AP Psych Unit 3 (Modules 16-21)
How does the phi phenomenon create the perception of motion? Give an example of this phenomenon.
An illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession ex) lighted signs that give the impression of a moving area
How can our taste buds be fooled by psychological influences?
Expectations can influence taste ex) if you were given identical wines labeled $90 and $10, most people would prefer the $90
Define and give an example of bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information ex) you turn on the sink and burn yourself and instinctively pull away
Lashawna is exposed to a short wavelength with a tall amplitude. It is likely that she is perceiving
a loud bass guitar
Perceiving by filling gaps in what we sense with background knowledge is an example of
top-down processing ex) I _ope yo_ _et a 5 on t__ A_ e_am
sensory adaptation
when we are constantly exposed to a stimulus that does not change, we become less aware of it because our nerve cells fire less frequently
What do signal detection theorists try to understand about human sensation?
why people respond differently to the same stimuli and why the same person's reactions vary as circumstances change
frequency is to amplitude as ________ is to _________
color; brightness
iris function
colored portion of eye that controls the size of the pupil opening
What governs our perceptions?
comparisons
auditory nerve function
composed on the axons of the nerve cells surrounding basilar membrane; sends neural messages to auditory center
Why are cones, rather than rods, better able to detect fine detail?
cones have a direct connection to bipolar cells, whereas rods share bipolar cells with other rods
cornea function
controls and focuses light; protective barrier
If you had sight in only one eye, what is a depth cue you would not be able to use?
convergence: when an object is close to our face, our eyes have to point toward each other slightly, our brain senses this convergence and uses it to help gauge distance
transduction
conversion of one form of energy to another; transforming stimulus from our senses into neural impulses our brain can interpret
Neurons that fire in response to specific edges, lines, angles, and movements are called what?
feature detectors
cochlea function
fluid inside vibrates; transmits vibrations to basilar membrane
Define the two physical characteristics of sound, and identify how they determine our awareness of loudness and pitch
frequency determines the pitch; amplitude determines loudness
What does pitch depend on?
frequency: number of sound waves that reach the ear in a given time
cones function
function in daylight/well-lit conditions; detect fine detail and allow colored sight
Bringing order and form to stimuli, which illustrates how the whole differs from the sum of its parts is called
grouping
Define and give an example of top-down processing
information processing guided by higher level mental processes, as we construct perceptions drawing on our experiences and expectations ex) seeing a red hot stove and knowing it would be hot from prior knowledge
The three small bones of the ear are located in the
middle ear
difference threshold
minimum difference a person can detect between any stimuli half the time
Explain how monocular cues differ from binocular cues. When might one use monocular cues rather than binocular cues?
monocular cues use one eye as opposed to the two eyes that binocular cues; monocular cues are useful for far distances
What are the four subdivisions of parallel processing?
motion, form, color, depth
Describe how the volley principle addresses the limitations of neural firing when explaining how we hear pitch?
neural cells can alternate firing by firing in rapid succession, they can achieve a combined frequency equal to that of the pitch being heard
Explain how Hering's opponent-process theory adds to the explanation of how we see and perceive color
opposing retinal processes (red-green, blue-yellow) enable color vision; explains the after image effect ex) some cells are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
figure-ground
organization of the visual field into objects (figure) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)
How does the German word gestalt help explain how humans organize their perception?
organized whole; emphasizes our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes
Why are scientists skeptical of ESP?
our senses are well understood and researchers do not find reliable evidence that we can perceive sensations other than though our sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch, and vestibular senses
How does linear perspective help us perceive depth?
parallel lines appear to meet in the distance; the sharper the angles of convergence, the greater the perceived distance ex) railroad tracks, hallway
Explain how research on restored vision and sensory restriction helps us understand the importance of experience on perception
people born blind who gained sight as an adult could not visually distinguish between a cube and a sphere even though they could by touch because they had not learned to perceive the visual form
How does brightness aid our perception of sensory information?
perceive an object as having a constant brightness even with its illumination varies
How does size aid our perception of sensory information?
