AP Euro Isms and 19th century revolution key terms

Decembrist Revolt in Russia

Military leaders of the northern union of Russia rebelled against the accession of Nicholas. The revolt was crushed and the leaders were executed.

The Ausgleich

A compromise with Hungarian demands, the Ausgleich of 1867 created a dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary where each state had its own legislature and constitution but were united by one monarch, Francis Joseph. The other minorities in Austria: the Poles, Czechs, Croats, Slovaks, Slovenes, Serbs, etc. were not satisfied.

Nationalism

A sense of national consciousness based on awareness of being part of a community that has calm and institutions, traditions, language, and customs and that becomes the focus of the individual's primary political loyalty.

Irish-English relations

A sense of nationality made the Irish discontent with English rule. Gladstone attempted to make some changes, but failed to satisfy the Irish demands. The Irish Land League, called for independence or Home Rule. After the "Irish Question" compromise was voted down by parliament, the Irish issue remained unsolved.

July Ordinances

A set of edicts issued by Charles X that imposed rigid censorship on the press, dissolved the legislative assembly, and reduce the electorate in preparation for new elections. These actions produced an immediate rebellion.

Reforms of Alexander II

After Russia's defeat in the Crimean War, Alexander II focused on reforms. In 18691, he abolished serfdom, however, population growth, bad land for peasants, and the authority of village communes over peasants meant the old order was little changed. System of zemstvos, or local assemblies, provided some self-government but had little power. The movement of populism, started by Herzen, called for a new society created by peasant revolutions. Peasants were uninterested leading to violent means instead.

Social Democrats

After persecuting the liberals, Bismarck abruptly changed his attention to the growing socialist Democracy. He convinced parliament to pass antisocialist measures and deter people from the party. He had further plans to stop its growth but was fired by the new emperor, William II.

Alexander

Alexander III made no space for mass politics or Democratic reforms. Liberals and Socialists were seriously persecuted, and a strict Russification program was put in place. Nicholas II, Alexander's weak successor, inherited these policies and unrealistic ideologies.

Revolutions of 1848

Although revolutions in Belgium, Greece, and France had been successful, the conservative order was still dominant in European affairs. In France, socialists and republicans joined forces in revolution and eventually set up a republican government. The socialist programs eventually failed and were repealed. The republic chose Napoleon as the President, who would soon become emperor. Austria avoided revolution through help from Russia. Italian revolts were destroyed by Austrians. Germany attempted to unify, however, later on Frederick William IV refused to become emperor and the plan was dismantled.

Continued growth of democracy (Great Britain & France)

An increase in male suffrage in Britain allowed for the democratic growth of it's two-party parliament. The Reform Acts of 1867 and then 1881 and 1911 greatly increased the number of voters, especially from the middle and upper lower-classes. Ireland, however, was not satisfied by any of these changes. In France, after Bismarck and monarchists dominated the National Assembly, the radical republicans created their own government called the Commune which was violently repressed by the government. A new constitutional monarchy was created and the Third Republic was born.

John Stuart Mill

And English philosopher that was a prominent advocate of liberalism in the 19th century. His most famous work, "on liberty", has long been regarded as a classic statement on the liberty of the individual. He argued for an absolute freedom of opinion and sentiment on all subjects that needed to be protected from both government censorship and the tyranny of the majority.

Liberalism (economic and political)

And ideology based on the belief that people should be as free from restraint as possible. Economic liberalism is the idea that the government should not interfere in the workings of the economy. Political liberalism is the idea that there should be restraints on the exercise of power so that people can enjoy basic civil rights in a constitutional state with a representative assembly.

Austro-Prussian war

Bismarck convinced Russia and France to remain neutral. Many Europeans did not expect a Prussian victory, however, with recent reforms and new weapons Prussia greatly outnumbered Austria in power. Austria only lost Venetia to Italy, but was excluded from German affairs. The northern states organized into the North German Confederation controlled by Prussia. The southern states signed military agreements with Prussia. Prussia annexed some land to Austria. Nationalism and Authoritarian government could be combined. He created two houses: Bundestrat and Reichstag.

