APEC: EVERYTHING
Soviet Union WWII mobilization
'Great Patriotic War' killed many Soviets, centralization controlled all. Defeats led to emergency mobilization, sieges w/famine - deconstruction & reconstruction of facilities, another Industrial Revolution based on war goods. Women in industry up by 60%, some combatants. Huge % peasants in army while feeding Red Army & Soviets, manual labor w/trucks sent to war. Equated victory.
Herbert Marcuse
'One-Dimensional Man' inspired Germ student rebellions, 1964 book argued undermining of masses by Capitalism.
Raphael
'School of Athens' - balance, harmony, order = principles of classical Greek/Roman art. Attempted to achieve idea of beauty beyond human standards
Allied Attack from Mediterranean ~
'Soft underbelly', taking Sicily, surrendered, non-Benito gov, Mussolini later liberated, head of Nazi puppet state. Rome fell to Allies June 1944.
Betty Friedan
'The Feminine Mystique' analyzed problems of middle-class women 1950s, argued for equality. Founded NOW (National Organization for Women', US Const amendment for women's equal rights.
James Joyce
'Ulysses' of ordinary life of Dubliners by following flow of inner dialogue. Ramblings, veiled illusions.
Werner Heisenberg
'Uncertainty principle' new worldview shattering confidence in predictability. Ex: electron's path changes from viewing w/light.
Tennis Court Oath
(07/20/1789) Third Estate votes, after forming National Assembly, to make constitution. Deputies arrive at meeting place to find doors locked, so they moved to tennis court and swore they would continue to meet until they produced a French constitution. First step in French Revolution.
Great Schism
(1378-1417) over papal succession, during which there were two, or sometimes three, claimants to the papal office. Christianity splits into Western branch (Roman Catholic Church) & Eastern (Eastern Orthodox Church)
Hanseatic League
(13th century) Commercial / military association formed by northern German coastal towns. Had monopoly on N. European trade in timber, fish, grain, metals, honey, wines for 200 years. (15th century) silting of Bruges port ---> decline
The Hohenzollerns
(1415)Came to rule insignificant principality in NE Germany. (1609) Inherited some lands in Rhine valley. (1618) Received duchy of Prussia.
The Habsburgs
(1438) controlled Holy Roman Empire. One of wealthiest landholders in empire. Success due to well-executed policy of dynastic marriages. Addition of France, Luxembourg, made it an int'l power --> opposition of French monarchy
The Slave Coast
(1441) Portuguese ships reached Senegal River -place where Portuguese brought home cargo of black Africans who were sold as slaves
movable type
(1445-1450) Multiple printing. Immediate impact on intellectual life & thought.
Peace of Lodi | Balance of Power
(1454) Ended half a century of war + established 40 years of relative peace in Italy. Created alliance system [Milan, Florence, Naples] vs. [Venice, Papacy] = workable ________ __ _________. HOWEVER, failed to establish a) lasting cooperation among major powers & b) a common foreign policy
The Gold Coast
(1471) Place where Portuguese discovered new source of gold [southern coast of 'hump' of W. Africa]
Spanish Inquisition
(1478) introduced by Ferdinand & Isabella: worked to guarantee orthodoxy of converts. "To be Spanish was to be Catholic" --> enforced policy of uniformity
Bartholomeu Dias
(1488) Took advantage of westerly winds in S. Atlantic to explore Cape of Good Hope, but feared open rebellion from his crew --> returned to Europe.
Treaty of Tordesillas
(1494) Divided up "New World" into separate Portuguese & Spanish spheres of influence ---> Most of S. America ended up within Spanish sphere ---> route east of CoGH = reserved for Portuguese, while route across Atlantic = Spain
Vasco da Gama
(1498) Rounded Cape of Good Hope & stopped at several ports controlled by Muslim merchants along coast of E. Africa.
John Wyclif
(14th century) Disgust with clerical corruption ---> far-ranging attack on papal authority & medieval Christian beliefs & practices. Wrote that papal claims of temporal power had no foundation in the Scriptures + Scriptures should alone be foundation of Christian belief and practice. Advocated Bible should be written in vernacular so Christians could read for themselves. Lead Lollards.
Petrarch
(14th century) Father of the Renaissance. Believed first two centuries of the Roman Empire represent the peak in the development of human civilization.
John Hus
(14th century) Leader that called for elimination of The Catholic Church. Great Schism came to an end with the Council of Constance, and he was burned at the stake. Lead Hussites.
Machiavelli: "The Prince"
(1513) One of most famous treatises on political power. "Is it better to rule with fear or love?". Believed a prince's attitude must be based on understanding of human nature (= selfish). Thus political activity should not be restricted by moral considerations. ---> Prince acts on behalf of the state / for the sake of the state, must be willing to let conscience go
Ferdinand Magellan
(1519) Sailed across Pacific Ocean & reached Philippines. First known circumnavigation of Americas
Sack of Rome
(1527) Spanish king Charles I & his armies brought temporary end to Italian wars. Marked end of High Ren., started Late Ren.
Council of Trent
(1545-1563) Met in 3 major sections. Final doctrinal decrees = reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings in opposition to Protestant beliefs. Scripture + tradition affirmed as equal authorities in religious matters (only church could interpret Scripture). Both faith & good works necessary for salvation. 7 sacraments, transubstantiation, clerical celibacy, belief in purgatory + efficiency of indulgences - all upheld. BASICALLY caused Roman Catholic church to possess clear body of doctrine + unified church under acknowledged supremacy of popes.
Battle of Lepanto
(1571) Spain defeated Turkish navy off the coast of Greece-ended Ottoman threat in Mediterranean, Turkish sea power was destroyed in 1571 by a league of Christian nations organized by Pope
Jan van Eyck
(15th century) Among first to use oil paint --> allowed artist to use varied range of colors + make changes to create fine details. 'Giovanni Arnolfini and His Bride' - extreme attention to observed detail, but uncertain comprehension of perspective.
Papal States
(15th century) Central Italy: Great Schism + papal residence in Avignon ---> individual city-states become independent of papal authority ---> Popes worked to reestablish control
Johannes Gutenberg
(15th century) European inventor of the printing press ---> allowed books to be printed quickly and economically. First printed copies of the Bible. Aided spread of education throughout Europe
Donatello: 'David'
(15th century) First "Lifesize freestanding bronze nude in European art since antiquity". Inscription on base praising Florentine heroism/virtue ---> commemorates 1428 victory of Florence over Milan
Brunelleschi
(15th century) Inspired by architectural monuments from Roman antiquity - poured new insights into creation of new architecture upon return to Florence. Church of San Lorenzo: commissioned by d'Medici, created unique church interior ---> DID NOT overwhelm the worshipper materially & psychologically ---> comforted as a space created to fit human (NOT divine) measurements
Medici
(15th century) Powerful Italian aristocratic family. Superiority / wealth from banking. Principle bankers for papacy = large profits + influence at papal court. (1494) Poor leadership + uncollectible loans = sudden decline. Collapsed when expelled from Florence by French + confiscated their property.
Boticelli: 'Primavera'
(15th century) Reflects strong interest in classical antiquity. Set in garden of Venus (garden of eternal spring). Well-defined figures, but possess mystical quality ---> very different from Early Ren. realism
Marcilio Ficino
(15th century) leader of Florentine Platonic Academy comissioned by Cosimo d'Medici to translate Plato's dialogues; dedicated life to exposition of Neoplatonism
Bohemian Phase (1: Thirty Years War)
(1617) Habsburg Archduke Ferdinand = king <- bad choice. Most nobles were Calvinists, but Ferdinand = devout Catholic ---> began re-Catholicizing Bohemia + strengthening royal power. (1618) Protestant nobles rebellion = success! Seized control of _______ ---> elected Frederick V (Protestant ruler of the Palatinate) as replacement for Ferdinand (1620) Ferdinand was mad --> defeated ________ @ Battle of White Mountain. Spanish took it one step further and conquered Palatinate. Ferdinand king again OK. Declared ________ hereditary Habsburg ownership, got rid of Protestant noble lands, Catholicism = main religion. So pointless this war.
Cardinal Richelieu
(1624-1642): Louis XIII's chief minister. Initiated policies that eventually strengthened power of the monarchy. Eliminated political/military rights of Huguenots BUT preserved their religious ones --> transformed Huguenots into more reliable subjects. Developed efficient network of spies to uncover noble plots --> eliminated major threat to royal authority. Sent out INTENDANTS (royal officials) to provinces - execute orders of central government. Basically strengthened government greatly, but sucked at economics.
Descartes: "Discourse on Method"
(1637) "I think, therefore I am." - Asserted he would accept only those things that his reason said were true. Principle: separation of mind & matter - absolute duality between mind & body (Cartesian dualism). Using mind/human reason [path to certain knowledge/mathematics (its best instrument)] - humans can understand material world because it is pure mechanism - machine governed by its own physical laws <-- created by God (great geometrician). Led to scientists viewing matter as dead - something totally separate from themselves + could be investigated just by reason.
Peace of Westphalia
(1648) Ended Thirty Years War. Ensured all German states (including Calvinist ones) were free to determine their own religion. France gained control of Franco-German border. HRE's 300+ states were each recognized as independent -- each received power to conduct its own foreign policy ---> end of HRE as political entity. Completely separated religion & politics -> political motives = guiding forces in public affairs VS. religion = personal stuff.
Louis XIV's wars
(1667) France invaded Spanish Netherlands + Franche-Comte. Failed - Triple Alliance of Dutch, English, Swedes - forced Louis to sue for peace. (1672) Invades United Provinces with initial success, but victories led Brandenburg, Spain, HRE - form new coalition. (1702) War of Spanish Succession - fought over succession to Spanish throne. Coalition of England, Holland, Habsburg Austrua - formed after suspicious Spain would unite with France.
Edict of Fontainebleau
(1685) Revoked Edict of Nantes (which granted the Huguenots liberty of conscience and worship) + provided for destruction of Huguenot churches + closing of Protestant schools.
Bramante
(16th century) 'Tempietto' : commissioned by Ferdinand & Isabella of Spain to design small building in Rome - commemorate place where Saint Peter was crucified --> reflects increased understanding of ancient Roman remains.
