AP Psych - Unit 1: Scientific Foundations of Psychology
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
psychiarty
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
operational definition
a carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
survey
a descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
naturalistic observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
confounding variable
a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results
human factor psychology
a field of psychology allied with I/O psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
Scatterplot
a graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. the slope of the point suggests the direction of the relationship between two variables. the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation (little scatter indicates high correlations)
humanistic psychology
a historically significant prospective that emphasized human growth potential
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
random sampling
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance inclusion
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
stastical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
SQ3R
a study method incorporating five steps: Survey, Questions, Read, Retrieve, Review
population
all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn
functionalism
an early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable the organisms to adapt, survive, and flourish
structuralism
an early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind
double-blind procedure
an experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies.
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural viewpoints
variable
anything that can vary and is feasible and ethical to measure
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as the retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning
placebo
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
informed consent
giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
descriptive statistics
numerical data used to measure and describe characteristics of groups. Includes measures of central tendency and measures of variation.
illusory correlation
perceiving a relationship where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
industrial-organizational I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
mean
the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
Validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
empiricism
the idea that knowledge comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enables scientific knowledge
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interactions of nature and nurture
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
debriefing
the postexperimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
positive psychology
the scientific study of human flourishing with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
biological psychology
the scientific study of the links between biological (genetic, neural, hormonal) and psychological processes
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
cognitive psychology
the study of mental processes, such as occur when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems
evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
normal curve
the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
hindsight bias
the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it ( also know as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. rather, it examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates, and assesses conclusions
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.
control group
In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
independent variable
in an experiment, the factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
experiemental group
in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable
dependent vairable
in an experiment, the outcome that is measured; the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding can be reproduced
