AP LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION MIDTERM GLOSSARY

Point of view

(specifically why an author shifts point of view)-- the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those. (1) first person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, "I," and is a character in the story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character. (2) third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, "he," "she," and "it." There are two main subdivisions to be aware of: a. third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts and actions of any or all characters b. third person limited omniscient, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that the term point of view carries an additional meaning. Important Side note: When you are asked to analyze the author's point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author's attitude.

figure of speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

Litotes

A figure of speech consisting of an understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by negating its opposite. • "'Not a bad day's work on the whole,' he muttered, as he quietly took off his mask, and his pale, fox-like eyes glittered in the red glow of the fire. 'Not a bad day's work.'" (Baroness Emmuska Orczy, The Scarlet Pimpernel, 1905) • "Because though no beauty by fashion-mag standards, the ample-bodied Ms. Klause, we agreed, was a not unclever, not unattractive young woman, not unpopular with her classmates both male and female." (John Barth, "The Bard Award," in The Development: Nine Stories. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008)

onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

Apostrophe

A figure of speech in which some absent or nonexistent person or thing is addressed as if present and capable of understanding. • "O stranger of the future! O inconceivable being!" (Billy Collins, "To a Stranger Born in Some Distant Country Hundreds of Years from Now") • "Hello darkness, my old friend I've come to talk with you again . . .." (Paul Simon, "The Sounds of Silence") • "Bright star, would I were steadfast as thou art" (John Keats)

personification

A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals, or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions. Personification is used to make these abstractions, animals, or objects appear more vivid to the reader.

metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main, clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own writing.

extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

paradox

A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity. (Think of the beginning of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....")

anaphora

A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences. MLK used anaphora in his famous "I Have a Dream" speech (1963).

aphorism

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author's point.

Loose sentence/Cumulative Sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence. A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational. Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic sentence. Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays. Could stop at: I arrived at the San Diego airport.

caricature

A verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics.

transition

A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from one idea to another. A few commonly used transitional words or phrases are furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of transition.

parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author's expression (propensity to use too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well-written parody offers enlightenment about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their own and don't require knowledge of the original.

satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer's goal, but good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition. Some modern satirists include Joseph Heller (Catch 22) and Kurt Vonnegut (Cat's Cradle, Player Piano).

Tone/attitude

A writer's attitude toward the subject and audience. Tone is primarily conveyed through diction, point of view, syntax, and level of formality.

Parallelism

Also referred to as parallel construction or parallel structure, this term comes from Greek roots meaning "beside one another." It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase. (Again, the opening of Dickens' Tale of Two Cities is an example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity....") The effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the reader's attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.

pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as "show-offy"; using big words for the sake of using big words).

invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff "this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.")

rhetoric

From the Greek for "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

oxymoron

From the Greek for "pointedly foolish," an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. Simple examples include "jumbo shrimp" and "cruel kindness." This term does not usually appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay. Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.

syllogism

From the Greek for "reckoning together," a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called "major" and the second called "minor") that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A frequently cited example proceeds as follows: major premise: All men are mortal. minor premise: Socrates is a man. conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal. A syllogism's conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also present the specific idea first ("Socrates") and the general second ("all men").

sarcasm

From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh," sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

didactic

From the Greek, didactic literally means "teaching." Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else. Usually a symbol is something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene - that represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories: (1) natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge). (2) conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers). (3) literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized. However, a work's symbols may be more complicated, as is the jungle in Heart of Darkness. On the AP exam, try to determine what abstraction an object is a symbol for and to what extent it is successful in representing that abstraction.

thesis

In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the thesis.

wit

In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous, while suggesting the speaker's verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement. Historically, wit originally meant basic understanding. Its meaning evolved to include speed of understanding, and finally, it grew to mean quick perception including creative fancy and a quick tongue to articulate an answer that demanded the same quick perception.

Subordinate clause

Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause, the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to complete its meaning. Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses. For example: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how and that. Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers.

prose

One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the length of the line.

Diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to his/her correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

theme

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in expository or argumentative writing.

style

The consideration of style has two purposes: (1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors' styles are so idiosyncratic that we can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can analyze and describe an author's personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author's purpose. Styles can be called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2) Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors. By means of such classification and comparison, we can see how an author's style reflects and helps to define a historical period, such as the Renaissance or the Victorian period, or a literary movement, such as the romantic, transcendental, or realist movement.

allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.

repetition

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

atmosphere

The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows events. Perhaps it can create a mood.

understatement

The ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole. Example: Jonathan Swift's A Tale of a Tub: "Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse."

genre

The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce, etc. On the AP language exam, expect the majority of the passages to be from the following genres: autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic, political, scientific, and nature writing. There may be fiction or poetry.

ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

Periodic sentence

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety. It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence. (Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego airport.)

mood

The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words (as in "she sells sea shells"). Although the term is not frequently in the multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.

imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also representing the color in a woman's cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech, especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a work. On the AP language exam, pay attention to how an author creates imagery and to the effect of this imagery.

denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)

Euphemism

The substitution of an inoffensive term (such as "passed away") for one considered offensively explicit ("died").

colloquial/colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

Syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while diction refers to the individual words. In the multiple-choice section of the AP exam, expect to be asked some questions about how an author manipulates syntax. In the essay section, you will need to analyze how syntax produces effects.

subject complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it (the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below: (1) the predicate nominative - a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It, like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence. Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames the subject, Julia Roberts (2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject. Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the subject, Warren

Antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun. The AP language exam occasionally asks for the antecedent of a given pronoun in a long, complex sentence or in a group of sentences. A question from the 2001 AP test as an example follows: "But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never to be planted." The antecedent of "it" (bolded) is...? [answer: "all truth"]

Rhetorical modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing. The four most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as "modes of discourse") are as follows: (1) The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion. The AP language exam essay questions are frequently expository topics. (2) The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action. (3) The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque. Descriptive writing may be straightforward and objective or highly emotional and subjective. (4) The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently uses the tools of descriptive writing.

homily

This term literally means "sermon," but more informally, it can include any serious talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

Inference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it's unlikely to be the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated it is not inferred and it is wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation - negative or positive - of the choices.

Assumption

a belief or statement taken for granted without proof

Rhetorical shift

a change or movement in a piece from one point, idea, concept, etc. to another; signaled by words such as but, then, however, etc

Simile

a comparison of different things by speaking of them as "like" or "as" the same; e.g. "thy two eyes, like stars." The simile "Oh, my love is like a red, red rose," for example, serves as the title and first line to a poem by Robert Burns.

Recapitulation

a concise summary.

Rhetorical modes (or modes of discourse)

a method a writer uses to have a conversation with the reader.

Rhetorical effect

a result or consequence that is produced by the communication.

Concession

an admission in an argument that the opposing side has points; to grant, allow or yield to a point.

Assertion

an emphatic statement; declaration. An assertion supported by evidence becomes an argument

Fallacy

an error in reasoning that renders an argument invalid.

Rebuttals

by definition, simply try to diminish the power of the opponent. Normally, people consider a rebuttal that relies on reason (logos) to be more ethical than one that relies on emotion (pathos) or on personal attack (ethos). But, some of the ancient rhetoricians seemed to think it was okay to use all of these strategies.

Rhetorical techniques

choices and how the author uses rhetorical devices. They include diction, syntax, tone/attitude, organization, point of view.

complex sentence

contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses. • Because old growth forests in the United States are fast disappearing, citizens must act now. (Because old growth forests in the United States are fast disappearing = subordinate clause beginning with subordinating conjunction; citizens must act now = independent clause) • Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger. (that have existed for thousands of years = subordinate clause beginning with relative pronoun; Forests ... are in danger = independent clause)

Hyperbole

deliberate overstatement, i.e., calling a paper cut "a gaping wound."

simple sentence

has one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. • Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing. • Citizens must act.