Franco-Prussian war

Bismarck new that France was threatened by the new strong German state next-door and took advantage of France's overreaction to making Leopold (of the same dynasty as the Prussian King) withdraw his candidacy for the throne of Spain. France declared war on Prussia but their forces were easily pushed back until Paris capitulated in 1871. The Southern German states agreed to join the Northern German Confederation and William I was crowned emperor of the unified German state in the hall of Versailles. This new, powerful state upset the balance of power.

Realpolitik

Bismarck practiced Realpolitik, which meant he was practical not a gambler or idealist. He avoided war, and sought out a realistic balance of old and new politics.

Otto von Bismarck

Bismarck was appointed Prime Minister by the Prussian king. He was often appointed diplomat to other European countries and became well studied in European affairs. He illegally collected taxes in order to expand the army and continued on to unify Germany. He practiced realpolitik and was a conservative.

Danish war

Bismarck's victories were both politic and diplomatic. He persuaded Austria to join Prussia and attacked Denmark. The Danes were quickly defeated and Austria and Prussia divided the gains. Bismarck purposefully left joint administration over the gained lands to create friction with Austria and justify the upcoming war.

Louis-Philippe

Called the bourgeois monarch because political support for his rule came from the upper middle class. He even dressed like a member of the middle class in business suits and hats. Constitutional changes that favor the interests of the upper bourgeois where instituted.

Camillo di Cavour

Cavour was a liberally minded leader. He accepted that the only plausible form of government would be a constitutional monarchy. Cavour allied with France by promising them land and attacked Austria. After becoming Prime Minister of Piedmont, he worked on economic expansion.

Paris Commune

Created in response to monarchist dominated Legislature, the republicans created their own system called the Commune. It was defended against the National Assembly by many members of the working class, including women. The Government finally massacred and crushed the members of the Commune, bringing a split between the middle and working classes.

Bismarcks's Germany

Divisions in German society lead to the prevalence of the Old Order. The Bundesrat, or upper house, only represented the powerful, individual states still existent within Germany. The lower house, the Reichstag, had universal male suffrage, but little power. The army, loyal to the monarchy, and Bismarck, who worked to prevent the growth of liberal institutions, slowed democratic progress.

Fourier, Owen, Blanc, Tristan

Fourier and Owen believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment. They tried to set up ideas communities where all work was split evenly. Blanc denounced competition as the main cause of the economic evils of the day, he called for the establishment of workshops that would manufactured goods for public sale. The state would finance these workshops, but the workers would own and operate them.

Giuseppe Garibaldi

Garibaldi was the military leader responsible for the unification of Italy. He supported Mazzini and the republican cause of Young Italy. He raised a small army called the Red Shirts, and was miraculously successful with it. He attempted to continue further and attack Rome, but was stopped by the more realistic Cavour.

British reform of the Victorian Era

Gradual reforms and relative political stability kept Britain from any major revolutionary turmoil. Queen Victoria created a feeling of nationalism and Henry John Temple, Lord of Palmerston helped make political compromises. Disraeli's Reform Act of 1867 increased male suffrage and led to a liberal victory in the next election. William Gladstone helped to make many more liberalist reforms in education and Legislature.

Tallyrand

He was Napoleon's chief diplomat who gained peace with Austria and Great Britain in 1801 & 1802. He didn't agree with Napoleon's military conquests, resigned, and teied to undermine him with the help of Alexander I (Russia) and Metternich (Austria). He played a key role in the Congress of Vienna.

Alexander I

He was raised in the ideas of the enlightenment snd was initially willing to make reforms. He relaxed censorship, freed politicsl prisoners, and reformed educational system. He refused to free serfs and after defeat of Napoleon, he reverted to strict and arbitrary censorship. Secret societies were formed and he died suddenly in 1825.