Castiglione: "Book of the Courtier"
(16th century) Fundamental handbook for aristocrats. 3 BASIC ATTRIBUTES of perfect courtier -- 1) Fundamentals: perfect character, grace, talents, noble birth. 2) Cultivate achievments: military/bodily exercises | Education: classical, play instrument, paint 3) Code of Conduct: Show accomplishments w/ grace Renaissance ideal of well developed personality = social idea of aristocracy
Great Northern War
(1700) Battle of Narva - Russia, Poland, Denmark attack Sweden. Charles XII (Sweden) basically owned all. (1709) Battle of Poltava - Russia defeats Sweden (1721) Peace of Nystadt - gave formal recognition to acquisition of Estonia, Livonia, and Karelia. BASICALLY war with Sweden over control of Baltic --> caused by Russia building St. Petersburg on Swedish soil. (Russia wins)
United Kingdom of Great Britain
(1707) Came into existence when governments of England & Scotland were united. Political system characterized by sharing of power between king and Parliament, w/ Parliament gradually gaining power. King chose ministers responsible to himself, who set policy/guided Parliament. Aristocracy was divided by factional struggles based on family rivalries --> kings could take advantage of divisions to win aristocratic supporters through patronage.
Peace of Utrecht
(1713) Ended Louis XIV's attempts to gain military power and land. Marked the end of French expansionist policy. Ended the War of Spanish Succession.
The Hanoverians
(1714) New dynasty that was estblished when last Stuart ruler, Queen Anne, died w/o heir. Crown was offered to Protestant rulers of German state of Hanover, George I & II. First king didn't speak English/Georges had no familiarity with British system --> chief ministers handled Parliament/dispense patronage.
William Pitt the Elder
(1757) Became prime minister. Furthered imperial ambitions by acquiring Canada & India in 7YW. Dismissed by George III despite successes, and replaced by king's favorite, Lord Bute.
Peace of Hubertusburg
(1763) Ended European conflict of 7YW and returned all occupied territories. Austria officially recognized Prussia's permanent control of Silesia.
Treaty of Paris
(1763) Ended Great War for Empire, & 7YW. French gave up lands east of Mississippi to Britain. Allied Spanish transferred Spanish Florida to British control <-> French gave their Louisiana territory to Spanish.
James Hargreaves
(1768) Invented spinning jenny - enabled spinners to produce yarn in greater quantities.
Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji
(1774) Russia gained land, privilege of protecting Greek Orthodox Christians in Ottoman Empire, and the right to sail in Turkish waters. Russian expansion westward occurred at expense of neighboring Poland. Gained ~50% of Polish territory.
Toleration Patent
(1781) Started by Joseph II of Austria. Recognized Catholicism's public practice AND granted Lutherans, Calvinists, and Greek Orthodox the right to worship privately. All subjects were now equal.
William Pitt the Younger
(1783) Appointed prime minister. Managed to stay in power through French revolutionary/Napoleonic eras through support from merchants, industrial classes, and king (who used patronage to gain support for this person in HoC). Successes allowed avoidance of serious reform for corrupt parliamentary system.
Charter of the Nobility
(1785) Formalized rights of corporate gentry groups to trial by peers, exemption from personal taxation, corporal punishment.
Edward Cartwright
(1787) Invented power loom - allowed weaving of cloth to catch up with spinning of yarn. However, these were inefficient, enabling cottage/hand-loom weavers to continue to grow until mid-1820s.
Friedrich List
(1789 - 1846) German writer who emigrated to America and returned to Germany as US consul. "National System of Political Economy" (1844) - advocated RAPID AND LARGE-SCALE PROGRAM OF INDUSTRIALIZATION as surest path to develop nation's strength. Felt nation must use protective tariffs to ensure a path to industrialization. Insisted Germany could not compete with Britain without protective tariffs.
National Convention
(1792) Acted as sovereign ruling body of France. Called to draft new constitution. Dominated by lawyers, professionals, property owners. Almost all were really distrustful of the king & his activities --> first major step = abolish the monarchy & establish a republic. BUT soon split into factions over what to do with king - Girondins & the Mountain: both members of Jacobin club. Anti-Robespierre group that got him condemned.
Jacques Bossuet
(17th c.) One of chief theorists of divine-right monarchy. Expressed ideas in book "Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture" - argued that government was DIVINELY established --> organized society. Kings received power from God = absolute authority.
Louis XVIII
(1814-1824) Restored Bourbon throne after the Revolution. He accepted Napoleon's Civil Code (principle of equality before the law), honored the property rights of those who had purchased confiscated land and establish a bicameral (two-house) legislature consisting of the Chamber of Peers (chosen by king) and the Chamber of Deputies (chosen by an electorate).
Poor Law
(1834) Gave some aid to the poor, but not very helpful against unemployment. Very favorable to employers. Forced them into workhouses.
Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain
(1842). Chadwick summarized, after 3 yrs, the results in this report. Concluded 'the various forms of epidemic, endemic, and other disease' were directly caused by the 'atmospheric impurities produced by decomposing..substances, by damp/filth, etc". Argued these conditions could be eliminated. Advocating system of modern sanitary reforms consisting of efficient sewers & supply of piped water.
The Battle of Trafalgar
(October 1805) Naval battle off the coast of Spain. English fleet devastates a combined French and Spanish fleet, establishing beyond question British control of the seas and forcing Napoleon to abandon any hopes he had of invading Britain. Basically Britain wins and Napoleon is a fail here
Puritans
(aka English Calvinists) Tried to eliminate all popular culture/traditions. Wished to remove all traces of Catholicism from English Church. Threat to Elizabeth I
"new monarchies"
(end 15th century - 17th century) Monarchies in France, England, and Spain. Centralization of royal power increasing within more or less fixed territorial limits
Hermeticism
(late 15th century) Belief that human beings had been created as divine creative power, but had freely chosen to enter the material world, created by Ficino who was commissioned by Cosimo de Medici
Lorenzo the Magnificent
(late 15th century) Grandson of Cosimo d'Medici of Florence. Diplomat, politician & supporter of arts
Friedrich Nietzsche
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German Social Democratic Party
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Impressionism
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Indian National Congress
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Irish Home Rule
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Kaiser Wilhelm II
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Kulturkampft
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Leo Tolstoy
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London's one million
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Marxist "revisionism"
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Max Planck
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Meiji Restoration
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Music halls and dance halls
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New Imperialism
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Nicholas II
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Open door policy
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Pablo Picasso
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Pankhurst
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Post-Impressionism
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Public Health Act of 1875
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Reform Act of 1884
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Richard Arkwright/water frame
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Samuel de Champlain
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Second Industrial Revolution
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Sigmund Freud
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Social Darwinism
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Stravinsky's The Rite of Spring
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Sweatshops
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Syllabus of Errors
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The Commune
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The Dreyfus Affair
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The New Woman
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The assembly line
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Theodore Herzl
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Triple Alliance
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Triple Entente
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White man's burden
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White-collar jobs
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Zionism
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country house
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suffragettes
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the Grand Tour
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Kepler: 3 laws of planetary motion
1) showed orbits of planets around sun = elliptical (sun at one focus of the ellipse) 2) demonstrated speed of planet increases when it is closer to the sun / decreases as its distance from sun increases. 3) square of a planet's period of revolution = proportional to cube of its average distance from sun --> planets with larger orbits revolve @ slower average velocity than those with smaller orbits.
Unification of Germany
1871 :D
The Hopeful Years
1924-1929, new Fr, GB govs, conciliatory approach to Germ
Theodore van de Velte
1926 Dutch 'Ideal Marriage: Its Physiology and Technique' anatomy, b/control, sexual pleasure in marriage.
Five-Year Plan
1928 Stalin's plan to go from SU agricultural country to indust country, emphasized protection of capitol goods, arms. Increased production of machinery, oil, coal. Wages, housing, workers' freedoms declined but still fueled by propaganda.
Diplomatic Revolution
1933-36 Hitler's 'revolution' in Europe, despite disadvantage w/open borders, Small Entente. Still 2nd most populous, indust capacity, avoidance of war by Fr, GB. Hitler believed Germ could restore strength if Fr didn't attack 1st years of war. Appeased other nations w/convincing he only wanted Versailles treaty revision 'peace'. Oct 1933 withdrew Germ from Geneva Disarmament Conference, League of Nations to make Germ feel independent.
Italian Econ Miracle
1945 , Marshall Plan stabilized econ, 50-60s leps in industry, modern goods, private enterprise + gov management, problem in S Italy w/backwardness, not as much production.
New Deal
1945-1970 ideals determined domestic policies, basic changes to US society, increase role & power of fed gov, org labor, welf state, minorities. Bolstered by Dem presidents, even Repub pres. Econ Boom in US w/ Prolonged advances, imprivements in income, wages.
Greek Civil War
1946 Communist People's Army, GB antiComm forces. Truman Doctrine.
National Insurance Act, National Health Service Act
1946 Comprehensive social security program, nationalized medical insurance, subsidized people. Socialized Medicine state hospitals, but some private practiced. Costly, needed to reduce abroad expenses w/smaller empire, milit aid.
India-Pakistan War
1947 over borders, 1m+ killed, including Ghandi. Result of GB split.
Alcide de Gasperi
1948-53 Prime minister from Christian Dems as It became dem 1946. Support of upper + middle classes kept power past normal span of It coalitions.
ECSC - European Coal and Steek Community
1951 formed by Fr, W Germ, Belg, Neth, Luxem, It, creating common market for coal, steel, elim of tariffs, barriers, led to EURATOM.
Conservs in Welfare State
1951-1964 accepted state, construction program for housing.
Suez Crisis
1956 Gamal Abdel Nasser, egyptian leader, nationalized canal, attacked by GB, FR, Israel, UN cease-fire resolution w/support of US.
Sputnik 1
1957 1st Soviet space satellite, caused conflict w/fears of missle control.
Great Proletariat Cultural Revolution
1966-77, forced atmosphere of rev fervor to eliminate 'old' culture, habits, etc, destroyed foreign things, propaganda, anti-Mao killed, caused opp & more effective long-term solutions set 1967 w/death of Mao.
Dayton Accords
1995 peace agreement ending the war over the former Yugoslavia, b/t Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia
Seven Years War
3 major areas of conflict: England, India, N. America. British/Prussians vs. Austrians/Russians/French. Frederick the Great was able to defeat A/R/F with superb armies. (1757) Won AMAZING victory @ Battle of Rossbach in Saxony over A/F. Then Prussia started failing. Death of Tsarina Elizabeth brought Peter III to power --> loved Frederick, so he withdrew Russia's troops from Prussia --> guaranteed stalemate = desire for peace. Ended by Peace of Hubertusburg (1763).