compound sentence

has two or more independent clauses, joined by coordinating conjunctions, and no subordinate clauses. • Old-growth forests in the United States are disappearing, and citizens must act. (two independent clauses joined by and)

Analogy

is a comparison between two things, or pairs of things, to reveal their similarities for the purpose of explanation. William Paley proposed the famous analogy in which he compared the world to a finely tuned watch, and argued that a watch (designed) requires a watchmaker (designer).

balanced sentence

is a sentence that employs parallel structure of approximately the same length and importance. Here the writer or speaker has a concern for symmetry - the second half of the sentence contains a similar or opposite idea to the first half. These techniques are very effective in persuasion, and are sometimes known as parallelism or antithesis. Consider this from Francis Bacon (1561-1626): • "Children sweeten labours, but they make misfortunes more bitter: they increase the cares of life, but they mitigate the remembrance of death." • Or this from Viscount Grey of Fallodon, on the eve of the First World War: "The lamps are going out all over Europe: we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime." • Or, finally, this spoken by President John F. Kennedy: "Ask not what your country can do for you: ask what you can do for your country." • "It was the best of times; it was the worst of times..." (A Tale of Two Cities)

Subjective

is a statement that has been colored by the character of the speaker or writer. It often has a basis in reality, but reflects the perspective through with the speaker views reality. It cannot be verified using concrete facts and figures. Opinions, interpretations, and any type of marketing presentation are all subjective.

Objective

is a statement that is completely unbiased. It is not touched by the speaker's previous experiences or tastes. It is verifiable by looking up facts or performing mathematical calculations.

Circular reasoning

is an attempt to support a statement by simply repeating the statement in different or stronger terms. In this fallacy, the reason given is nothing more than a restatement of the conclusion that poses as the reason for the conclusion. "You can't give me a C. I'm an A student." "Exercise is good for you."

Allusion

is an indirect reference to a person, event or piece of literature that is used to explain or clarify a complex problem. Note that allusion works best if you keep it short and refer to something the reader / audience is familiar with such as famous people, history, (Greek) mythology, literature, and/or the Bible. If the audience is familiar with the event or person, they will also know background and context. Thus, just a few words are enough to create a certain picture (or scene) in the readers' minds. Examples: • the Scrooge Syndrome (allusion on the rich, grieve and mean Ebeneezer Scrooge from Charles Dicken's "Christmas Carol") • The software included a Trojan Horse. (allusion on the Trojan horse from Greek mythology) • Plan ahead. It was not raining when Noah built the Ark. (Richard Cushing) (allusion on the biblical Ark of Noah)

Accusation

is the act of faulting or blaming someone

Digression

is the act of turning from your original discussion. This can be an intentional way of deflecting attention.

Deduction

is the process of moving from a general rule to a specific example. While induction attempts to arrive at the truth, deduction guarantees sound relationships between statements. If each of a series of statements, called premises, is true, deductive logic tells us that the conclusion must also be true. Unlike the conclusions from induction, which are only probable, the conclusions from deduction are certain. The simplest deductive argument consists of two premises and a conclusion. In outline such an argument looks like this: MAJOR All students with 3.5 GPAs and above for three years are invited to become members of PREMISE: Kappa Gamma Pi, the honor society. MINOR PREMISE: George has had a 3.8 average for over three years. CONCLUSION: Therefore, he will be invited to join Kappa Gamma Pi. This deductive conclusion is valid or logically consistent because it follows necessarily from the premises. No other conclusion is possible. Validity, however, refers only to the form of the argument. The argument itself may not be satisfactory if the premises are not true - if Kappa Gamma Pi has imposed other conditions or if George has only a 3.4 average. The difference between truth and validity is important because it alerts us to the necessity for examining the truth of the premises before we decide that the conclusion is sound.

