AP Psychology Chapter 7 Learning
Describe Bandura's findings on what determines whether we will imitate a model.
Bandura and others demonstrated that we are likely to imitate actions that go unpunished. An we tend to imitate models we perceive as similar to us, successful, or admirable.
John Watson
Early behaviorist; famous for the "Little Albert" experiments on fear conditioning
State Thorndike's law of effect, and explain its connection to Skinner's research on operant conditioning
Thorndike's law of effect asserts that rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this as his starting point, Skinner devoted his life to exploring the principles and conditions learning through operant conditioning
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
Stimulus
any event or situation that evokes a response
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
taste aversion
a learned avoidance of a particular food
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.
reinforcement schedule
a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
violence-viewing effect
after you view so much violence you become de-sensitized to it and you begin to imitate it
punishment
an event that tends to decrease the behavior that it follows
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Robert Rescorla
researched classical conditioning; found subjects learn the predictability of an event through trials (cognitive element)
Albert Bandura
researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment
Behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Compare positive and negative reinforcement, and identify examples of a primary reinforcer, a conditioned reinforcer, an immediate reinforcer, and a delayed reinforcer.
A reinforcer is any event that increases the frequency of a preceding response. Reinforcers can be positive (presenting a pleasant stimulus after a response) or negative (reducing or removing an unpleasant stimulus). Primary reinforcers, such as food when we are hungry, are innately satisfy- ing. Conditioned (secondary) reinforcers, such as cash, are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards. Immediate reinforcers, such as the enjoyment of watching late-night TV, offer immediate payback. Delayed reinforcers, such as a weekly paycheck, require the ability to delay gratification. When the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs, continuous reinforcement is involved. Learning is rapid but so is extinction if rewards cease. Partial (intermittent) reinforce- ment produces slower acquisition of the target behavior than does continuous reinforcement, but the learning is more resistant to extinction. Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behavior after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules provide reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce the first response after a fixed time interval, and variable-interval schedules reinforce the first response after varying time intervals. Reinforcement linked to number of responses produces a higher response rate than reinforcement linked to time. Variable (unpredictable) schedules produce more consistent responding than fixed (predictable) schedules.
B.F. Skinner
Behaviorist that developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats
Explain how biological predispositions place limits on what can be achieved through operant conditioning.
Biological constraints predispose organism to learn associations that are naturally adaptive. Training that attempts to override these tendencies will probably not endure because the animals will revert to their biologically predisposed patterns.
Describe the general process and basic components of classical conditioning
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. In classical conditioning, an NS is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. A UR is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS is a previously neutral stimulus (such as a tone) that, after association with a US (such as food) comes to trigger a CR. A CR is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus. Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. The behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.
Describe some uses of classical conditioning to improve human health and well-being.
Classical conditioning techniques are used in treatment programs for those recovering from alcohol and other drug abuse and to condition more appropriate responses in therapy for emotional disorders. The body's immune system also appears to respond to classical conditioning.
Discuss the link between viewing violent media and violent behavior.
Correlations show relationships, but not the direction of influence. Correlational studies show that violence viewing and violent behavior are linked, but they do not prove that watching violent TV causes children to become violent. Children who behave violently may enjoy watching violence on TV, or some third factor may cause children both to behave violently and to prefer watching violent programs. To prove cause and effect, researchers have designed experiments in which participants view violence and other do not. Later, given an opportunity to express violence, the people who viewed violence tend to be more aggressive and less sympathetic. Two factors-imitation and desensitization-seem to contribute to the violence effect
Explain why Skinner's ideas were controversial, and describe some major applications of operant conditioning.
Critics of Skinner's principles believed the approach dehumanized people by neglecting their personal freedom and seeking to control their actions. Skinner replied that people's actions are already controlled by external consequences, and that reinforcement is more humane than punishment as a means for controlling behavior. In school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use interactive software and websites to provide immediate feedback. In sports, coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual.
Describe the process of operant conditioning, including the procedure of shaping, as demonstrated by Skinner's experiments.