Louis XVIII

He was restored to Bourbon throne and understood thst he needed to accept some of the changes from the Napoleonic eras (Civil Code). Property rights eho purchased confiscated lands during recolution were preserved. A two-house legislature was made. Ultraroyalists arose who criticized the king's willingness to retain Napoleonic features.

Thomas Mathus

He wrote "essay on the principles of population". He believed that misery and poverty were simply the inevitable result of the law of nature. No government or individual should interfere with his operation.

David Ricardo

He wrote "principles of political economy". He believed in the "iron law of wages" which meant that wages should forever stay the same so that population increase and decrease does not happen. Raising wages arbitrarily would be pointless since it would accomplish little but perpetuate the vicious cycle of population growth and decline.

Principle of Legitimacy

Idea made by Metternich which stated that it was necessary to reestablish the legitimate monarchs who would preserve traditional institutions in order to bring pesce and stability to Europe.

Prince Klemens von Metternich: how suppressed nationalist and liberal revolutions?

Metternich was a conservatist who wanted a balance of power through intervention and legitimacy to maintain pesce throughout Europe.

Revolutions of 1830

In 1830, the forces of change begin to undo the conservative domination of Europe. In France, the reactionary Charles X was overthrown and replaced by the constitutional monarch Louis-Philippe, A liberal and former revolutionary soldier. The Belgians rose up against the Dutch and succeeded in convincing the major European powers to except their independence. Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, A minor German prince, was designated to be the new king and a Belgian national Congress established a constitutional monarchy for the new state. The revolutionary scenarios in Italy and Poland were much less successful. Austrian troops crushed results in three Italian states. In Poland, insurgents failed to get support from France and Britain and were crushed by the Russians who established an oppressive military dictatorship over Poland.

New Police forces

In order to keep an ordered society many European countries established a police force. French police called serjents wore blue uniforms in order to be identified more easily. British police, Bobbies, were responsible for both public safety and public duties such as street cleaning. German police, the Schutzmannshaft, were fully armed at all times and resembled military officials.

Unification of Italy

Italy was able to achieve unification because of Austria's much weakened power after the Crimean war and other foreign affairs. Austria had lost its main ally Russia, and was now left on its own with no European allies to help in case of attack. Venetia was added after Austro-Prussian war and Rome after Franco Prussian war.

Reform Legislation

Most reform in the nineteenth century was inspired by the aristocratic landowning class of improving working conditions. However, the industrialists pushed forward legislation that favored economic liberalism. The Poor Law of 1834 cut down the rights of poor people in an attempt to minimize the poverty levels in Europe. The repealing of the Corn Laws by the Tories in England enabled free trade principles.

Policies of Napoleon III

Napoleon was able to gain the people's support and crown himself emperor. He encouraged industrial growth and built infrastructure. He also undertook a vast reconstruction of Paris that made it both a military city as well as aesthetically pleasing. In order to avoid conflict, Napoleon legalized trade unions. The Legislative Corps was also given more power in state affairs.

Minorities in Austria-Hungary

Prime Minister Taaffe attempted to compromise with the minorities' growing discontent but risked loosing the support of the German-speaking pillars of society. The nationalities problem persisted. Loyalty to the Catholic Church, emperor, and bureaucracy helped keep the empire together. The Hungarians attempted to solidify their Magyar culture within their state.

Prison reform

Prison reform was mostly instilled in France and Britain. Modelling America's prisons, the jails would have individual cells. Prison punishment slowly became more common than capital punishment. However, sending prisoners to colonies was still very common due to over population of prisoners.

Unification of Germany

Prussia's first step towards unification was establishing a system of free trade throughout Germany called Zollverein. It then framed a constitution that would draft the beginnings of a constitutional monarchy with a parliament. When Frederick William was succeeded by his brother William I, Prussia expanded its army.

Revolutions during the first half of the 19th century

Revolution in Spain and Italy were happening and Austria used the principle of intervention to crush revolts in Italy, restored Ferdinand I to the throne. As for the Spanish revolts, the Concert authorized France to invade Spain to stop the revolt and restore Bourbon monarchy.

