AP Euro Exam: wars, treaties, people and revolutions

Rene Descartes

"I think therefore I am". rejected scholasticism. doubted a lot bc wanted a more sure foundation. argued for dualism ( nature is made of the tangible and the intangible (mind vs matter)). deductive reasoning.

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

"if i have been able to see so far, it is only because i stood on the shoulders of giants". 3 laws of motion. universal law of gravitation. invented calculus (at same time as leibniz in germany). deeply religious but helped separate the physical world from the spiritual world, setting stage for deism in future.

War of the Three Henries

(1588-1589) henry of guise was assasinated by both of the other two henries. a fanatical monk killed henry 3 of france in payback. this only left henry of navarre to be king but had to convert to catholicism first to bring peace back to france.

commercial dutch republic

(went from united provinces to the dutch republic after gaining independence at the end of the 30 years' war in 1648) became europe's leading commercial power in the 17th century. the dutch made efficient use of their resources. polders. the dutch also set themselves up as the middlemen of europe. ignored mercantilist philosophy and traded with all countries and their colonies. was also the financial center of europe with its Bank of Amsterdam and its stock exchange. the netherlands also practiced religious toleration, attracting hugonauts from france, jews, and other protestants fleeing from the spanish inquisition. 1550-1650 was the dutch golden age. cultural activity focused on the themes of middle class domestic life. Vermeer, Hans, Rembrandt. anglo dutch naval wars over the naviagtion acts were a turning point. they had attempted to restrict dutch trade w england's colonies. the dutch survived but it set the stage for their later conflict w louis 14.

French wars of Religion

1560-1598 despite francis I (1516-1547) trying to eradicate protestantism from france, it continued to grow. many french aristocrats and bs thought themsevles to be elect thus being huguenots (french calvinists). bc these nobles held importance to the french monarchy which is always catholic, they posed a threat. when king Henry 2 died in a tragic jousting incident, france fell into a big civil religious and ploitical conflict. the middlemen in the conflict were the catholic valois family led by Henry's widow catherine de medici and her three songs charles 9, henry 3, francis 2. catherine was a politique and a stage mother. then there was the huguenots with henry of navarre vs the guise family or ultra catholics. Henry of navarre had an agreement with catherine de medicis to marry her daughter in a form of reconciliation, but rumors spread through france during the wedding that protestants were plotting to take over the governement, thus st bartholomews day massacre ensued. (slaughter of 10,000 protestant nobles).

30 years' war

1618-1648 most devastating conflict in european history prior to the world wars. began as a religious conflict in germany. german catholics and protestants geared up for battle by allying with outside powers. (protestant union and catholic league). after the peace of augsburg, lutherans and catholics were % in a truce, but the treaty didnt account for the growing calvinists. When frederick V converted to calvinism, it was obvious that the balance of religion was off and neither the protestants nor catholics were interested in following the terms of the treaty. The defenstration of prague (bohemian nobles threw 2 imperial officers out of the prague castle. after this rebeliion the nobles elected frederick V as their king)set off the 30 years war. four phases of the war 1. bohemian 2. danish 3. swedish 4. franco-swedish 1. protestants under frederick V were defeated at white mountain. the counter reformation was brought to bohemia. catholic forces emerged victorious from this phase. 2. the lutheran king of denmark entered the conflict to support the protestants and to gain territory in the baltic. he was defeated and the Edict of Restitution was issued in 1629, returned all confiscated church land which angered protestants and catholic who had both gained from this confiscation. added fuel to the fire. 3. Sweden's gustavus adolphus entered to revive the protestant cause. he succeeded succeeded in defeating the imperial forces. to end the war, The holy roman emperor revoked the edict of restitution and signed the peace of prague, however fighting continued. 4.most violent phase of the war. the french defeated the spanish, signaling their rise as the major military power in europe. by the end of the war, all parties ere exhausted. war finally ended in 1648 with the peace of westphalia.

Peace of Westphalia

1648 end of 30 years war. after this the HRE no longer plays a major role in the affairs of central europe. recognized swedish and dutch independance. recognized shift of balance of power. end of religious wars until 1789 when ideologically fought wars return. often seen as final nail in the coffin of the middle ages bc recognized sovereignty of each nation in its pol and rel affairs.

