ap gov ch. 16
education subsidy
- provide funds to local school systems for certain education programs - student loans - 2001 Congress eliminated the 5-yr limit on the period that former students can deduct interest on college loans from their taxable income - 2010 reforms eliminated fees paid to private banks that provide loans - used cost savings program to expand federal Pell grant program, made it easier for students to pay back loans - tax credits as incentives to help citizens w/ the cost of higher education -> American Opportunity Tax Credit, Lifetime Learning Credit
policymaking process
1. agenda setting - issue brought to attention of Congress by members, pres, interest groups, media, public opinion polls, triggering event, etc. 2. policy formation - bills w/ ways to solve the problem 3. policy adoption - policy now moved beyond debates over possible solutions + discussions of govs role 4. policy implementation - federal/state agencies interpret policy by writing regulations, guidance docs, memorandums of agreement w/ other agencies, bureaucrats in charge of implementation need to believe in it or they won't implement it well, complicated when involves federal/state/local govs 5. policy evaluation - fix or improve policy, agencies issue new regulations/change procedures, implementation obstacles will be corrected conducted inside gov by agencies (ex: US Gov Accountability Office, Congressional Budget Office, OMB) Congress conducts oversight hearings - agencies report progress **not always accurate b/c bureaucrats not apolitical -> groups outside gov also evaluate policy ask qs: - does policy as currently constructed address initial public problem? - does it represent a reasonable use of public resources? - would other strategies be more effective? - has it produced undesirable effects?
Head Start
1965 LBJ War on Poverty provided pre-school education for more than 30 million low-income kids since it began aims at making welfare unnecessary by giving low-income kids the advantages that education brings -> prepares kids for elementary school most are half-day programs, 5 days a week provides medical + dental screenings + home visits for parents to get parenting skills federally funded through grants to local public/private nonprofits controversy over whether it has helped -> 1998 Dept. of Health + Human Services conducted random-assignment natl. study to determine the impact -> found that benefits dissipate after 1st grade supported by W Bush + Obama
Medicaid
1965 LBJ - amendment to Social Security Act a federally sponsored program that provides medical care to the poor funded jointly by states + natl. gov covers hospitalization, prescription drugs, doctor visits, long-term nursing care Affordable Care Act expanded coverage by creating an opportunity for states to provide Medicaid eligibility for people younger than 65 w/ incomes up to 133% of the fed poverty level, enabled states to provide Medicaid coverage for low-income adults w/o kids + be guaranteed coverage w/o that state needing to obtain a waiver
Medicare
1965 LBJ - amendment to Social Security Act the federal govs health insurance program for the elderly + disabled idea: workers would pay small tax while they were healthy to receive insurance when they retired 2 parts: 1. hospital insurance, limited stays at nursing facilities, home health services, hospice care 2. PAY MONTHLY PREMIUM -> doctors' services, outpatient hospital services, ambulance transportation, diagnostic tests, lab services, etc. 2003 Medicare Modernization Act - W Bush, provided prescription drug coverage, gave private insurance companies greater role wildly expensive
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families (TANF)
1996 - Clinton replaced AFDC a welfare program of block grants to states that encourages recipients to work in exchange for time-limited benefits most recipients must find a job within 2 years of going on welfare + can't stay on welfare for more than a total of 5 years together (or less depending on the state) many states cap family benefits when another child is born to a family on welfare
Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act
2010 Obama pushed health care reform during campaign -> economic crash in 2008 made spending money on social programs less attractive -> persisted proposed a range of separate policy changes that would combine to expand access to health insurance + provide more patient protections requires employers w/ 50+ employees provide health insurance + that most Americans outside the system purchase health insurance for themselves expanded Medicaid to more low-income individuals + provided subsidies + tax credits to individuals/small business to reduce burden of insurance premiums created state-based American Health Benefit Exchanges + Small Business Health Options Exchanges - ways for individuals + small businesses to purchase qualified health insurance in a competitive market - administered by gov agency or nonprofit March 2012 - went to Supreme Court -> said that the individual mandate constituted a tax on those who chose not to not buy insurance + as such was a constitutional exercise of congressional power, court weakened requirement that states participate in the Medicaid portion of the law June 2015 - Supreme Court case King v. Burwell -> law allows the gov to provide nationwide tax subsidies to help the poor + middle class buy health insurance
water quality
2014 Flint, Michigan -> to save money switched water source from treated Detroit Water to Flint River -> river's corrosive water caused lead from pipes to leach into water supply
fossil fuels