Crimean war and the end of the Concert of Europe

Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire after being denied rights to shrines in Palestine. Great Britain and France also joined the war because of fear of an unbalance of power. This war was poorly planned and poorly fought however because of it the Concert of Europe fell apart and major European powers withdrew from European policies until world war I. The absence of control over balance of power allowed for the unification of Germany and Italy.

Social vs. utopian socialism

Socialism is an ideology that calls for collective or government ownership of the means of production and the distribution of goods. Utopian socialist or intellectuals and theorists in the early 19 century who favorite equality and social and economic conditions and wish to replace private property in competition with collective ownership and cooperation.

Third republic

The National Assembly ended up creating constitutional republic with a bicameral legislature and president(serving for 7 years). This republic, lasting 65 years, was favored by the middle and peasant class, but opposed by the clergy, monarchists, and army. General Georges Boulanger's revolutionary failures helped to strengthen the republic.

Congress of Vienna

The congress of vienna was made not only to defeat France but to ensure peace after the war. The quadruple alliance met in Vienna in september 1814 to arrange a final peace settlement. Leader of congress was Prince Klemens von Metternich.

Charles X

The count of Artois, brother of Louis XVIII. He granted indemnity to aristocrats whose lands had been confiscated during the revolution. He encourage the Catholic Church to reestablish control over the French educational system.

Kulturkampf

The liberals sided with Bismarck in an attempt to attack the Catholic Church in the Kulturkampf or "struggle for civilization." His attack on Catholicism failed and Bismarck switched to persecuting the socialists.

Dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary

The only lasting ideal of the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 was the abolition of serfdom, however, a growing industrial middle class helped bring more change. After Alexander von Bach's attempted return to autocracy, the nest emperor, France Joseph created the Reichsrat, a parliamentary system that only represented the German-speaking majority. Austria's failure in the Austro-Prussian war finally met some of the Hungarian's demands in the Ausgleich.

Karlsbad Decrees

These closed the Burschenshchaften, provided for censorship of the press, and placed the universities under close supervision in control. Told people to root out and stop liberal groups.

Reform Act of 1832

This get it explicit recognition to the changes wrought in British life by the industrial revolution. It disenfranchised 56 rotten boroughs and enfranchised 42 new towns and cities and reapportioned others. This gave the new urban industrial communities some voice in government. The reform act of 1832 primarily benefited the upper-middle-class. It was not a big step but the industrial middle-class had finally joined the landed interests in ruling Britain.

Peterloo massacre in Britain

This happened when eleven people were killed by government detractors. A mass protest was occuring and after this happened, Parliament (who was the readon for these massive protests) restricted large public meetings and pamphlet production amongst the poor.

Conservatism

This was an idea formulated by Edmund Burke which was "a partnership not only between those who are living, but those who are dead, and those who are to be born." No one generation had the right to destroy this partnership. Each generation had the duty to preserve and transmit the last. Was anti-revolution (slow/gradual change).

Balance of power

This was an idea that was made so that no one power would gain enough power to dominate Europe. Territorial arrangements were made, for example, Prussia and Austria were strengthened to balance with Russia.

Concert of Europe

This was made to maintain the status quo they had constructed. The quadruple alliance renewed their commitment against another Bonapartist power. They met twice and agreed to remove troops from France and add them to the this congress.

Greek revolt

This was showed that the principle of intervention could be used negatively as well. It could be used for a country to support a revolution if it was in their interest. The Greeks revolted sgainst the Ottomans and British and Frnech fleets went to Greece and defeated a large Ottoman armada. Later Russia declared war on the Ottomans. After the Turks defeat, the three counties got to decide what to do with Greece and gave them their independence.

Principle of intervention

This was the idea that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries where revolutions were happening to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

Edmund Burke

Was a conservatist who wrote "Reflections on the Revolution in France". He didn't think rapid change was smart and evolutionary change was better. The previous generation had the duty to transmit there values to the next.