Scientific Revolution (17th c)

17th C. is the age of science. the scientific method is formalized and a strong undertanding of the ohysical world is achieved. only in the 18th century is science applied to human issues in the enlightenment. ancients (flawed scientific outlook/knowledge) vs moderns (improvement). copernicus was criticised bc of heliocentric theory stating that "god's special creation (earth) wasn't at the center of the universe. though there were many incredible scientific findings and development in the 17th century, this didn;t translate into improved medical care until later.

blaise pascal

A french mathematician and scientist. He believed that religious faith was necessary because reason alone could not satisfy peoples, hopes and aspiration. Unity and Truth. wrote Pensees (thoughts) he was religiously converted, then gave up math and science to pursue religion and philosophy. rejected the jesuits.

Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683)

An economic advisor to Louis XIV; he supported mercantilism and tried to make France economically self-sufficient. Brought prosperity to France. expanded french economic presence globally. created a free trade zone known as five great farms instead of eliminating internal tariffs.

Baruch Spinoza

Believed that God had no existence apart from the world, that everything was itself an aspect of God. rejected descartes' explanation of god. rejected the idea of god in the form of humans (anthropomorphic). rationalistic.

william harvey

English physician and scientist who described the circulation of the blood to the heart.

aging empires

HRE Ottoman Turks Poland dominated central europe in the 17th century. their weaknesses allowed for new powers to emerge. poland was the weakest of the eu kingdoms. the powerful nobles of poland (szlachta) succeeded in limiting the power of the kings. a single noble could block the actions of the parliament. (liberum veto). their failure to centralize was polands Partition in 1795. austria: Charles VI wanted to ensure the succession of his daughter and heir Maria Theresa. He negotiated the pragmatic sanction w Europe and they agreed to respect the habsburg inheritance to a female ruler.

Henry VIII

King of England from 1509 to 1547; his desire to annul his marriage from catherine of aragon led to a conflict with the pope bc he wouldnt grant him the divorce bc Charles V (most powerful man in Europe at the time) is her nephew (catherine of aragon's), break from catholic church. Henry established the Church of England (anglicanism) in 1532. he had started off as a loyal catholic and a critic of Luther, wants to protect the 7 sacraments (called "the defender of the faith"). When he died, his sick, young son edward IV who was raised as a protestant reformed the clergy. when he died in 1553, england became catholic again under Mary I (bloody mary) daughter of catherine of aragon and wife of Phillip II (son of charles V and grandson of Phillip I). Mary persecuted the protestants and was pro spanish, which is why she was called bloody mary. she did little in long run to reestablish catholicism in England. Her sister Elizabeth I succeeded her. she was vey much a politique (places polit unity above religious conformity), she recognized the dangers of religious fanaticism. national matriarch, never married. by end of her reign, established england as leading protestant power in Europe.

catholic counter reformation

The Catholic Church's response to the Protestant Reformation in which it tried to reform itself and revive catholic spirituality. revival of religious orders (jesuits, ignatius loyola("if i see a thing to be white but the institutional church commands it to be black, I will see it as black") saw themselves as missionaries who did not know Christ). COUNCIL OF TRENT put the church in order by regulating the clergy and abuses. baroque art was also a part of this reformation bc it was meant to revive catholic spirituality

Hundred Years War (1337-1453)

The long conflict between the kingdoms of England and France over the succession of the French throne. england lost a final decisive battle. was a fatal blow to the medieval idea of warfare. french fortune was restored w Joan of Arc.

Galileo Galilei

This scientist proved Copernicus' theory that the sun was the center of the solar system and developed the modern experimental method. (empirical). remained a catholic who believed religion and science should unite in truth. during 30 years' war, he was put under house arrest and intellectual life in italy was stifled.

women in science

Women were excluded in participating in the most intellectual life. Women came into science and published through their husbands or fathers in germany for example. emilie du chatelet: translated newton's works to make them available to a wider audience. Maria Winkelmann- discovered a comet; worked with her husband at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. throughout the 17th century, philosphers debated the "woman question" or the "querelle de femmes". science was often used to "prove" women's inferiority in terms of physioligoy and reproduction.

Peace of Augsburg (1555)

a peace between catholics and lutherans in germany which marked that protestantism was there to stay in germany. didnt take into account rise of calvinism. didnt last.