US is too dependent on foreign oil -> Obama made reduction of our reliance a key component of his energy plans no sustainable supply how to address the problem: - gas tax ** not popular -> b/c it is universal, people say hurts poor more than wealthy -> politicians focus more on fuel efficiency standards for cars - stricter standards on cars that use of lots of gas - developing tech that doesn't use gas -> electric cars (90+% of transportation system depends on oil), states have implemented incentives for hybrid-owners W Bush administration pushed for passage of an energy bill in 2007 that included tougher corporate average fuel efficiency requirements for cars, SUVs, light trucks 2010 Obama announced tougher standards -> moved up compliance deadlines of 2007 bill by 4 yrs + established first nationwide regulation for greenhouse gases some people argue way to reduce dependence on foreign oil = expand our access to reserves in our own hemisphere -> offshore drilling in Gulf of Mexico, opening access to Alaskan oil reserves, building of Keystone Pipeline, start drilling into new shale reserves (found mostly in East, need to frack to get it -> could contaminate water source)
entitlement program
a federal program that guarantees benefits to qualified recipients
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
a federal program that provides vouchers to the poor to help them buy food 2015 - nearly 46 million Americans participated each month for most fams it only covers part of food expenditures amount of assistance received is indexed to fam income money comes from "farm bill" - fed govs policies for agricultural + nutrition programs that is passed every 4-5 yrs **2013-2014 passage held up by House Repubs sympathetic to Tea Party -> wouldn't sign until SNAP reduced -> passed w/ 8 billion in cuts
subsidy
a financial incentive given by the gov to corporations, individuals, or other gov jurisdictions or institutions usually given to encourage certain activities/behaviors (ex: going to college) types: 1. education 2. homeownership 3. corporate "welfare"
public policy
a gov plan of action to solve a problem ex: gov building a school/bridge usually entails offering incentives to individuals/groups to get them to behave the way gov wants them to behave -> encourage/discourage behaviors (ex: gov offers low-interest college loans b/c has an interest in having a well-educated public b/c they are more likely to follow laws, arrest people for drug possession to discourage others from taking drugs) **what is a public problem isn't always clear -> no set guidelines **different ideas about solutions to problem **solutions cost money - politicians up for reelection not always wanting to start new initiative ** solutions often generate new problems (ex: tough policy on crime -> jam up courts)
Social Security
a social insurance program under which individuals make contributions during working years + collect benefits in retirement created during Great Depression - Social Security Act of 1935 3 parts: 1. Aid to Families w/ Dependent Children 2. Old Age Survivors + Disability Insurance 3. unemployment insurance provided a guaranteed pension LBJ added amendments -> health care benefits for elderly = Medicare most people see as positive receive monthly checks based on how much you paid into the system has to pay for everyone b/c everyone will get old -> we all receive more than we put in **about to fail -> more retirees than workers right now b/c Baby Boomers -> gov still has to pay money it owes to people b/c SS is an entitlement program cost about 24% of federal budget in 2015 2004 - Bush tried to reform it -> tried to convince younger people to invest some of their SS taxes into private stock market protected by AARP - old people more likely to vote -> politicians don't want to cross them
nuclear power
alternative to fossil fuel dependence already provides 1/5 nations energy emits none of greenhouse gases blamed for global warming
cost-benefit analysis
an evaluation method in which the costs of the program are compared to the benefits of the policy cons: - analyst must be able to quantify all costs + benefits - intangible values - public problems are fraught w/ uncertainties -> can't predict all possible results of a policy, outcomes could be years away - allows the analyst to ask of a policy only whether it is efficient, but efficiency is just one factor by which a policy could be evaluated
triggering event
an external event that puts an issue onto the policy agenda ex: right now -> Parkland -> gun control, 9/11 -> national security -> Patriot Act
social policies
distributive + redistributive policies that seek to improve the quality of citizens' lives most centered on how we can improve people's standards of living -> poverty (hard b/c no universal definition of poor)
environmental policy
distributive, redistributive, + regulatory policy that seeks to improve the quality of the physical world in which we live spurred by events like the almost-extinction of the bald eagle, fire on Cuyahoga River from pollutants in it, etc. 1969 National Environmental Policy Act - required gov agencies to issue an environmental impact statement listing the effects any new regulation would have on the environment 1970 Clean Air Act 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act 1973 Endangered Species Act 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act 1970 Nixon created Environmental Protection Agency by executive order 1980s - Regan slashed funding + staffing in federal agencies running environmental programs + appointed heads more sympathetic to business **1980s membership in environmental groups increased dramatically -> Congress passed amendments to existing environmental laws that strengthened compliance provisions 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, + Liability Act (Superfund) - purpose was to oversee the cleanup of toxic waste disposal sites + make people responsible for the waste liable for its cleaning
Superfund
legislation designed to oversee the cleanup of toxic waste disposal sites require enormous amount of cooperation among federal, state, + local officials + politicians + legal, engineering, + environmental experts -> take years to complete
Clean Air Act
legislation that set emissions standards for companies required EPA to set national ambient air quality standards for common air pollutants + requires states to set emissions limitations on companies that were polluting the air required automobile manufacturers to reduce tailpipe emissions from cars
global warming + climate change