Mass Leisure
8-hour workday, worker's rights, sporting events, travel opporitunities,
tabula rasa
A blank mind not yet affected by experience (according to John Locke)
Frankfurt Assembly
A convention of liberals and nationalists to prepare a constitution for a united Germany. Dispute over including Austria (Grossdeutsch, "Big German") or not (Kleindeutsch, "Small German"). The Austrians withdrew from this convention which allowed them to continue with Kleindeutsch. Frederick William IV then refused to be "emperor of the Germans" and ended the convention in March 1849.
Kepler
Abandoned theology --> mathematics/astronomy. Possessed keen interest in Hermetic mathematical magic. Theory: universe constructed on basis of geometric figures. Believed harmony of human soul (divine attribute) = mirrored in numerical relationships existing between the planets ("music of spheres"). Used Brahe's detailed astronomical data to arrive at his 3 laws of planetary motion.
James II
Accession guaranteed new constitutional crisis for England. Open/devout Catholic. Attempt to further Catholic interests --> more religious conflict between king & Parliament. Named Catholics to high positions everywhere. (1678) Issued new Declaration of Indulgence, suspended all laws barring Catholics from office.
Blaise Pascal
Accomplished French scientist & brilliant mathematician who sought to keep science/religion united. Brief but checkered career. Excelled at the practical (invented calculating machine) + abstract (devised theory of probability / work on conic sections). Profound mystical vision - assured him God cared for the human soul - devoted life to religious matters. Felt Christianity was only religion that recognized people's true state of being as both vulnerable and great - humans are both fallen @ God's special creation. Not necessary to emphasize one at the expense of another. Refused to rely on scientist's world of order/rationality to attract ppl to God. BASICALLY - faith over reason, since reason can only take you so far.
Rocket
Advanced locomotive developed by Stephenson and his son. Used on first public railway line, which opened in 1830 (extended 32 mi from Liverpool to Manchester). Went 16 mph.
Audiencias
Advisory groups who aided viceroys. Also functioned as supreme judicial bodies
Levellers
Advocated freedom of speech, religious toleration, democratic republic. Argued for right to vote for all male house-holders age 21+. Called for annual Parliaments, women's rights, government programs to care for the poor.
balance of power
Affirmed on how to counterbalance the power of one state by another, to prevent any one power from dominating others.
Defined goals & chaos
After 1933, milit & diplom disasters, organize chaos, admin for Germ, econ pressures made Hitler take contradictory steps, but he always returned to same goals of racial empire.
100 days
After Napoleon returned from Elba, he was only popular again for ________ before being exiled to St. Helena for life
Preserve from before 1914 Art
After WW1, avant-garde became more acceptable after destruction of WW1.
Vichy Regime ~
After dual offensive from Mussolini, Germany, Marshal Henri Petain established authoritian regime Nazi puppet state, exiled gov in GB.
Emergence of GB Labour Party
After failed liberal Lloyd gov w/economic crash, party emerged as 2nd most powerful after Conservatives, elected prime minister.
W Germ Political Parties
Allowed political unification w/ Soc Dems, Christ Dems, Free Dems.
Ausgleich
Also called Compromise of 1867. Treaty created dual monarchy of Austria and Hungary with separate domestic governments but a single monarch and foreign policy.
John Wilkes
Ambitious middle-class member of HoC. Outspoken journalist who publicly criticized king's ministers. Arrested, then released -> expelled from seat in Parliament. After winning another parliamentary seat from county of Middlesex, was again denied right to sit in Parliament. Cause quickly became identified with liberty. "Wilkes & Liberty" frequently used by supporters, who came from either common ppl of London (no voting rights) or middle element of voting freeholders.
Thomas Edison
American inventor credited with independently inventing the light bulb. Advocated the use of direct current instead of Tesla's alternating current.
Hume: "Treatise on Human Nature"
Argued observation/reflection, grounded in "systematized common sense" could create a "science of man". Careful examination of the experiences that constituted human life ---> knowledge of human nature that'd make this science possible.
Voltaire: "Treatise on Toleration"
Argued that religious toleration created no problems for England & Holland. Reminded governments that "all men are brothers under God".
Squadristi
Armed fascists who in 1920, 1921 attacked Socialist offices. Allowed because of anti-Comm alliance w/liberals & Giovanni Giolitti, Fascists eventually won 35 parl seats.
Concordat of 1801
Arranged by Napoleon and Pope Pius VII to reestablish Catholic church in France. Pope gained right to repose French bishops, this didn't actually give him much control over French Catholic church (state kept right to nominate bishops). Catholic church also permitted to hold processions again. BASICALLY - by signing this, pope acknowledged accomplishments of revolution.
Neoclassicism
Art movement where artists wanted to recapture dignity/simplicity of classical style of ancient Greece/Rome. Some especially influenced by recent excavations of ancient Roman cities.
Rococo
Art movement which emphasized grace and gentle action. Rejected strict geometrical patterns. Fondness for curves; liked to follow wandering lines of natural objects. Use interlaced designed colored in gold, with delicate contours/graceful curves. Highly SECULAR. Lightness/charm = pursuit of pleasure, happiness, love.
reparations
As part of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was ordered to pay fines to the Allies to repay the costs of the war. Opposed by the U.S., it quickly lead to a severe depression in Germany.
trade unions
Associations that tried to improve the lives of their workers. Despite being outlawed, they consisted of workers belonging to a specific trade. Members sometimes went on strike to achieve their goals, causing Parliament to repeal the Combination Acts.
Marburg Colloquy
Attempt to promote alliance of Swiss/German reformed churches. Differed on interpretation of Lord's Supper --> Zwingli: bread & wine were symbolic | Luther: real presence of bread & wine
Fascist Terrorism
Attracted veterans and students, part of normal Italian life. Believed would eventually get political victory, constructed as 'party of order'.
Roaring 20s/ Jazz Age
Atypical of theaters, cinemas, clubs, dance halls. Josephine Baker danced, 'Negro' jazz music popular music.
Kreditanstalt
Austrian Continental bank
Joseph II
Austrian emperor. Interest in philosophe's call for religious toleration. Attempted to adopt a new policy toward Jews, although limited. Freed Jews from neusance taxes, allowed them more freedom of movement/job oppurtunities, but still restricted from owning land and worshiping in public. Encouraged Jews to learn German + work toward greater assimilation into Austrian society.
Popular Front
Because of Fascist riots, drew Leftists to create 'Front'; Comms, Socs, Rads. Léon Blum as leader. Failed to solve depressions, but helped.
Danish Phase (2: Thirty Years War)
Began when King Christian IV (Lutheran) stepped in on behalf of Protestant cause - led army into N. Germany. German forces led by commander (von Wallenstein) - Bohemian nobleman who took advantage of Ferdinand's victory. Smart guy. Germany pretty much owned Christian IV -->end of his country's supremacy in Baltic.
Banque de Belgique
Belgian Continental bank. Accepted savings from many depositors --> developed large capital resources that they invested on large scale in railroads, mining, and heavy industry. Shareholders in these joint-stock corporations had limited liability - could only be held responsible for their amount of investment.
science of man
Belief that Newton's scientific methods could be used to discover natural laws underlying all areas of human life. Laid foundation for modern social sciences. Philosophes arrived at natural laws that they believed governed human action. Strong belief of David Hume
Mutual Deterrence
Belief that arsenal of nuclear weapons prevented war, no one would risk arsenals, used in 1949 w/spread of Comm (China), tension.
Thomas Hobbes: "Leviathan"
Believes that humans were naturally selfish and wicked, and governments were needed to keep order and rulers needs absolute power to keep citizens under control. Established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of social contract theory.
Virginia Woolf
Belonged to group of intellectuals & artists of Bloomsbury Circle, sought creation of new arrt forms. 'Mr.Dalloway', 'Jacob's Room' used inner monologue to reveal world.
Continental System
Blockade designed by Napoleon to hurt Britain economically by closing European ports to British goods. Unsuccessful.
4 bodily humors
Blood, yellow bile, phlegm, black bile. Disease = result of imbalance of humors; could be discerned from quantity/color of urine.
Battle of Britain ~
Bombing of London by Luftwaffe, Sept 1940, Germans lost, invasion postponed.
The Nazi Empire
British Channel to Outskirts of Moscow, some countries independent within but limited. Occupied by Germ milit/civ officials. Races mattered, some countries considered 'Aryan' and treated better, others 'inferior' like Slavs.
Admiral Horatio Nelson
British admiral. Defeated Napoleon's navy in Egypt and again at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805)
Duke of Wellington
British general and statesman. Led the British and Prussian army that defeated Napoleon at Waterloo in Belgium
Joseph Swan
British inventor credited with the independent invention of the light bulb.
Florence Nightingale
British nurse who read about the large number of soldier deaths from disease and traveled to Crimea to nurse soldiers after doctors performed surgery. Enforced strict sanitation rules and greatly improved the number of deaths from disease and chance of surviving a battle wound.
Lawrence of Arabia
British officer who, in 1917, urged Arab princes to revolt against their Ottoman overlords; by 1918, the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East was destroyed by the British
Napoleon (Bonaparte)
Came to power from Directory coup d'etat in 1799. aka Son of the Revolution, or "I am the revolution". Studied at military school on royal scholarship --> commission (1785) as lieutenant. Read philosophes/military campaigns. (1792) Captain. Performed well as artillery commander --> brigadier general. (10/1795) Saved National Convention from Parisian mob. (1796) Commander of French army in Italy - turned group of bad soldiers into effective fighting force & lots of wins - defeated Austrians and DICTATED peace to them (1797). Returned to France as hero: told to invade England, but proposed to take Egypt & threaten India. Had lots of influence over legislature, bureaucracy, army, foreign affairs. (1802) Made CONSUL for life. (1804) Crowned himself Emperor - stabilized regime + gave permanence. 18th c. rationalist who didn't believe in religion. Opened negotiations with Pope Pius VII - reestablish Catholic church in France ---> (1801) Concordat.
Henry VIII's wives
Catherine of Aragon (Divorced), Anne Boleyn (Beheaded), Jane Seymour (Died Childbirth), Anne of Cleves (Divorced), Catherine Howard (Beheaded), Catherine Parr. Children: Elizabeth I, "Bloody Mary", Edward VI.