Louis XIV of France 1643-1715

absolutism in france reached its highest point with him. the previous two borubon monarchs (henry 4 and L 13) laid his foundations. Henry, after ending the religious conflict in france with the edict of nantes 1598, turned his attention to the economic order in france. henry and his financial advisor Duke de Sully balanced france's budget and established a firmer tax system. he also promoted the economy through the development of infrastructure. his strong rule in france allowed it to survive his death w the regency of his wife marie de medici and their son louis 13. Louis 13 relied on cardinal richelieu who increased the direct tax (the taille) and the indirect tax (gabelle). louis and richelieu focused themselves on curbing the power of the nobility. richelieu employed spies ad intendants. though richelieu was catholic, france under his guidance supported the protestants in the 30 years' war. believed it was in france's best interest to curb the growing power of the habsburgs (leaders of the catholic cause). when louis 14 inherited the throne (at age of 5), france was unhappy over taxes and foreign influence, causing a series of rebellions called the Fronde. growing up in this event led him to establish an iron fisted rule over france. Cardinal Mazarin led france until louis was old enough to. A major goal of louis' was to overcome feudal remnants in france. versailles was the greatest symbol of absolutism. spent 60-80% of france's revenues on building it. "L'etat, c'est moi" Lever, diner, coucher. His principle of the "one king, one faith, one law" led him to believe that the calvinist hugonauts posed a threat to these powers. This led him to revoke the edict of nantes by issuing the edict of fontainebleu. in the 17th century, france replaced spain as the leading military power. the wars of louis 14 drained france's treasury and left it in great debt.

alchemy, astrology, skepticism, religion

at first, many scientists blended superstitious beliefs with materialistic and mathematic perspectives. as time went on, educated europeans demanded more empirical evidence or agreement with natural laws. decline of witchcraft persecutions, no longer supported by ppl in power. pierre bayle, follows humanist and skeptic ideas of michel de montaigne, concludes that human endeavors are more likely to happen due to human credulity (naivety, gullibility) his work forms a bridge between the scientific rev and the enlightenment.

Wars of Louis XIV

balance of power politics was key to european diplomacy. developed during italian ren and peaked during age of louis XIV. louis wanted to expand france to its "natural frontiers" and gain personal glory. this led to almost constant warfare. as spane continued it decline under the habsburgs, france rushed in to exploit this change in the balance of power. his first targets were the dutch republic and the spanish netherlands. (envied their commercial success) . Dutch war earned louis franche comte. the following nine years' war ended in an anti french alliance (league of augsburg). now the netherlands and william (england) were trying to prevent france;'s bid for continental domination. when charles II of spain (last habsburg ruler of spain) died and left the throne open, Louis XIV and the HRE both claimed the throne through family marriages. they agreed to split the empire to maintain the balance of power, but these plans fell apart when charles left a will granting all posessions to Philip V the bourbon grandson of L XIV. Louis pressed his claim via his grandson, thus the War of the Spanish Succession ensues. (last of Louis' wars for continental domination). (fr and spain vs england netherlands and HRE) Peace of Utrecht ended it in 1714. Louis' grandson Philip v was recognized as the bourbon king. the 10 southern netherlands provinces were given to austria. the major consequences of the war and treaty were to block Louis XIV's last effort to impose french dominance over continental Europe and maintain a balance of power.

Mannerism--> Baroque

both reflected the spiritual perceptions of the time. Baroque art's major theme was Power. Reflected the rise of absolute monarchies and a reviving catholic church, both of whom were major patrons of the baroque arts. monarchs like louis 14 needed artists to assist in conveying their grandeur.

Britain's civil war and limited monarchy (james I)

both religious and political. conflict over sovereignty (ultimate power) between the stuarts and the english parliament. puritans (english protestants) wished to purify the anglican church of what they saw as residue of the catholic doctrine which the stuarts seemed to endorse. elizabeth 1 died without an heir, so the throne was left for mary queen of scot's son James I. he was a scottish outsider so he failed to understand the imporant legislative role of the english parliament whom he foolishly lectured about his divine right powers. james also antagonized the puritans by keeping the hierarchial strcuture of the anglican church. james believed that an episcopal (bishops) structure was necessary "no bishop, no king". his policies fueled anti catholic sentiment.

thomas more

christian humanist, very religious. wrote "utopia" a satire of 16t century eu society. friend of erasmus, but more radical than erasmus. he was willing to die for his beliefs.

18th century diplomacy and war

commercial competition between britain and france. ...

Vesalius (1514-1564)

contradicted many of Galen's previous theories regarding the human body by employing direct empirical evidence.