perceive objects as having a constant size, even while our distances from them varies
How does relative height help us perceive depth?
perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away
How does the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory explains how we see and perceive color?
retina contains 3 colors receptors: red, green, blue when combined they can produce any color if a color receptor doesn't work, you can't see that color
How does light and shadow help us perceive depth?
shading produces a sense of depth consistent with our assumption that light comes from above
In a perception research lab, you are asked to describe the shape of the top of a box as the box is slowly rotates. Which concept are the researchers most likely investigating?
shape constancy
pop out phenomena
sometimes humans don't choose to attend to stimuli, it just "pops out" by drawing our eyes or ears and demanding our attention
What percentage of people are color blind and what demographic is most affected
.5%;males
semicircular nerve function
3 canals used to provide information to the brain about balance
In what ways are smells connected with memories and emotions?
A "hotline' runs from the brain's olfactory areas to the limbic system associated with memories
What does Weber's law tell us about human perception?
For an average person to perceive a difference, 2 stimuli must differ my a constant minimum percentage; exact proportion varies based on stimulus
What did Gibson and Walk's experiment tell us about depth perception in the human species?
Gibson and Walk created a visual cliff that proved depth perception is innate across species
How does the concept of perceptual adaptation inform our understanding of how humans perceive the sensations in our environment?
Humans don't perceive things exactly as our senses present them to us
What determines if a signal is subliminal?
If it is below the absolute threshold for conscious awareness
In what way do the limitations of cochlear implants add to the explanation of the critical period theory?
If the brain never learns to process and perceive sound during childhood, it'll never be able to do it properly
How does relative size help us perceive depth?
If we assume 2 objects are the same size, the smaller one appears farther away
What evidence does the text provide to suggest that we can adapt to new ways of interacting with the world?
If you are given a pair of glasses that shifted everything to the left, after a few minutes you would adapt and be able to function properly
What is most likely to influence our memory of a painful event?
Intensity of pain at the end of the event
What are the benefits of experiencing pain?
It allows us to realize when something is wrong like a broken ankle or burning yourself
What is the evolutionary explanation for olfactory signals not processing first through the thalamus like all other senses?
It's a primitive sense that has been around longer than the thalamus
How would you describe the relationship between culture and perception?
Most perceptual rules apply in all cultures, but some perceptual rules are learned and vary between cultures
Why do evolutionary psychologists see taste as adaptive?
Most poisons are sour/bitter, so an aversion to these tastes would have caused ancestors to not eat them
What have placebo studies revealed about the psychological aspects of pain?
Placebos have been shown to relieve pain, showing that pain can be psychological instead of physical
What allows you to know when to wear a business suit and when to wear a swimsuit when told to put on a suit.
The context of the situation, whether you are attending a wedding or a pool party
What is meant by a "critical period"?
The period of time in early childhood that determines if you can perceive and function properly
How does the frequency theory suggest an alternative to the explanation of how we discriminate pitch?
The rate of nerve impulses travels up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of the tone; doesn't explain high pitched sounds
Why can't someone who wears a lot of cologne notice that they are?
They adapted to the smell and don't notice it anymore
How do the feature detectors play a part in bottom-up processing?
They allow us to perceive basic features of objects, such as horizontal and vertical lines, curves, motion, etc. Our mind builds the picture from the bottom up using these basic characteristics
How do perceptual constancies help us organize our sensations into meaningful perceptions?
They allow us to perceive objects as stable despite their changing appearance
What roles do acupuncture and virtual reality seem to play in pain relief?
They can distract from the pain, increasing pain tolerance
What is backmasking and how is it an example of top down processing?
Threatening messages hidden in music that become apparent when played backwards; music played backwards is just random noise, however, if you expect to hear threatening messages, your brain fills in the gaps to create them
How might our ability to locate sounds be different if we had one ear above our nose?