Franco-Swedish Phase (4: Thirty Years War)
Catholic French supported Protestant Swedes VS. Catholic Habsburgs of Germany/Spain. (1643) Battle of Rocroi - French beat Spanish --> ennd to Spanish military greatness. France then had victories over imperialist-Bavarian armies in S. Germany. War between France/Spain continued until Peace of Pyrenees (1659)
"Bloody Mary"
Catholic; intended to restore England to Roman Catholicism with Philip II (Spain). Everything this person did aroused hostility - foreign policy of alliance with Spain, English forces lost Calais, burning of 300+ Protestant heretics,
Chinese Civil War N&S
Caused by failed effort to form collective gov, 1946 war w/Nat vs Comm, many supported PLA (Comm) w/promises of land, advancement, Chiang's gov fled to Taiwan, 1949 Gate of Heavenly Peace, victory statement by Mao.
Paracelsus: "new drugs"
Cchemical reactions of universe were reproduced in human beings on smaller scale ---> disease is actually due to chemical imbalances in certain organs. "Like cures like" belief - poison that cause a disease would be its cure.
Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
Chief instrument of Catholic Reformation. Grounded on principles of absolute obedience to papacy, strict hierarchical order for society, use of education to achieve goals, dedication to engage in "conflict for God." Pursued 3 major activities: 1) Established highly disciplined schools [educational methods = humanist] 2) Propagation of Catholic faith among non-Christians 3) Determined to carry Catholic banner + fight Protestantism
Charles V (aka Charles I of Spain)
Chief political concern = rivalry with Valois king of France, Francis I -- conflict over disputed territories in S. France-N. Spain ---> Habsburg-Valois Wars ---> prevented him from concentrating on Lutheran problem in Germany ---> allowed Lutheranism to spread.
El Greco
Church painter in Toledo after studying in Venice/Rome. His elongated/contorted figures depicted in unusual shades of yellow & green against gray bg --> reflect desire to create world of INTENSE EMOTION.
Third Estate
Commoners of society. Peasants = 75-80% of society; owns 35-40% of land. Still somewhat feudalism. Revolutionary riots showed correlation to changes in bread prices.
Bernini
Completed ST. PETER'S BASILICA at the Vatican + designated vast colonnade enclosing piazza in front of it. Characteristics: Action, exuberance, profusion, dramatic effects. THRONE OF SAINT PETER: in interior of St. Peter's. ECSTASY OF ST. THERESA'S: depicts moment of mystical experience in life of Spanish saint.
Tokugawa shoguns
Completed restoration of central authority to Japan - remained in power until 1868. Ieyasu: took on title of "general" in 1603, which initiated most powerful and long-lasting of all generals.
Ludwig von Beethoven
Composed in the transition period from 18th century Classicism and 19th century Romanticism. Music reflected his deepest inner feelings. He was influenced greatly by Haydn and Mozart. His work was mainly within the classical framework but his Third Symphony (1804), called Eroica, demonstrated his Romanticism touch through his use of uncontrolled rhythms to create dramatic struggle and uplifted resolutions.
Classical economics
Concept of laissez-faire in which the state should not interfere with the economy and only exist for national defense, police protection, and public construction that was too expense for individuals to pay for.
National Assembly
Constituted by Third Estate in response to First Estate declaration in favor of voting by order. June 20th - deputies arrived @ meeting place to find doors locked ---> moved to tennis courts and swore = Tennis Court Oath.
railroads
Contributed lots to success/maturing of Industrial Revolution. Demands for coal & iron furthered growth of those 2 industries. Gave supremacy to Britain in civil and mechanical engineering. Caused huge capital demands that encouraged new groups of middle-class investors to invest their money in joint-stock companies. Created new job opportunities for farm laborers and peasants. Provided cheaper and faster means of transportation --> growth of an industrial economy. Ability to transport goods/people @ dramatic speeds = new sense of power.
Christopher Columbus
Convinced that circumference of earth was less than popular belief & Asia was larger. Thought Asia could be reached by sailing west (vs. around Africa). Persuaded Queen Isabella to finance expedition. Went on 4 voyages unsuccessfully searching for route to Asia
Gleichschaltung
Coordination of all inst under Nazis. No Jews in civ service, concentration camps, autonomy of fed stares taken, labor unions dissolved by Labor front, all political parties minus Nazis abolished. Totalitarian state formed.
COMECON/Warsaw
Council Mutual Econ Assistance in E Europe 1949.
Soviets
Councils of workers' and soldiers' representatives, one of the local representative councils formed in Russia after the downfall of Czar Nicholas II
Whites
Counterrevolutionaries made up of tsarist imperial officers, Mensheviks, democrats, and other going against the Communists. Lost because they were disunited, could not sort out political differences, which lead to distrust. No military cooperation. No common goal.
Rome Treaty
Created European Economic Community (EEC)/Common Market, elim customs barriers, cooperation, standardization of economies, largest exporter, purchases of raw materials, only surpassed by US in steel production.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Created by National Assembly in voting session to abolish feudal rights + fiscal privileges of nobles, clergy, towns, provinces. Idealogical foundation for its actions & educational device for nation. Charter of basic liberties. Reflected ideas of major philosophes of French Enlightenment. Similar to DoI & Constitutions of American states. Began with "national imprescriptible rights of man"
Treaty of Versailles
Created by the leaders victorious allies Nations: France, Britain, US, and signed by Germany to help stop WWI. The treaty 1)stripped Germany of all Army, Navy, Airforce. 2) Germany had to rapair war damages(33 billion) 3) Germany had to acknowledge guilt for causing WWI 4) Germany could not manefacture any weapons.
Christian Humanism
Cultivated knowledge of classics. Focused on sources of early Christianity, Holy Scriptures, & writings of church fathers. Believed humans had ability to reason & improve themselves. Education in classical antiquity = instill true inner piety --> reform of church & society. Basically improving yourself = improving Christian community (since you make up a part of it)
Alexander I
Czar of Russia from 1801 to 1825; after the defeat of Napoleon's army in 1812, he became one of the most powerful leaders in Europe, supporting the suppression of all revolutionary movements in Russia and Europe
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Declared both bishops & priests of Catholic church were to be elected by the people & paid by state. All clergy required to swear an oath of allegiance to the ________. HOWEVER - pope forbade it, so only 54% of parish clergy took oath --> Catholic church became enemy of revolution.
Bank of England
Decline in gold/silver in 17th c. --> chronic shortage of money which undermined efforts of governments to meet their needs. Founded in 1694. Made loans (vs. typical banks who received loans/exchanged foreign currencies). Allowed to issue paper "banknotes" backed by its credit ---> negotiable/paper substitute for gold and silver currency. Issuance of government bonds paying regular interest, backed by ______ & London financial community = "national debt".
Authoritian Regimes Post WW1
Defending of existing social order , parliamentary somewhat controlled. E European states; little lib tradition, no substantial supporting middle class, land dominated by large owners, ethnic conflicts, fears; led to auth gov acceptance. All remaining parl regimes went auth except Czech. Attraction to Fascism, Nazism.
Weimar Republic
Democratic state Post-WW1, no outstanding political leaders. W/death of Ebert,Paul von Hindenburg became president, though republic was not popular, esp w/riots, economic depression, way for extreme parties.
Bayle: "Historical and Critical Dictionary"
Demonstrates results of author's efforts with famous article on Israelite King David. Undermined traditional picture of heroic David --> portrayed king as sensual, treacherous, cruel, evil. Attacked traditional religious practices and heroes. "Bible of the 18th century"
George III
Determined to strengthen monarchical authority & control power of patronage personally. BUT...as growing # of newspapers spread Enlightenment ideas to an expanding reading public, clamor for reform of both patronage/electoral system began to increase. Managed to avoid drastic change in patronage system by appointing William Pitt the Younger as prime minister in 1783.
Joseph Lister
Developed antiseptic principle in 19th century to prevent infections in wounds.
Heliocentric universe
Developed by Copernicus. Universe with sun motionless at the center. Movement of sun/fixed stars around the earth actually = daily rotation of earth on its axis + journey of earth around the sun each year.
steam pump
Developed by Thomas Newcomen responding to need for more efficient pumps. aka "atmospheric engine".
Ceausescu
Dictator of Romania; rejected reforms in Eastern Europe; he and wife tried to escape but captured by army on Dec. 22, ended with Dec. 25 he & his wife were tried and executed.
Anabaptists
Didn't believe state had any role in church affairs. Church voluntary believers, adult baptism (re-baptist), chose their own minister, communion = just a remembrance done in their homes. Didn't bear arms but were considered dangerous radicals. Protestants and Catholics agreed they should stamp them out.
Fontenelle
Direct link between Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment philosophes. Possessed deep knowledge of scientific works + able to communivate that knowledge in a clear way --> appealed to upper class. Made science a part of literature. Fond of downplaying religious bgs of 17th c. scientists (skeptic).
Carl Jung
Disagreed w/Freud, 'too narrow'. Unconscious = deeper spiritual needs, personal/collective - c was common archetypes.
Franco-Prussian War
Dispute over the throne of Spain and the territories of Lorraine and Alsace. Bismarck edited a telegraph from William I to goad France into declaring war. Made France seem like the aggressor in the war, causing smaller German states to join Prussia against France. Napoleon III was captured in the Battle of Sedan. Led to the end of his empire and establishment of the Third French Republic. All major German states in Europe join against France in this war and are unified by the peace treaty.
Consubstantiation
Doctrine by Martin Luther which stated that the substance of the body and blood of Christ coexist with the substance of the bread and wine of communion. Conflicted with the Church's doctrine.
Transubstantiation
Doctrine of Roman Catholic Church - during the eucharist (Lord's Supper), substance of bread & wine = miraculously transformed into body & blood of Jesus
laissez-faire
Doctrine that the state should NOT interrupt the free play of natural economic forces by government regulation of the economy. i.e. Government should just leave the economy alone.
Ecclesiastical Ordinances
Document that created a church government using both clergy & ordinary citizens in service of the church
USS-USSR Rivalry
Due to different historical perspectives, own political ambitions, W European security, iron curtain of pro and anti-Soviets. Buffer zone.
Increase of women in workforce
Due to trend w/smaller families, increased wives in workforce, fueled industrial development. Still lower salaries, traditional female's jobs, children.