Leeuwenhoek (1674)

discovered blood corpuscles sperm and bacteria , developed the microscope.

absolutism and balance of powers 1600s-1700s

due to the devastating religious wars of the 1500s and 1600s, leaders increasingly justified their powers based on absolutist or divine right theories of monarchy. the resulting competition from their grabs for power led to constant warfare over colonies trade and territory. to avoid the dominance of any one power in europe, european diplomacy revolved around the idea of balance of power. this period is often referred to as the age of crisis.

science applied

govts saw science as very useful and promising in the 17th century. societies that sponsored great scientific discoveries were seen as very prestigious. louis 14 chartered the french academy of sciences in 1666. many other great scientific societies were formed in the 1600s. invention of printing press by Gutenburg around 1440 was key.

natural rights

humans can discover what is fair, just, and natural in pol and soc by consulting w reason. tradition nor the king can override these rights. hugo grotius

Francis Bacon (1561-1626)

inductive thinker who stressed experimentation in arriving at truth. held disdain for scholasticism and was skeptical about claims that hadnt come from rigorous systems of thought. called for new ideas and new knowledge(insauratio magna aka great renewal). put aside ancient thought. didnt appreciate math enough.

John Calvin (calvinism)

influenced by luther but has problem w lutheranism's subservience to the state (a good Lutheran follows his prince). Calvinism pretty much denounces all kinds of fun and is focused on an intellectual approach. key religious concept: pre-destination for the "elect" (god decides who goes where before birth, those that will be saved are a minority called the elect). Calvinism has a strong appeal to the rising Bs. tend to promote capitalism (protestant work ethic). tend to promote democracy within their own groups (synods).

Commercial revolution

its the economic result of exploration and colonization. it is the acceleration of global trade, fed the growth of modern society Increase in Europe's population) which lead to a steady rise in prices due to rising demand, and this developed a money oriented economy which undermined feudalism. many landowners benefited from this inflation and they turned to the sales of cash crops. gentry (independant farmers) began to arise in england. larger banks were formed such as the prominent bank of amsterdam. by the early 1600s bankers ignored the christian prohibition against usury (charging of interest and loans) bc the profits were just too high to ignore. capitalism arose (adam smith, critiqued mercantilism (laissez faire aspect of it) and free market, supported industrial revolution in 1700s in england). joint stock companies were born in order to pool reesources and share the risk, not putting all your eggs in one basket. (british and dutch east india companies most famous for this) mercantilism arose in last 1700s industrial rev.

John Locke (1632-1704)

on the contrary to hobbes, he used natural rlaws law to defend LIMITED govt (not absolute govt like hobbes did). thus justified the glorious revolution. man freely enjoys life liberty equality and property (inalienable rights) not an endorsement o modern mass democracy. humans are basically rational by nature, but they still conflict over the nature of property, so limited leaders can provide order and restore it rather than invoke rebellion should they be absolutist. believed christianity was a reasonable religion.

Wars of Spain

one of phillip 2nd's inheritances was Burgundy (17 provinces aka netherlands). spain violates the joyeuse entree. philip's policies threatened the wishes of the low countries to have a decentralized political structure and religious freedoms, so they have a revolt against phillip. he rose taxes to fund the spanish empire, alienating a lot of the middle class and he tightened church structure in Netherlands by employing inquisition in order to combat "heresy" or protestantism. burgundians (netherlandians) in response revolted agaisnt all symbols of catholicism. phillip then sent the duke of alba to crush the revolt (established the council of blood and killed many leading prot nobles which only fuled the conflict). A leader from the revolt then emerged, william "the silent" (william of orange/Holland). aided by the sea beggars that engaged in piracy against spanish. All 17 provinces called for the end of spanish rule in the netherlands (pacification of ghent) which caused phillip to change tactics. he enlisted duke of parma (aka alexander farnese) to subdue the revolt. he succeeded in separating 10 of the provinces (southern) from the revolt and allying them with spain. so now north 7 provinces are calvinists and 10 southern are catholic. the 7 formed the Union of Utrecht in a bid to separate from spain. elizabeth I had been quietly aiding the 7 northern provinces against the spanish by shipping "sea-dogs". phillip sent the spanish armada after her but it was no contest for the more superior english ships. defeat of spanish ships (protestant wind). <-- signaled rise of england and decline of spanish empire.