Edward Thorndike's law of effect states that rewarded behavior is likely to recur. Using this as his starting point, Skinner developed a behavioral technology that revealed principles of behavior control. He explored the principles and conditions of learning through operant conditioning, in which behavior operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli. Skinner used an operant chamber (Skinner box) in his pioneering studies with rats and pigeons. These experiments have explored the precise conditions that foster efficient and enduring learning. In his experiments, Skinner used shaping, a procedure in which reinforcers, such as food, guide an animal's natural behavior toward a desired behavior. By rewarding responses that are ever closer to the final desired behavior (successive approximations) and ignoring all other responses, researchers can gradually shape complex behaviors. Because nonverbal animals and babies can respond only to what they perceive, their reactions demonstrate which events they can discrimi- nate.
biological predispositions
Genetically programmed tendencies to acquire classically conditioned fear responses to potentially life-threatening stimuli
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the various reinforcement schedules.
If continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. Continuous reinforcement is preferable until a behavior is learned. In partial reinforcement (reinforcing responses only part of the time), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Reinforcement schedules may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between responses. Fixed-ratio schedules offer rewards after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules offer rewards after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.
immediate v. delayed reinforcers
Immediate Reinforcers = offer a reward right away Delayed Reinforcers = offer the reward at a later time and require the ability to delay gratification
In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?
In classical conditioning, acquisition is associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS. Extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.
acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Describe the process of observational learning and explain the importance of the discovery of mirror neurons.
In observational learning, we observe and imitate others. Mirror neurons, located in the brain's frontal lobes, demonstrate a neural basis for observational learning. They fire when we perform certain actions, or when we observe someone else performing those actions
Explain how operant conditioning differs from classical conditioning.
In operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing consequences). In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli—events it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic responses to some stimulus).
positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.
negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)
Explain how latent learning and the effect of external rewards demonstrate that cognitive processing is an important part of learning.
Latent learning, as shown in rats' learning of cognitive maps or children's delayed imitation of others' behavior, indicates that we can learn from experience, without apparent reinforcement. AN external reward's ability to undermine our interest and pleasure in an activity weakens the idea that behaviors that are rewarded will increase in frequency
Define learning, and identify two forms of learning.
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience. In associative learning, we learn to associate, we learn to associate two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). In observational learning, we learn by watching others' experiences and examples.
antisocial effects
Observational learning can have adverse effect
Summarize Pavlov's contribution to our understanding of learning
Pavlov taught us that principles of learning apply across species and that classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environment. Pavlov also demonstrated that significant psychological phenomena can be studied objectively. Finally, Pavlov taught us that conditioning principles have important applications, such as how to treat fear.
Discuss the impact of antisocial and pro social modeling.
Prosocial modeling or modeling constructive, helpful behavior can have positive effects such as good morals, good work ethic and orientation, and good parenting. Anitsocial modeling or observing and modeling negative behavior can have negative effects; bausive parents raising abusive children, modeling violent television.
Discuss how punishment and negative reinforcement differ, and list some drawbacks of punishment as a behavior-control technique.
Punishment attempts to decrease the frequency of a behavior. Punishment administers an undesirable consequence, for example, spanking or withdrawing something desirable, such as taking away a favorite toy. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive event (an annoying beeping sound) to increase the frequency of a behavior (fastening a seatbelt). Punishment is not simply the logical opposite of reinforcement, for it can have several drawbacks, including suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors, teaching discrimination and fear, and increasing aggressiveness.
Discuss the importance of cognitive processes and biological predispositions in classical conditioning.
Research indicates that, for many animals, cognitive appraisals are important for learning. That is, thoughts and perceptions are important to the conditioning process. For example, animals appear capable of learning when to expect an unconditioned stimulus. The more predictable the association between the CS and the US, the stronger the CR. The early behaviorists' view that any natural response could be conditioned to any neutral stimulus has given way to the understanding that each species is biologically prepared to learn associations that enhance its survival. Thus, humans are likely to develop an aversion to the taste of a contaminated food but not to the sight of an associated restaurant, its plates, or the music they heard there. Similarly, rats develop aversions to tastes but not to sights or sounds. Organisms are predisposed to learn associations that help them adapt.
overjustification effect
The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.
respondent behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Edward Thorndike
behaviorism; Law of Effect-relationship between behavior and consequence. Cats in puzzle boxes.
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell
John Garcia
found the effects of radiation on rats (taste aversion)
neutral stimulus (NS)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
in operant conditioning research, a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
observational learning
learning by observing others
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.
Learning
the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