Alliance-less France
Due to weakness of League, failure of US and GB to form milit alliances, Rus was communist, no longer allied. To compensate, Fr alliances w/Poland and 'Little Entente', to contain Germ, but not strong as Rus.
Boers
Dutch farmers. Began to settle in areas outside city of Cape Town after DEIC set up settlement at Cape of Good Hope.
The Romanovs
Dynastic family who ruled Russia from the early 1600s to 1917. First Romanov to rise to power was Mikhail after a period of internal unrest. Family continued many of the practices and traditions of earlier czars and emphasized allegiance to the Eastern Orthodox Church.
Ferdinand & Isabella
Dynastic union of two rulers --> unification of Iberian kingdoms. Reorganized Spanish military forces. Recognized importance of Catholic church (power + wealth) ---> pursued policy of strict religious uniformity ---> Inquisition
Maria Winklemann
Educated by father/uncle + received advanced training in astronomy from nearby self-taught astronomer. Married Gottfried Kirch (#1 German astronomer) -> became his assistant @ astronomical observatory in Berlin. Corresponded w/ famous scientist Gottfried Leibniz. Applied for position as assistant astronomer after husband's death. Denied post by Berlin Academy (bc she was woman with no university degree) - feared they would establish precedent by hiring a woman.
Absenteeism
Effect of pluralism. Church officeholders ignored their duties ---> hired inferiors (who usually had even less interest in the job)
Ramsay MacDonald
Elected from Labour-Lib coalition prime minister. Rejected extreme social/econ experiments, gov ended 10 months later as Conservs used 'like Communism' tactic.
salon/coffeehouse
Elegant drawing rooms in urban houses of the wealthy, where invited philosophes/guests gathered together + discussed new ideas of philosophes. Important in bringing together artists with upperclass. Women could change the King's decisions, as hostesses. Reputation depended on the stature of males a hostess was able to attract. BASICALLY - Served as important role in promoting conversation/sociability between upperclass men and women, and spreading Enlightenment ideas.
Mannerism
Emerged in Italy 1520s-1530s. PRECURSORS: Reformation - revival of religious values = political turmoil; worldly enthusiasm of Renaissance --> anxiety, uncertainty, suffering, yearning for spiritual experience. Reflected this environment to break down High Renaissance principles of balance, harmony, moderation. Deliberately distorted rules of proportions - elongated figures that conveyed sense of suffering.
Internal combustion engine
Engine invented in 1878. Burns petroleum to produce motion. Invention of this allowed for the invention of the car and airplane.
William Wordsworth
English Romantic era poet who wrote about the evils of the industrial factory system.
Thomas Hobbes
English materialist and political philosopher who advocated absolute sovereignty as the only kind of government that could resolve problems caused by the selfishness of human beings.
Thomas Hobbes
English political thinker. Alarmed by revolutionary upheavals in contemporary England - name associated with state's claim to absolute authority over its subjects.
John Locke
English political thinker. Argued against absolute rule of one man. Political experience during Glorious Revolution - put into his "The Treatises of Government." Believed humans lived than in a state of equality (vs. state of war) - certain unalienable rights: life, liberty, property. Government protects rights of people while they act reasonably towards government. Community of people = primarily landholding aristocracy who were represented in Praliament.
Moliere
Enjoyed favor of French court + benefited from patronage of Louis XIV. Wrote, produced, acted in series of comedies that satirized religious/social world of his time.
Dadaism
Enshrined purposelessness of life. Tristan Tzara (Romanian-French Poet), expressed life as endless & meaningless. Used expression for anti-art, 1918 Berlin Dada Manifesto.
new elites
Entrepreneurs who made large profits from their factories. They became a new rich class whose existence was based entirely on the success of industrialization.
Racial Policy
Evacuate Slavs, replace w/Germans in Poland. Poles, Ukrainians, Soviets would later be used as slave labor, German peasants to inhabit new land.
cultural relativism
Evaluating your own civilization relative to others. Accompanied by religious skepticism.
hand-loom weavers
Even when the power loom came into production, these continued to do well because of the inefficiency of the power looms. They died out when they were replaced by big factories.
Hegel's dialectic
Everything evolves, all historical changes are due to clashes of elements. Greatly influenced Karl Marx.
Sistine Chapel
Evidence of Neoplatonic influence in figures ---> muscular: ideal type of human being with perfect proportions
Directory
Executive authority elected by Council of Elders., Group of five men who served as liaisons between Robespierre and the Assembly. Overthrown by Napoleon. Period of rule = corrupt/materialistic reaction to suffering demanded in Reign of Terror & Republic of Virtue. Government had to deal w/ political enemies - royalists & Jacobins. Increasingly relied on military to maintain its power --> coup d'etat in 1799 where Napoleon seized powerrrrr
Universal Law of Gravitation
Explained why planetary bodies didn't go off in straight lines. Every object in the universe is attracted to every other object with a force (gravity) that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them.
Nazi Electioning
Exploited class fears, different speeches to win over, became biggest party in Parl, but declined.
Welfare State in Europe
Extension of state power w/healthcare, stuff for poverty, pensions, payment for children, education advancements, decrease class barriers, still 'feminism' geared towards women staying at home, but not in E/Soviet.
Oliver Cromwell
Extreme Puritan (Independent); created New Model Army. Defeated forces supporting King Charles I. Unable to work with Parliament --> relied on military force to rule England.
Battle of the Bulge ~
Failed Germ offensive, Allies over Rhine, into Germ, linked w/Soviet allies, easy w/out East Wall to halt Soviets,.
Ineffectiveness of League of Nations
Failure of US to join, American determination to be less involved w/European politics. League's weapon to stop aggression were economic sanctions.
New Middle-Eastern Nations w/Wars
Fall of empires between WWI, after WWII created new indep states, led to unachieving Arab League 1945.
Bombing of Dresden
Feb 1945, firestorm receiving criticism as it was seen as unnecessary. Up to 100k people died.
Change in sexualities post-WW1
Females' appearance to more 'open', use of makeup, more exposure, discussion sexual matters.
Conscript standing armies
First developed by Adolphus. Flexible tactics. Infantry brigade composed of equal #s of musketeers & pikemen. Employed salvo = all rows of infantry fired at once (vs. typical row by row). Primarily offensive deployment. Lighter artillery pieces = more flexibility.
Newspapers/libraries
First newspaper printed in London 1702. Filled with news/special features, cheap + free in coffeehouses. Books received wider circulation through development of public libraries in the cities/private circulating libraries that offered books for rental.
Gentileschi
First woman elected to Florentine Academy of Design. JUDITH BEHEADING HOLOFERNES: dramatic rendering of biblical scene.
Klemens von Metternich
Foreign minister of Austria who led the Congress of Vienna
physiocrats
Founders of modern economics. Lead by Francois Quesnay (successful French court physician). Claimed they would discover natural economic laws that governed human society. 1st principle: land/agriculture = RICH. Rejected mercantilist emphasis on significance of $$ as primary determinant of wealth. 2nd principle: supply/demand --> ppl should be free to pursue their own economic self-interest = GOOD for society. Laissez-faire.
John Calvin
French theologian, first educated in humanities & law. 1533: Experienced religious crisis - convinced of God's inner guidance. Heavily influenced by Luther's writings. Believed in salvation by faith, absolute sovereignty of God, predestination. Kept 2 of sacraments: baptism (remission of sins) + Lord's Supper (spiritual presence of Jesus)
Cold War
From political, military, ideological differences, esp between Us & USSR. Not 'true peace' but 'Cold War'
Purging of Old Bolsheviks
From resistors of party bureaucracy, Old bolshs 1936-38 put on trial, comdemned. Also gre to include officers, party members, intellectuals, normal citixens Forced Siberian work camps, 8m+ arrested.
Movies
Full-length films emerged. 'Quo Vadis', 'Birth of a Nation' fed mass audiences. Marlene Dietrich in 'Blue Angel' sexuality.
Functional Architecture
Functional buildings; unification of art, engineering. All else unnecessary. America lead w/urban growth.
Rousseau: "Emile"
Fundamental concern: Education should foster, not restrict, children's natural instincts. Sought balance between heart/mind, between sentiment/reason. Emphasis on heart and sentiment made author precursor of Romanticism in 19th c.
EURATOM - Eupean Atomic Energy Comminity
Further European research on Peaceful at energy uses.
El Alamein ~
GB forces stopped Rommel Corps N Africa, summer 1942, pushed back. Made by US, GB troops to surrender May 1943.
Non-Aggression Pact
Germ & Soviet Russia created spheres of influence; Germ-WPoland, Russia-all else, gave Hitler power to attack Poland, 2 days later GB & Fr declared war, & 2 weeks later, Soviets sent reinforcing troops.
Mein Kampf Lebensraum
Germ nationalism, anti-Sem, anti-comm, right of superior nations to Living Space, right of superiors to authoritarian leadership over masses.
Erwin Rommel ~
German Africa Corps leader to break GB Egyptian defenses, advance toward Alexandria.
Helmut Kohl
German Chancellor 1982-1998 - worked w/ Mitterand on European Union - like Thatcher/Reagan - wanted to lower taxes, encourage initiative - conservative
Darmstadt Bank
German Continental bank
Hindenburg
German General who won crushing victories on the Eastern Front. Later named Hitler chancellor.
d'Holbach: "System of Nature"
German aristocrat who preached atheism/materialism. Argued everything in universe consisted of matter in motion. Humans are just machines; God = product of human mind, and unnecessary for leading a moral life.
Gottlieb Daimler
German inventor who invented the gasoline engine and the automobile.
Martin Luther
German lawyer - monk. Opposition to wealth & corruption of papacy & belief that faith = salvation caused his excommunication from Catholic Church (1521). Bible = chief guide to religious truth & sole authority in religious affairs.
Burschenschaften
German student society wishing to create a united Germany. This group, with the motto "Honor, Liberty, Fatherland," gathered to burn books in 1817 and was closed by Metternich when a deranged student assassinated a playwright.
Battle of North Atlantic ~
German success attacking Allied ships, capture Crimea 1942. Later thwarted w/detection to combat 1943.
Rhineland
German troops sent. Should have gotten force from Fr, but w/out GB help, they did nothing (GB thought reasonable), bolstered Germ opinion of Hitler & encouragement.
Immanuel Kant
German. Defined Enlightenment as "man's leaving his self-caused immaturity". Proclaimed motto: "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!"