We would not be able to sense direction of sound because that ability relies on the fact hat sound reaches one ear before the other
How does the cocktail party effect function as an example of selective attention?
ability to attend to only one voice among many while also being able to detect your own name in an unattended voice shows ability to focus on one thing at a time while also being able to shift attention
A cook barely being able to taste the salt in her soup is an example of
absolute threshold
Signal detection theory is most closely associated with which perception process?
absolute threshold
In order to focus near and far objects on the retina, the lens change its shape through a process called
accommodation
pupil function
adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
Which of the following is true about pain? a. no single stimulus produces pain b. pain diminishes when neurotransmitters such as endorphins are released c. the brain can create pain d. we edit our memories of pain e. all of the above
all of the above
Frequency is to pitch as ____ is to _______
amplitude; loudness
How does relative motion help us perceive depth?
as we move, objects that are actually stable appear to move ex) trees "moving" on a car ride
What is the correct path of sound through the ear to the brain?
auditory canal, ear drum, the bones of the middles ear, cochlea, basilar membrane
Using fMRI, how are we able to tell if a person is looking at a shoe, chair, or face?
based on the pattern of the brain activity because looking at different objects activates different areas of the brain
Why is perceptual constancy referred to as a top-down process?
because its recognizing objects without being deceived by changes in their color, brightness, shape, or size; it focuses on mental processes first
What is most closely associated with hairlike receptors in the semicircular canal?
body position
How does selective attention work?
brain shifting its awareness to take in specific things
optic nerve function
carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
ganglion cells function
cells whose acon's tangle together to form the optic nerve
fovea function
central focal point in the retina where cones cluster
lens function
changes shape to help focus images on retina
Smell and taste are called ______ because _______.
chemical senses; they detect chemicals in what we taste and smell
rods function
detect black and white; essential for peripheral and twilight vision when cones don't respond
How does retinal disparity occur and how does it help us perceive the depth of objects in our environment?
difference between the two images received from your eyes; the greater the retinal disparity, the closer the object
Describe how depth perception helps us organize sensory input
enables us to estimate an object's distance from us
Describe the effect of endorphins on pain
endorphins mask the feeling of pain
choice blindness
ex) people tasted 2 jams, indicated their preference and again tasted their "preferred jam" and explained their preference most people didn't notice they were retasting their nonpreferred jam
change blindness phenomena
failing to notice changes in the environment ex) not noticing a magician's assistant switch out when the magician is performing a trick
inattentional blindness phenomena
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere ex) gorilla in the background when counting number of passes
Top down processing is ________, but more prone to ______, while bottom up processing is ______ but is more _______
faster; error; slower; accurate
An older man diagnosed with sensorineural hearing loss most likely
has spent too much time listening to high decibel sounds
How do context effects relate to top-down processing?
hearing "eel on a wagon", we assume wheel hearing "eel on an orange", we assume peel
autokinetic effect
if a spot of light is projected steadily onto the same place on a wall of an otherwise dark room and people are asked to stare at it, they will report seeing it move
How does interposition help us perceive depth?
if one object blocks our view of another, we assume its closer
Sensing the position of individual body parts, as well as movement of them, is an example of which sense?
kinesthesia
For what tasks might kinesthesia be more useful? When might the vestibular system be more useful?
kinesthesia: moving your body to walk or get out of bed vestibular: keep you from falling over if you turn around too fast
Distinguish kinesthesia from your vestibular sense
kinesthesia: system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts Vestibular sense: sense of body movement and position, as well as balance
retina function
light sensitive inner surface of the eye containing rods and cones and layers of neurons that begin the process of receiving visual information
Describe the physical properties of a bright, electric blue color
long wavelength; large amplitude
How does shape aid our perception of sensory information?
perceive the form of familiar objects as constant even while our retinas receive changing images of them; the neurons in our visual cortex learn to associate different views of an object ex) a door opening seems to be changing shape, but we still perceive it as rectangular
How does color aid our perception of sensory information?