Peter the Great; Westernization of Russia

rennaissance, reformation, scientific revolution didnt reach russia. ivan 3 and 4 works towards establishing a modern and larger russian state, drove mongols out. est an administrative structure and military class (streltsy) but ivan 4 killed his heir in a fit of rage leaving the throne open and russia underwent a difficult period of instability aka time of troubles. Michael romanov was elected and the romanovs would last in russia unti 1917 bolshevik revolution. (lenin) Peter was attracted to all things modern. his reforms werent deep and far reaching enough and often created % in russian society. streltsy saw his reforms as an attack on their powers. taxes were imposed. failed at trying gain a port in the black sea, demonstrated russian military backwardness. Peter;'s main rival was sweden. he won the great northern war. treaty of nystadt let him build a new capital city (st petersburg) russia was now a major power. these issues of backwardness however nd their autocratic rule would contribute to the bolhevik revolution of the 20th c.

James II (1685-88) and the Glorious Revolution (1688)

the end of the stuart monarchy came with him. parliament was divided (whigs opposed his succession, tories supported him)> He was catholic which was tolerable until he produced a male heir and the prospect of a catholic dynasty in england was upsetting. Whigs invited james's daughter mary (protestant) and her husband william of orange to invade england. They did (glorious revolution) and it was a success. The couple agreed to parliamentary sovereignty and the recognition of liberties w Bill of Rights 1689. Parliament also passed a toleration act and the act of succession (forbade the english monarchy from ever being held by a catholic).

Lutheranism

the religious doctrine that Martin Luther developed; it differed from Catholicism in the doctrine of salvation, which Luther believed could be achieved by faith alone, not by good works; Lutheranism was the first Protestant faith. denounced the corruption of the catholic church. three key beliefs: 1. the only authority is the christian bible, 2. salvation comes from faith alone, 3.salvation comes by the free gift of God's grace. only keeps two sacraments (baptism and last supper). condemned anabaptists for their church-state separation outlook.

rise of prussia and its army

the rise of prussia in the 17th century was a surprise. small pop and few natural resources. scattered. why it rose: 1. skillful leadership from the hohenzollern dynasty 2. efficient use of resources 3. outstanding military tradition Frederick William the great elector -granted the junkers important positions in the army to gain their support -built up the army for protection (security, glue) ot conquest Frederick III (frederick I) -after he gets freed, prussia becomes independant (king in to king of) Frederick William I -comical -obsessed with military (doubled size to 80,000) -every penny he can give goes to the military -leaves prussia with a full treasury (war chest) -tall person fetish Frederick II the great -very very intellectual -ran away -genius military strategist -stole silesia from maria theresa

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

used natural law to justify absolutism comparable w bossuet's (1627-1704) divine right theory 1. English political philosopher who wrote "Leviathan" 2. Viewed human beings as naturally self-centered and prone to violence, selfish and will fight for gain glory and security if theyre all equal to each other. 3. Feared the dangers of anarchy more than the dangers of tyranny 4. Argued that monarchs have absolute and unlimited political authority only solution to anarchy is for all ppl to enter into a social contract w each other ruler. secular and scientific

english civil war (Charles I)

when charles demanded revenue, parliament instead issued Petition of Right (rights regarding taxation and liberties from other abuses). Frustrated w the parliament, Charles decided to rule alone from 1629-1639. his reliance on ship money for revenue alienated the growing mercantile elite. charles had to call the parliament back together in order to defend against a scotish invasion. rather than grant Charles his taxes, the parliament once again reasserted its liberties. Charles attempted to arrest the parliamentary leaders of the protestant cause, and plunged england into civil war. (war between kings forces (cavaliers) and the parliament (roundheads)) resulted in the capture of charles. this brought the brilliant leader of the Parliament's new model army Oliver Cromwell. He was a devout puritan and believed in religious toleration of protestants and a democratic church structure.

Cromwell's Protectorate Government

when parliament didnt want to do anything about the captured king, cromwell surrounded it and drove out its more moderate members. (formed rump parliament) then cromwell even got rid of this rump and named himself "Lord protector". promoted english commerce via mercantilism. violently subdued rebellion in scotland and ireland. After he died, england was weary of puritanism and military control, so the stuarts were restored.

Stuart restoration (1660)

with charles II, the same issues of politics and religion returned. though charles was privately more inclined towards catholicism, he was sympathetic to the protestants and held a facade of religious tolerance. appointed catholics as local officials. Parliament responded with the test act which required all officials to take communion in the church of england. Charles' pro french policy was different to previous english diplomacy. He had even signed the treaty of dover with louis 14. W these funds, charles was able to rule without parliament in the last years of his reign.