Dunkirk ~
Germans cut through Luxembourg, Ardennes forest, split Allied armies, trapped troops at Dunkirk to be ferry to GB, evacuated 330k.
Committee of Public Safety
Given broad powers by National Convention. Maximilien Robespierre = most important member. Gave country the leadership it needed to weather the domestic foreign crises of 1793. Decreed universal mobilization of nation to meet foreign crisis & save the Republic from its foreign enemies. Established "Reign of Terror" to meet domestic crisis. Attempted to provide economic controls. Established system of getting food for the cities that was enforced by revolutionary armies. Law of the General Maximum.
Pantheism (monism)
God is not creator of the universe, he IS the universe. Set out in Spinoza's book "Ethics Demonstrated in the Geometrical Manner". Human beings not situated in nature as kingdom within a kingdom, but are a part of universal order/God/nature.
Galen
Greek physician. Relied on animal dissection to arrive at picture of human anatomy (inaccurate). Dominated physiology. Belief: 2 separate blood systems - muscular control (bright red blood) & digestive control (dark red).
Luddites
Group of English craftspeople who attacked factory machines in 1812. Believed the machines were stealing their jobs.
the Red Shirts
Group of one thousand supporters of Garibaldi who he led through southern Italy to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies before handing power to Cavour.
Bill of Rights
Guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, press, petition, assembly, right to bear arms, protection against unreasonable searches/arrests, trial by jury, due process of law, and protection of property rights. Most rights derived from natural rights philosophy of 18th c. philosophes - popular amongst American colonists.
Nazi Resistance Movements
Harsh treatment led to guerilla movements. Sabotage, assassins, anti-Germ publications, spies, communists leaders of some. Women helped, message carriers, bomb planters, assassins, transporters, smuggled Jews. Control of SS led to some crushing, esp Comm movements, stopped by Gestapo. Ex:Josip Broz 'Tito' Yugoslavian army of 250k vs Germs, 'Free French - Charles de Gaulle. Failed 'White Rose' in Munich.
Charles Darwin
He contributed to growth of Scientific knowledge in late 19th century by proposing a theory of organic evolution through genetic mutations and survival of the fittest. First observed only plants and animals in his book On the Origin of Species, until 1871 when he wrote The Descent of Man, which was highly controversial.
Louis Pasteur
He contributed to the "revolution in health care" during the 19th century by discovering the germ theory of disease and the process of eliminating germs through heating fluids- called pasteurization.
Reinhard Heydrich
Head of SS's Security Service, responsible for Final Solution, after Poland defeated, special strike forces Einsatzgruppen to round up Polish Jews, concentrate them into ghettos. Mobile killing units.
Heinrich Himmler
Head of SS, regular/secret polices. Terror & Idealogy; repression, murder, conc camps, secret police, death camps. Wanted dominant Aryan race,
Great Society
Heir to Welfare State New Deal by Johnson, health care for elderly, war on poverty, Job Corps, Dept of Housing, Urb Development, Equal Rights for Afr Americans.
Ottoman Empire
Held nominal control over southern shores along Mediterranean. Possessed highly effective governmental system - led by sultans/grand viziers (prime ministers). Had well-organized military system. "Sleeping giant" until 2nd half of 17th century, where new line of grand viziers led it to offensive. After trying to capture Vienna - defeated by European coalition and retreated.
Napoleon's Continental System
Helped ruin number of hitherto prosperous British ports. Elimination of European markets for British textiles temporarily revived woolen industry in France and Belgium. Stimulated textile manufacturing along Rhine & in Silesia.
National Socialist German Workers' Party
Hitler controlled, called 'Nazis', wanted own political movement. Radical right-wing party. Eventually grew w/Hitler's oratory skills.
Emergence of Nazi State
Hitler made chancellor, but was planned to be kicked out (Papen, Hind). Reichstag fire & Hind decreed emergency gov powers, legal seizure of power by Hitler. Ruthless & Ready.
Nazi Air Offensive ~
Hitler wanted control of air to attack GB, Luftwaffe offensive combated w/radar system giving early warnings. Ultra Intelligence Operation gave info, still losses.
Albert Speer
Hitler's architect, minister of arms, mobilization.
Battle of Stalingrad ~
Hitler's focus to capture city for industry, Nov 42-Feb 43 German troops stopped, surrender Feb 1943. German 6th army loss. Back to position of June 42.
human progress
Humans had progressed through 9 stages of history. About to enter 10th stage, where "there is no limit to the perfecting of the powers of man; that human perfectibility is in reality indefinite, that the progress of this perfectibility...has no other limit than the duration of the globe upon which nature has placed us."
Janos Kadar
Hungarian leader who gained power after the Soviets regained power '56; he was able to save some of the economic reforms of the former leader
Franz Lizt
Hungarian pianist under whom Romantic music reached peak.
William of Orange
Husband of James' daughter Mary. Invited by group of 7 prominent English noblemen to invade England. Long-time enemy of Louis XIV - wanted to fight France with England's resources.
Methodism
Important revival of Christianity. Proved need for spiritual experience had not been expunged by 18th century search for reason.
Chancellor Heinrich Bruning
Impossible to form parl majority in Reichstag, use of emergency decrees. Parl democracy dying.
Manchester & Liverpool
In 1830 world's first rail line linked which 2 major British cities?
Civic Humanism
Intellectual movement based on study of classical literary works of Greece & Rome. Study of liberal arts (grammar, rhetoric, poetry, moral philosophy/ethics, history) all based on writings of ancient Greek & Roman authors
Philosophes
Intellectuals of the Enlightenment. Social reformers. Role of philosopher = change the world, not just discuss it. Weren't free to write whatever they chose due to censorship, but found ways around that like using pseudonyms. Secular orientation = eliminate God in history ---?> concentrate on events themselves/search for casual relationships in natural world.
'Stream of Unconsciousness'
Interior monologue, or innermost thoughts of character in writing.
Samuel Compton
Invented "mule" - combined aspects of Arkwright's water frame & Hargreaves' spinning jenny --> increased yarn production even further.
Isaac Newton
Invented calculus, investigated composition of light, inaugurated work on law of gravitation - all at Woolsthorpe. (1703) Made president of Royal Society + knighted for great achievements. Extremely interested in occult world. Synthesized Descartes (deductive) + Bacon (inductive) into single scientific methodology --> united Bacon's empiricism w/ Descartes's rationalism - began with systematic observations/experiments which were used to arrive at general concepts. New deductions from general concepts then tested/verified by precise experiments.
Richard Arkwright
Invented water frame spinning machine, powered by water or horse.
Thomas Newcommen
Inventor of the steam pump or atmospheric engine, in which power was derived from air pressure.
Gracchus Babeuf
Jacobin (radical). "What is the French Revolution? An open war between patricians and plebeians, between rich and poor." Appalled at misery of common people. Wanted to abolish private property & eliminate private enterprise. Conspiracy of Equals - crushed in 1796. Executed 1797.
Death of Hitler, Mussolini ~
Jan 1945 Hitler hid in Bunker, giving unsuccessful commands in last stages, blamed Jews for failure, suicide April 30, Benito killed by partisans April 28. End of war.
Pope Clement VII
Joined Francis I side in Habsburg-Valois War = BAD DECISION --> Charles V invaded/sacked Rome (1527). Refused to annul marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon ---> separation of England from Catholic Church
Battle of Kursk ~
July 5-12 1944, greatest tank battle, Germs defeated with huge Panzer loss. 'Final' battle.
Crystal Palace
Kensington, London - structure that housed the Great Exhibition of 1851. Huge structure made completely out of glass/iron.
Charles II
King of England, Scotland, and Ireland (1660-1685) who reigned during the Restoration, a period of expanding trade and colonization as well as strong opposition to Catholicism. (1672) Issued Declaration of Indulgence - suspended laws that Parliament passed against Catholics/Puritans. Induced by Parliament to suspend declaration.
Piedmont
Kingdom in northern Italy whose prime minister was Cavour. Led the Italian unification movement in the north and later in the south when Garibaldi gave Cavour his power. Had an alliance with France where France would help drive Austria out of Italy in the Italian unification movement and France would annex the Duchy of Savoy and the County of Nice.
Korean Split
Kor liberated from Japs 1945, divided into N & S over 38th parallel - Russ's Comm Dem People's Repub in N, US's S Repub Korea.
The Great Elector
Laid foundation for Prussian state; came into power during 30YW. Built competent/efficient standing army. (1678) Possessed 40k men --> used 50%+ of state revenues. Established General War Commissariat to sustain army/power. Became his chief instrument for governing the state. Gave nobles unlimited power over peasants so he could run government with same unlimitedness. Mercantilist.
Lord McCartney
Lead British mission to visit Beijing to press for liberalization of trade restrictions. Compared Chinese Empire to "an old, crazy, first-rate man-of-war" that had once awed its neighbors "merely by her bulk and appearance"
Hernan Cortes
Lead Spanish expedition - landed at Veracruz on the Gulf of Mexico (1519). Lead small groups of troops to Tenochtitlan + made alliances with city-states who were tired of oppressive Aztec rule (Tlaxcala).
Lenin
Leader of Bolsheviks. Hd a legal education and became a lawyer. 1887: turned into enemy of tsarist Russia when his older bro was executed for planning to assassinate the tsar. Search for revolutionary faith led him to Marxism. 1894: Moved to St. Petersburg, helped organize illegal group - Union for the Liberation of the Working Class. Arrested, shipped to Siberia, where afterwards he went into exile in Switzerland.
Gladstone
Leader of Liberal party in British Parliament and became prime minister in 1868 due to the Reform Bill of 1867. Issued series of reforms: Civil service positions given by examination, not patronage; secret ballot; Educational Act of 1870 (provide elementary school to all children).
Disraeli
Leader of Tories in British Parliament and prime minister until 1868. Created Reform Bill of 1867. Hoped the bill would help get more conservative voters but it actually caused a huge liberal victory in 1868.
Martin Luther King Jr.
Leader of movement for racial equality, King's Southern Christian Leadership Conference, March on Washington, led to Civil Rights Act 1963 to end supression, countered w/radical black leaders.
Clement Attlee
Leader of new Labour Gov in Gb, modern welfare state established w/ natonalized Bank, coal, steel industries, transportation, public utilities.
Garibaldi
Leader of southern Italian unification movement. Led a small group of one thousand followers called Red Shirts north through the peninsula and met the northern movement before his planned march to Rome. Wanted unified Italy to be a republic, unlike Cavour, but in order to prevent a civil war, he gave southern Italy to Cavour and allowed him to complete the unification. Returned to agriculture after the unification.