Contradiction

is two propositions used in combination where one makes the other impossible.

compound-complex sentence

joins two or more independent clauses with one or more subordinate clauses. • Forests that have existed for thousands of years are in danger, and citizens must take action. (Forests are in danger and citizens must take action = independent clauses; that have existed for thousands of years = subordinate clause)

ellipsis [ ... ]

proves to be a handy device when you're quoting material and you want to omit some words. The ellipsis consists of three evenly spaced dots (periods) with spaces between the ellipsis and surrounding letters or other marks. Let's take the sentence, "The ceremony honored twelve brilliant athletes from the Caribbean who were visiting the U.S." and leave out "from the Caribbean who were": The ceremony honored twelve brilliant athletes ... visiting the U.S. If the omission comes after the end of a sentence, the ellipsis will be placed after the period, making a total of four dots. ... The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in the flow of a sentence and is especially useful in quoted speech: Juan thought and thought ... and then thought some more. "I'm wondering ..." Juan said, bemused.

Metonymy

referring to something in terms of a closely-associated object, i.e., referring to a businessman as "a suit," or to a king as "the crown," or a preppy guy as "so J. Crew."

Inverted syntax

reversing the normal word order of a sentence; e.g. "Whose woods these are I think I know." (Robert Frost)

Synecdoche

substituting a part for a whole, i.e., referring to a hundred ships as "a hundred sails," or saying "We have fifteen head of cattle" when you, hopefully, have the entire animals, not just their heads.

Irony

the contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create poignancy or humor.

Induction

the form of reasoning in which we come to conclusions about the whole on the basis of observations of particular instances. If you notice that prices on the four items you bought in the campus bookstore are higher than similar items in the bookstore in town, you may come to the conclusion that the campus store is a more expensive place to shop. If you also noticed that all three of the instructors you saw on the first day of school were wearing faded jeans and running shoes, you might say that your teachers are generally informal in their dress. In both cases you have made an inductive leap, reasoning from what you have learned about a few examples to what you think is true of a whole class of things.

Antithesis

the juxtaposition of contrasting ideas in balanced phrases or clauses. • "We must learn to live together as brothers or perish together as fools." (Martin Luther King, Jr., speech at St. Louis, 1964 • "Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing." (Goethe)

Refutation

the part of an argument in which a speaker or writer counters opposing points of view.

Rhetorical strategies

the plan for achieving a specific writing purpose.

Rhetorical function/rhetorical purpose

the purpose for which the communication is designed or why it exists.

Primary purpose

the reason why the communication exists; why the author is writing or why the speaker is speaking.

Rhetorical devices

the tools and mechanisms that the writer employs to develop the strategy. They include alliteration, allusion, analogy, antithesis, apostrophe, epithet (we will cover this later), hyperbole, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, onomatopoeia, oxymoron, parallelism, personification, rhetorical question, simile, understatement/litotes (*all figures of speech)

Compare and contrast

to explain or evaluate your subject by helping readers see the similarities and differences between it and another subject. Sample: "Grant and Lee: A Study in Contrasts," an essay in which the author explores the similarities and differences of two American generals.

Example

to explain your subject with instances that show the reader its nature or character. Sample: "We Are Free to Be You, Me, Stupid, and Dead," an essay in which the author provides examples of both outrageous expression and outrageous attempts to stifle expression.

Argument and persuasion

to have readers consider your opinion about your subject or your proposal for it. "Everything Isn't Racial Profiling," an essay in which the author argues that racial profiling should be used as a tool against terrorism

Classification

to help readers see order in your subject by understanding the kinds or groups it can be sorted into. Sample: Stephanie Ericsson's "The Ways We Lie"

Description

to help readers understand your subject through the evidence of their senses—sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Sample: "Orange Crush," an essay in which the author describes the taste of the American orange drink Tang.

Process analysis

to inform readers how to do something or how something works—how a sequence of actions leads to a particular result. Sample: "Orientation," an essay in which the author explains how the office dynamics work

Definition

to show readers the meaning of your subject—its boundaries and its distinction from other subjects. Sample: Gloria Naylor's "Meaning of a Word"

Narration

to tell a story about your subject, possibly to enlighten readers or to explain something to them. Sample: "Indian Education" by Sherman Alexie

Cause and Effect

to tell readers the reasons for or consequences of your subject, explaining why or what. Sample: "The Rise and Fall of a Hit," an article about the impact of the internet on CD sales