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelength reflected by the object
Knowing that the color of a printed page does not change as it moves from sunlight to shade is an example of
perceptual constancy
Our tendency to see faces in clouds and other ambiguous stimuli is partly based on what perception principle?
perceptual set
People slowing down for someone on a motorcycle on the side of the road holding a hairdryer is an example of
perceptual set because they expect it to be a cop
How does perceptual set relate to top-down processing?
perceptual set is a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affects what we perceive
Other than stimulus strength, what additional factors determine whether we will detect a sensory stimulus?
person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness
ossicles function
picks up vibration from eardrum; transmits vibrations to oval window
basilar membrane function
picks up vibrations from cochlea, bending hair like cells lining its surface; hair cell movement triggers impulses in adjacent nerve cells
oval window function
picks up vibrations from ossicles, jostling the fluid that fills the cochlea
blind spot
point at which optic nerve leaves the eye creating a blind spot because there are no receptor cells located there
priming
predisposing one's perception, memory, response, often subconsciously ex) briefly flashing a picture of a cat and asking someone an opinion of a person's expression (they will be more positive than someone flashed a dead body)
Which of the skin sensations has identifiable receptors?
pressure
What are the four basic sensations skin can detect?
pressure, warmth, cold, pain
What are four examples of the principles we use to group stimuli?
proximity: group nearby figures together ex) 3 set of 2 lines instead of 6 lines continuity: perceive smooth, continuous patterns instead of discontinuous ones ex) we see a wavy lines split by a straight one instead of alternating semicircles closure: fill in gaps to create a complete whole object ex) seeing a triangle obstructing three circles as opposed to three incomplete circles similarity: objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group ex) ethnic groups
What are the three steps basic to our sensory systems?
receive->transform->deliver
What is the most common color blindness deficiency?
red-green
What does the field of psychophysics research?
relationships between physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them
How does the McGurk effect illustrate how senses interact?
seeing one syllable, hearing another, and perceiving a third
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
sensation: receiving information from sensory receptors perception: process of organizing and interpreting sensory information
Distinguish between sensorineural hearing loss and conductive hearing loss
sensorineural: hearing loss caused by damage to cochlea's receptor cells or auditory nerve; nerve deafness conductive: damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Finding that food tastes bland when you have a bad cold is an example of
sensory interaction
Where are the feature detectors located, and what is their function? How do feature detectors portray a "whole" image?
specialized neurons in the occipital lobe's visual cortex that receive information from individual ganglion cells in the retina; piece together lines, edges, angles, etc.
How might an eye doctor test for your absolute threshold for observing light?
start at a low intensity and gradually raise it until you can detect it
When we go to the movies, we see smooth continuous motion rather than a series of still images because of which process?
stroboscopic movement
parallel processing
the ability of the brain to do many things at once ex) when you look at a bird, you don't just see a bird. you subconsciously process the motion, form, color, and depth
psychokinesis
the ability to move objects ex) the force in Star Wars
clairvoyance
the ability to perceive objects and events
precognition
the ability to predict the future
telepathy
the ability to read minds
The best explanation for how we understand and process the high pitch of a violin, with a frequency of more than 100 waves per second, comes from
the volley principle
How does Melzack and Wall's gate-control theory serve as a model for how we feel and block pain signals?
theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain
You are shown a picture of your grandfather's face, but the eyes and mouth are blocked out. You still recognize it as a picture of your grandfather. Which type of processing best explains this example of perception?
top-down processing
bipolar cells function
transmit signals from photoreceptors to ganglion cells
Which perception process are the hammer, anvil, and stirrup involved in?
transmitting sound waves to the cochlea
eardrum function
vibrates in response to sound; transmits it to ossicles
What are the two physical characteristics of light and how do they determine our awareness of hue and intensity?
wavelength determines hue intensity determines brightness
Light's _________ is the distance from one wave peak to the next. This dimension determines the _____ we experiences
wavelength; hue
What is meant by the statement: our brains does more than registers information about the world?
we filter incoming information and construct perceptions
How does von Helmholtz's place theory explain how we discriminate pitch?
we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane; does not explain low sounds