Lateen sails & square rigs
Learned to combine uses - able to construct ships with more mobility + size
Toussant L'Ouverture
Led rebellion of black slaves in French sugar colony Saint Domingue - inspired by ideals of French revolution. 100k+ black slaves rose in revolt & seized control of all of Hispaniola. Captured by army of Napoleon.
Enabling Act
Legal basis for acts, disposed of const forms. Only opposition was Social Dems. Hitler became dictator.
New Economic Policy (NEP)
Lenin's policy for recovering economy revised version of old capitalist system. Peasants could not openly sell produce, companies under 20 could be private.
Indulgences
Lessening of part or all of the temporal punishment in purgatory due to sin. Basically paying for someone (or yourself) so one can get to heaven quicker. Sparked Luther's reform movement.
John Stuart Mill
Liberal who wrote "On Liberty". Believed in absolute freedom and protection from censorship and tyranny of the majority. Also published "On the Subjection of Women" advocating for women's rights, arguing that the differences between men and women were because of the lesser amount of education provided to women. Believed women could achieve as much as men if they had equal education.
The Stuarts
Line of rulers inaugurated with accession to throne of King James VI (Scotland; son of Mary queen of Scots) = James I (England).
Reform Bill of 1867
Lowered voting requirements and increased number of voters from 1 million to over 2 million.
The Edict of Worms
Luther refused to retract his doctrines before the Reichstag (imperial assembly of HRE in Worms). Charles V made this proclamation that outlawed, burned his works, & ordered his capture
Antoine Watteau
Lyrical view of aristocratic life - refined, sensual, civilized = world of upperclass pleasure. Underneath = element of sadness; revealed fragility & transitory nature of pleasure, love, life.
Condorcet
Made exaggerated claim for progress. Victim of turmoil of French Revolution, and wrote "The Progress of the Human Mind" while hiding during Reign of Terror. Survey of human history convinced him humans had progressed through NINE stages of history. Now, w/ spread of science/reason, humans were about to enter 10ht stage of perfection.
Hermann Goring
Made minister of interior, head of police Prussian state. Nazi. Police became fully Nazi/SA, Nazi terror.
Fascism among Upper Classes
Made up majority. The middle class feared socialism, communist revolution, and disorder.
Relations w/Soviet Russia
Maintained relations even w/out hope of communist rev in West, or reformed Russia.
Politburo
Members leading organ of control, socialist party. Struggle for control after Lenin's death, division between Left (Trotsky, wanted end NEP, at expense of peasants expand economically, carry Revolution) and Right (wanted socialist state, no care for other countries, continued NEP).
The Orthodox Church
Merchant/peasant revolts + a schism --> very unsettled conditions in here. Peter the Great wanted control --> (1721) abolished position of patriarch + created body called the Holy Synod to make decisions.
domestic system
Method of manufacturing in which an entrepreneur distributes raw materials to various homes, where families process them into finished goods to be offered for sale by the merchant entrepreneur
Scorched Earth Policy
Military tactic where people voluntarily burn land and run away to prevent attacking groups from being sustained of their supplies
Madame de Pompadour
Mistress of Louis XV. Intelligent. Charmed Louis XV --> gained wealth/power. Made important government decisions. Gave advice on appointments & foreign policy.
Potsdam Conference 1945
Mistrust; new Harry Truman, atomic bomb success possibly led to more tension w/Soviets, demanded free election, called 'Anti-Soviet', Stalin wanted absolute military security w/Comm states, James Byrnes's proposal of 25-year Germ disarmament rejected, people felt it was to create Comm Europe.
Capetown
Moderate climate/freedom from tropical disease made this place desirable for settlement.
Constitutional Democrats
Moderates who were responsible in establishing a provisional government 1 week after the tsarist regime fell apart. Represented mostly middle-class and liberal aristocratic minority. Program was a liberal agenda - working toward parliamentary democracy, passing reforms that provided universal suffrage, civil equality, 8-hr workdays.
Hitler Response to Art
Modern art was 'degenerate' or 'Jewish', and useless to new Germany.
Emperor Qianlong
Monarch during Qing Dynasty. Expressed no interest in British manufactured goods.
Tsar Nicholas I
Monarch of Russia who went from conservative to reactionary due to the Decembrist Revolt. Feared revolution so much that he created a secret political police who deported suspicious people in order to prevent rebellion.
Louis XVIII and Charles X
Monarchs of France after the Bourbon dynasty was restored following the abdication of Napoleon. They kept the Napoleonic Civil Code but were criticized for reintegrating the Catholic Church and granting indemnities to those who lost land in the French Revolution. They returned France to the point of another revolution.
GB WWII mobilization
More effectively than any other, 55% in army or civ 'war work', esp women who held lot of civil service positions. 'Dig for Victory', 'Grow your own Food' campaign to decrease foot rationing shortages, 'Home Guard' to build airplane parts at home, huge planned economy 1942, generally accepted, but not w/industrialists.
Congress of People's Deputies and Article 6
More freedom for people within the USSR, Article 6 allowed for opposing parties, seeing the end of Communist Party's dominance
Ptolemy: "Geography"
Most important world map available in 15th century. Showed world as spherical with 3 major landmasses: Europe, Asia, Africa + 2 oceans. Disproportionate land:mass ratio. Underestimated circumference of earth ---> Columbus & other adventurers believed it was feasible to sail west from Europe to Asia [luls]
"God, glory, and gold"
Motives for European expansion: religious zeal (convert ALL the ppl to Christianity!), grandeur (their 15 minutes of fame), and economic gain (hopes of finding precious metals & access to spices).
Utopian socialism
Movement advocating the adoption of cooperative living. Charles Fourier, Robert Owen, Louis Blanc, and Flora Tristan believe in this movement. They felt they could fix everything by removing capitalism.
Lebensraum
Munich prof Karl Haushofer's 'Living Space', maintained country's power = space. Hitler felt East only powerful because of Germ weapons, leadership (Russia). Bolshevik ('Jewish') regime weakened Russia, could be conquered, Slavs as slaves for Aryan racial empire.
(Franz Joseph) Haydn
Musical director for wealthy Hungarian princes: Esterhazy bros. Incredibly prolific. Visit to Engliant introduced him to "liberty: of writing music for public concerts, which induced his 2 great oratorios, both dedicated to common ppl.
Ottoman Empire
Muslim empire spanning a large area with its capital at Constantinople/Istanbul. Were more opposed to industrialization and as a result, had poorer weapon technology. Fought in the Crimean War against Russia.
Lateran Accords of 1929
Mussolini's regime recognized the sovereign independence of small estate within Rome, Vatican City. In return, papacy recognized Italian state.
French and Indian War
N. American version of 7YW. 2 major areas of wants: waterways of Gulf of St. Lawrence (French areas) & unsettled Ohio River valley. BASICALLY fought over control of the Ohio River Valley-- English (w/ William Pitt Elder, Wolfe) defeated French in 1763. Historical Significance: established England as number one world power and began to gradually change attitudes of the colonists toward England for the worse.
Little Entente
Name for smaller countries of/from Austria including l Czechoslovakia, Romania, Yugoslavia
Fascism
Named after Mussolini's group 'Fascio di Combattimento', generally ignored but saved by stalemates, failures of Socialists, Liberals, Popolari (Christian Dems). Gained power w/anticommunism, antistrike activity, nationalism, brute force.
Dawes Plan
Named after Us banker chairing commission, stabilized German payments on ability to pay, granted $200m loan, European prosperity, diplomacy.
Battle of Waterloo (1815)
Napoleon came back from Elba and was defeated again by British and Prussian forces in this Battle. It was in Belgium. Met by duke of Wellington. Napoleon fails. Victorious allies exile him to Saint Helena.
Saint Helena
Napoleon exiled to here by victorious allies. Small forsaken island in middle of S. Atlantic
T-4 Program Auschwitz
Nazi concentration camp for Jews in southwestern Poland during World War II
Einsatzgruppen ~
Nazi strike forces that killed innocent Jews with their infamous "death squads"
Pragmatic Sanction
Negotiated by Habsburg Charles VI for his daughter Maria Theresa, where he ordered different European powers to agree to recognize his daughter as his legal heir.
Napoleon III
Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. First president of the Second Republic of France but overthrew government and became emperor when denied permission to be president past his term. Focused more on France than foreign affairs and did not attempt to conquer land. Had Paris redesigned to make controlling the city easier. His empire fell because of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.
Serjents, "bobbies", Schutzmannschaft
New civilian police forces developed as a result of the many revolutions of the nineteenth century. They were to preserve property, arrest criminals, and maintain domestic order.
Second German Empire (Reich)
New country of Germany created by the peace treaty of the Franco-Prussian war.
Détente
New era in US-Sov relations at end of Vietnam war.
Paris Commune
New form of French government. Composed of many who called themselves SANS-CULOTTES.
Compass & astrolabe
New navigational aids - able to explore with more confidence
Permissive Society
New society of PostWar Europe, crack in morals w/drugs, porn, sec, major cities did not affect very men. Sweden led w/equal rights for all sexualities, sex ed. Divorce rates, extramarital sex, Playboy magazine, Marijuana, LSD, Youth Revolution w/Viet war, rebellion. Student Revolts 1960s ~ Higher youth enrollment to higher education, protests against 'old' edu, class sizes, etc, spontaneous in opp to Viet War.
Industrial Revolution
New sources of energy and power (i.e. coal and steam) were used to build and run new machinery, decreasing the use of human and animal labor, and increasing productivity. Human labor was reorganized to maximize profits from the new machines; factories replaced workshops. Beginning after 1750, Europe shifted from a traditional economy based to farming and handicrafts to an economy based on machine-based manufacturing, specializied labor, and industrial factories.
machine guns, poison gas
New weapons introduced in WWI which contributed to the high casualty rates and to the stalemate
Georges Danton
Newly appointed minister of justice. Lead sans-culottes to seek revenge on those who had aided the king & resisted the popular will. Arrested thousands of presumed traitors. Massacred thousands of ordinary Parisian tradespeople - solved problem of overcrowded prisons.
coal and coke
Newly discovered process for smelting iron ore --> deeper mines for more intensive mining of coal.