new problem that has been developing -> have to use old legislation that wasn't meant for this purpose b/c it wasn't an issue back then ex: Obama's Clean Power Plan -> relied on authority that EPA was given under Clean Air Act 2015 Paris Agreement - US and 195 other countries adopted an agreement that called for limiting average global warming to 2 degrees C above preindustrial temps + strives for a limit of 1.5 degrees C -> left details to countries themselves, doesn't come into force until 55 countries that produce at least 55% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions have ratified it
health care
no universal health care system like most developed nations, but spends most on health care out of those nations 17.1% of US gdp went to health care in 2013 -> will increase to almost 20% by 2024 Medicare Medicaid Obamacare 2003 W Bush failed - "Health Security" plan to give every citizen at least some basic health care, aimed to slow rate of growth in health care expenditures **lots of backlash -> Dem leaders of Congress didn't even bring it up for vote
regulatory policies
policies designed to restrict/change the behavior of certain groups/individuals ex: most environmental policies (air emissions limitations, permits)
distributive policies
policies funded by the whole taxpayer base that address the needs of particular groups easier to make b/c the costs are not perceived to be held by any particular group ex: tax deductions for interest on home mortgage payments, agriculture price supports, federal grants for higher education often associated w/ pork-barrel projects
redistributive policies
policies that shift resources from the "haves" to the "have nots" ex: US gov's income tax policy -> based on a progressive tax rate, Medicaid generally politically difficult to put into place b/c take resources away from the affluent (more likely to be politically active, vote regularly, contribute to campaigns)
renewable energy
possible solution to dependency on oil -> developing large scale alternatives like solar + wind that are cheap + reliable to compete w/ coal/oil inherent limitations: - geothermal requires very specific temps at which it can work - cost for transporting biomass fuels is very expensive wind energy has most promise -> capacity is forecasted to increase by 9% in 2016 + 8% in 2017 **critics: unsightly, lower property values, hurt birds, not reliable enough to be used everywhere biggest uncertainties: will states be strict in enforcing requirements that a certain % of their energy comes from those sources
welfare policy in the US
pre-Great Depression -> people viewed poverty as an individual problem -> responsibility on individual + charities to fix problem 1930 "Share Our Wealth" - Sen. Huey Long proposed limiting annual incomes to 1 mill + guaranteeing all fams an income of 5000/year FDR - New Deal 1935 Social Security Act 1996 TANF 1964 - 1968 LBJ War on Poverty - Head Start - Medicare - Medicaid 2005 Deficit Reduction Act - TANF expired in 2002 -> renewed w/ changes in act - increased proportion of recipients who must be working, defined more narrowly that counted as work USDA - food assistance - SNAP
social insurance programs
programs that offer benefits in exchange for contributions cover long-range needs distributive b/c broad segments of the population pay into + benefit from the system ex: Social Security
social welfare policies
public policies that seek to meet the basic needs of people who are unable to provide for themselves way to address poverty most are redistributive -> transfer resources, in form of financial assistance or essential services from those with to those without usually designed to be temporary solutions for helping the poor
means-tested programs
social programs whose beneficiaries qualify by demonstrating need redistributive policies usually these - applicants prove themselves based on govs definition of eligibility
corporate "welfare" subsidies
subsidies + tax breaks many are linked to efforts to create jobs, but many programs have little oversight -> many cases of subs going to companies who are downsizing or moving jobs overseas subsidies for research + development are needed to keep US companies afloat in global market -> develop new tech critics say businesses have become dependent on federal handouts - esp. agribusiness, oil industry, energy plants
homeownership subsidies
tax credits + deductions ex: mortgage interest tax deduction -> allows homeowners to deduct the cost of their mortgage interest payments from their taxable income helps mostly people in middle + upper class housing brackets b/c need to meet a certain income level to qualify
Social Security Act
the New Deal act that created Aid to Families with Dependent Children, Social Security, + unemployment insurance AFDC - first time fed gov assumed responsibility for economic well-being of citizens (fed gov paid 50+% of budget), aid went mostly to kids, no work requirements + no time limits on welfare **people thought created culture of dependency good example of role pluralism plays in policy process -> although society as a whole might be better off w/ more stringent rules on who gets what from Social Security, older Americans (AARP) have lobbied successfully to maintain generous + universal benefits that Social Security care so expensive
poverty threshold
the income level below which a family is considered to be "poor" calculated by Census Bureau - calculates the minimum cost for a family of four to live, assuming that 1/3 income is spent on food -> focuses only on income + doesn't include noncash benefits (food assistance, family assets) 21+% of American kids live in poverty - much higher than other Western nations
who makes policy
usually created by members of Congress in form of new laws (single law or bundle of laws(environmental policy + social welfare policy usually bundles) presidents can create policy - put on public agenda, include in budget proposal, vetoing laws made by Congress, executive orders that establish/augment policy gov bureaucracies at federal, state, local level - create/enhance policy through power to regulate administrative agencies - propose laws, lobby for their passage, make laws under authority from Congress, implement laws courts - rule on what gov can/should do, rule on implementation of laws
