voting rights and fought for their full citizenship.

Impressionism: Berthe Morisot

She was the first 19th century woman Impressionist, painted Young Girl by the Window, and used soft pastels in her feminine paintings.

Consumerism

Since industrialization allowed mass production of goods, people were able to purchase a variety of things at a lower price; this was the invention of capitalism.

Civil Code/Napoleonic Code

Since there wasn't a single set of laws before the revolution, Napoleon introduced this code of laws. It included several enlightened principles, like equality before the law, religious toleration, and the abolition of serfdom, but it was harsh toward women; more difficult for women to divorce, gave fathers control over families, and women were not equal in marriage.

Olympe de Gouges

Since women were not included in the Dec. Rights of Man-Citizen, she wrote the Dec. Rights of Woman-Female Citizen, which extended men's political privileges and liberties to women, but the National Assembly ignored it. She was guillotined for her constant opposition to the government.

Trade unions

Skilled workers created their own labor organizations to improve their wages and working conditions. They also wanted to limit entry into their trade and gain benefits from their employers.

Collectivization and Kulaks

Stalin needed capital for industrial growth, which could be achieved through agricultural surpluses; eliminated private farms (Kulaks) and encouraged collective farms to achieve Communism.

Five-Year Plan

Stalin sought to rapidly industrialize the agricultural Soviet Union through heavy machinery, increased oil and steel production, and collectivization of agriculture; more workers led to worser conditions.

Surrealism - Salvador Dali

Surrealism strived for a reality beyond the material, tangible world and instead in the unconscious through the depiction of dreams, fantasies, and nightmares. Dali painted The Persistence of Memory which depicted normal items as unrecognizable and out of context in order for viewers to question the rational.

1917 Bolshevik Revolution

The Bolsheviks overthrew the provisional government and created a new Soviet (Socialist) government led by Lenin, who promised peace; he needed mass support so he nationalized land (gave it back to local rural committees) and issued social changes (women's rights and healthcare).

Reign of Terror/execution of Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette

The Committee introduced this to protect France from domestic enemies - supporters of tyranny, opposers of liberty, people not loyal to the revolution - through the use of the guillotine. After the National Convention established a republic, they voted to guillotine Louis XVI (and later his wife) because he was found guilty of treason.

Revolutionary armies/mass conscription/"nation in arms"

The Committee issued a decree that called for mass conscription of the revolutionary army to conquer the anti-French coalition (including the Austrian-Netherlands); over 1 million people joined the army. This was the first time ordinary people fought in the army instead of professional soldiers.

Dual-Monarchy Ausgleich

The Dual-Monarchy of Austria-Hungary was created by Francis Joseph after the war in 1867, which gave states their own constitution, bicameral, and government machinery, but minorities were dominated.

Bourgeoisie

The French middle class lacked political and social privileges, so they were unhappy with the old regime. They wanted a greater say in the Estates General, but ended up establishing the National Assembly.

Dec. Rights of Man-Citizen

The National Assembly established this charter of liberties, which was inspired by enlightened principles and the Declaration of Independence. It affirmed natural rights and freedom of speech and abolished arbitrary arrest and noble privileges.

De-Christianization

The National Convention tried to secularize Catholic France by renaming streets, closing churches, and encouraging priests to marry. They also introduced a new republican calendar with revolutionary activities and renamed the months.

Tennis Court Oath

The first estate wanted to vote by order, but the third estate wanted to vote by head, so they formed the National Assembly, vowing to not disband until a constitution was created.

The Decembrist Revolt

The military Northern Union's revolt against the accession of Tsar Nicholas I in 1825; they disliked Alexander I's strict censorship and wanted to abolish serfdom and a constitutional monarchy.

Russian Civil War

The new Bolshevik regime was opposed by Whites, but the Red army was more disciplined, unified, and organized (used war communism and Cheka secret police) than the White Army, allowing Communists to preserve power over Russia.

Joint-stock investment bank

These are banks that sell shares of stock to investors. Since there was a great demand for capital to construct railroads, more middle-class people invested in these banks, leading to a revolution in transportation.

Zemstvos

These were local assemblies of representatives elected by the classes (nobles had unfair advantage from property qualifications) in Russia who could levy taxes and provide public services but bureaucrats intervened.

Nuremberg Laws

These were racial laws passed by Nazis in 1935, which divided Jews and Germans politically, socially, and legally (no German citizenship or Jewish-German marriage).

Fabian Socialists

They were British intellectuals who wanted to vote (change through democratic channels) to capture the House of Commons and pass beneficial laws for the working class.

Working class women

They worked long hours in factories and mines for low wages in order to support their families. Women were also caretakers of the house, so they worked all day, but Factory Acts reduced their work day.

War Communism

This is a policy where the government nationalizes transportation and communication facilities, banks, mines, factories, and businesses with over 10 workers; it was used by Lenin during the Russian Civil War.

Fascism

This is a political movement in which the nation is prioritized over individuals and calls for a central government with a tyrannical leader, economic and social regulations, and forcible suppression of any opposition (Mussolini's Italy).

Protective tariff

This is a tax on imported goods as a way to protect domestic industries. It encouraged in-state industrial growth in Continental Europe.

Total war

This is an unrestricted war in terms of weapon usage, territory, motives, and actions that affects all aspects of society; political = mass conscription and mobilization, economic = nationalization, social = patriotism and trade unions, women = new jobs and suffrage.

Emigration

This is the act of leaving one's home country to permanently live in another. Rural people wanted to escape the poverty-stricken countryside, so they emigrated to cities to find work, leading to 19th century urbanization.

Urbanization

This is the rapid growth of cities, which was mainly caused by emigration. Cities became centers of manufacturing and industry (steam engine = flexible locations), but there were horrible living and working conditions because they were overcrowded and lacked proper sanitation.

New Economic Policy

This was a new version of the capitalist system that saved the Soviet Union from economic crises by temporarily retreating from Communist goals; allowed peasants to sell goods and small businesses to operate under private ownership.

The Dreyfus Affair

This was the 1895 trial of Jewish Alfred Dreyfus who was accused of selling military secrets, but it was actually a Catholic nobleman who didn't have another trial; it proved that Jews needed their own country and led to governmental changes (limited power of Catholic church, army, separation of church and state).

Industrial proletariat

This was the new industrial working class, mainly composed of emigrants. They lived in overcrowded tenements, had long work days, and endured horrible working conditions.

Alexander II

Tsar (1855-1881) who abolished serfdom (it was ineffective and peasants were the majority of the army), issued the Emancipation Act of 1861 (gave peasants more rights but they had inadequate land), and enforced peasant land payments with their mir.

Mir

Under the Emancipation Act of 1861, village communes ensured peasants paid their long-term installments to the state for land, meaning peasants still didn't own their own land.

Robert Owen

Utopian socialist who believed human potential could be achieved through a cooperative environment. He transformed New Lanark, Scotland into a healthy community but was unsuccessful in New Harmony, Indiana.

Liberalism/Liberals

Wanted representation, constitutional monarchy, equality before the law and freedom. Economic liberals believed in laissez-faire (no government intervention).

Crimean War

War between Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire against Russia from 1854-1856 because Russia wanted the French Palestine shrines (Ottoman Empire declared war) and they disturbed the balance of power (Britain and France declared war), resulting in the end of the Concert of Europe.

Wilson's 14 Points/League of Nations

Wilson believed peace was achieved through open agreements, less military weaponry, and self-determination; he introduced the league to prevent future wars and maintain world peace (America never joined, so the defensive alliance with Britain and France was broken).