Kristallnacht
Night of Shattered Glass; assn of Germ embassy secretary by Polish Jew = anti-Sem. Synagogues burned, businesses destroyed, 100 Jews killed. Concentration camps, Jews barred from public buildings, Jews encouraged to emigrate.
Rome-Berlin Axis
No opposition to Ethiopian expansion, Francisco Franco, 1936 agreed recognize common interests.
US Mobilization WWII
No threat to home territory arsenal of Allies, never complete mobilization; hesitant industries to change could cause another depression. Unemployment decreased mid-1943, women at home, small factories shut down w/overproduction. Shortage of housing, health, schools in industrial areas, relocation, racial riots w/African Americans moving N for work, Japanese Americans segregated into camps w/loyalty oaths.
Second Estate
Nobility. 350k people. Owns 25-30% of land. Under Louis XV/XVI - continued to play important/crucial role in French society. Held many of the leading positions in the government, military, law courts, and higher church offices. Controlled much of heavy industry through investment/ownership of mining & metallurgical enterprises. Nobility of the robe got their status from OFFICEHOLDING --> pathway allowing commoners to get noble rank. Dominated royal law courts & important administrative offices. Sought to expand privileges at expense of monarchy.
Segur Law
Nobles sought to expand their privileges at expense of the monarchy/defend liberty by resisting arbitrary actions of monarchy/maintain their monopolistic control over positions in the military, church, and government. Passed in 1781 in reaction to ambitions of aristocrats newly arrived from bourgeoisie - attempted to limit sale of military officerships to fourth-generation nobles --> excluded newly enrolled members of the nobility.
NATO
North Atlantic Treaty Organization April 1949 w/Us, other Eur powers, mutual assistance if any one attacked.
Features of Nazi State
Not completely all-powerful, but vied for power between bureaucracies, Hitler the final decision maker. Economy not nationalized, only recognized H as leader, rearmament for employment success.
Saint Bartholomew's Day
Occurred on same day Catholic & Calvinist parties reconciled through marriage of sister of Charles IX (Valois king) & Bourbon ruler of Navarre (Henry of Navarre). 3000 Huguenots killed, partial doing of Guise family.
Erwin Piscator
Offered plays to workers, hoped to reach w/political messages trough experimental drama.
Louis Blanc and Flora Tristan
One believed that workshops should be paid for and opened by the government and owned and operated by the workers. The other advocated for women's rights and absolute equality. She was ignored throughout the beginning of the nineteenth century.
Bolsheviks
One faction of the Marxist Social Democratic Party. Lead by V.I. Lenin, whose search for revolutionary faith lead him to Marxism. Party became dedicated to violent revolution that would destroy the capitalist system. Believed the forefront of activists have to form a party of well-disciplined professional revolutionaries to accomplish this task. Outbreak of war gave hope that all of Europe was ripe for revolution. When provisional government was formed, he believed the opportunity for the Bolsheviks to seize power. Although they were not the majority and actually received a terrible percentage of the Russian Congress vote, Lenin kept the name to create attraction and support. After the Russian Congress received the low voting, the Bolsheviks and Lenin took over and simply disregarded the Russian Congress from there on out.
Mensheviks
One faction of the Marxist Social Democratic Party. Wants Social Democrats to be a mass electoral socialist party based on a Western model. Similar to GER Social Democrats. WIlling to cooperate temporarily in a parliamentary democracy while working toward ultimate achievement of a socialist state.
Brandenberg-Prussia
One of 2 great European powers in 17th-18th cen, mostly due to Hohenzollern dynasty. Dominions of the house of Hohenzollern - consisted of 3 disconnected portions of W, C, and E Germany.
Friedrich II the Great
One of best educated & most cultured monarchs in 18th c. Well versed in Enlightenment thought. Invited Voltaire to live at his court for several years. Intellectual interests were despised by father - forced son to prepare for career in ruling. Believed in king as "first servant of the state" --> became conscientious ruler. Made few innovations in administration of the state. Established single code of laws for his territories - eliminated use of torture except in treason/murder cases. Granted limited freedom of speech/press + complete religious toleration. Social conservative who made Prussian society even more aristocratic than before. Reversed father's policy of allowing commoners to rise to power in civil service. Enlarged Prussian army. Took advantage of succession crisis in Habsburg monarchy to seize Austrian province of Silesia --> War of Austrian Succession/7YW.
the Mountain
One of factions of National Convention that were unable to agree on abolishing monarchy. Owed much of its strength to the radical & popular elements in the city. Members = middle class. (1793) Passed decree condemning Louis XVI to death. Allowed full destruction of old regime.
Girondins
One of factions of National Convention that were unable to agree on abolishing monarchy. Represented primarily the PROVINCES. Fears radical mobs in Paris. Disposed to keep king alive.
Denis Diderot
One of fav topics to read about = Christianity, which he condemned as fanatical/unreasonable. Maintained Christianity was worst of all religions. Argued for materialistic conception of life: "This world is only a mass of molecules." Maintained that men & women weren't all different.
Francis Xavier
One of original members of Society of Jesus. Carried message of Catholic Christianity to East - ministered to India/Japan.
Kellogg-Briand Pact
Optimistic international attitude, pledge to 'renounce war as instrument of national policy'.
Dopolavoro
Or 'Afterwork' Italian (Fascist) recreation agency to provide & monitor recreation, rules, regulations.
SA/Sturmabteilung
Or Storm Troops. Nazi police force/milita, used to defend Nazis / break up other parties.
John Wesley
Ordained Anglican minister. Experiences deep spiritual crisis. Underwent mystical experience. Believed "the gift of God's grace" assured him of salvation and led him to become missionary to English people. Brought "glad tidings" of salvation to everyone despite opposition from Anglicans (who criticized emotional mysticism as superstitious nonsense). Believed all could be saved by experiencing God and opening the doors to his grace.
sans culottes
Ordinary patriots without fine clothes.
Great Exhibition of 1851
Organized by Britain - world's first industrial fair. Housed at Kensington, London in the Crystal Palace - huge structure made completely out of glass/iron - tribute to British engineering skills. Contained 100k exhibits showing wide variety of products created by Industrial Revolution. Displayed Britain's wealth/symbol of British success. Britain is op.
Portuguese Republic
Overthown monarch, though inflation led to disrupted support,artm officrs took power 1926, finance minister Antonio Salazar controlled gov 1930s - 70s.
July Revolution of 1830
Overthrow of King Charles X due to his set of edicts called the July Ordinances (edicts to restrict freedom of speech, press, and assembly). This replaced Charles X with Louis-Philippe who believed that he was a bourgeois who happened to also be a king.
Stalin attempt to Heighten Birthrate
Overturned Communist laws giving women freedoms, such as divorce, abortion. New Divorce Law of 1936 to fine divorcers, homosexuals, etc.
Thirty Years War
PRECURSORS-- .Religion (struggle between militant Catholicism/militant Calvinism) = important factor in outbreak. Much of fighting took place in HRE .Frederick IV (Calvinist ruler of Palatinate) lead league of German Protestant states: Protestant Union .Duke Maximilian lead Catholic league of German states --> (1609) clear division/anticipation of war .War divided into 4 major phases
Rembrandt
Painted opulent portraits/grandiose scenes - colorful. Turned away from materialistic success to follow his own artistic path --> lost public support/died bankrupt. Refused to follow contemporaries - depicted many Biblical scenes.
PLO
Palestine Liberation Org formed by Egyptians at 1964 meeting, guerilla al-Fatah led by PLO Yasir Arafat terrorist attacks, Israeli gov raid retaliation 66.
bank notes
Paper substitue for gold/silver currency that was backed by the bank's credit.
Test Act
Parliament passed this in response to Charles II's declaration of indulgences; specified only Anglicans could hold military/civil offices.
Margaret Cavendish
Participant in crucial scientific debates of her time. Excluded from membership in the Royal Society. Wrote "Observations upon Experimental Philosophy" & "Grounds of Natural Philosophy" - attacked defects of rationalist & empiricist approaches to scientific knowledge + especially critical of growing belief that humans could become masters of nature through science.
WW2 German reparations
Partitioning of Germany, denazification, Soviets took splendors, took factories & technology.
The Vendee
Peasants who revolted against military draft. Repudiated authority of convention. Rebellion soon escalated into full-on counterrevolutionary appeal: "Long live the king & our good priests. We want our king, our priests, and the old regime." Major provincial cities (Lyons/Marseilles) began to break away from central authority.
The Easter Rebellion
People were beginning to crack under the strain of total war by spring 1916: April, Irish nationalists in Dublin tried to take advantage of this situation and rose up against British rule. A week of fighting passed before the rebels were crushed and leaders executed Liebknecht's outbreak → strikes and protest marches over inadequate food began to flare up on every home front.
Baby Boom
Period after WW2 took women out of workforce for men, birthrates rose but declined by end of 1950s, mostly due to birth control w/contraceptives.
English Civil War
Phase 1: Parliament = victory due to Cromwell's New Model Army --> composed of extreme Puritans (aka Independents) who believed they were battling for the Lord. Ended with capture of Charles I (1646).
Benedict de Spinoza
Philosopher. Excommunicated from Amsterdam synagogue @ 24 for rejecting Judaism beliefs. Ostracized by Jews/Christians - lived independent life - refused to accept academic position in philosophy at UHeidelberg for fear of compromising his freedom of thought. Influenced by Descartes. Unwilling to accept implications of Descartes's ideas, esp. separation of mind/matter.
Protestant family & education
Placed in center of human life. New stress on mutual affection. Husband = ruler | wife = obedient servant, chief duty = please husband / bear children. Both genders encouraged to read Bible together + attend services. Used humanist methods to educate. Schools aimed at wider audience. Luther advocated all children should have opportunity of education (provided by state).
The Schlieffen Plan
Plan devised by German General Staff, based on assumption of a two-front war with France and Russia (who had previously formed a military alliance in 1894). CALLED FOR minimal troop deployment against Russia while most of German army would make a rapid invasion of western France through Belgium. After this quick defeat of French, the Germany army then re-deployed to east against Russia. Germany couldn't mobilize its troops solely against Russia under this plan, so it declares war on France after issuing an ultimatum to Belgium demanding right of German troops to pass through Belgian territory.
W Germ Unification 1948
Plans for US, Fr, GB's areas' unification, W Germ fed gov, Soviets responded w/blockade of W Berlin, caused starvation, economic control.
Olympe de Gouges
Playwright & pamphleteer. Refused to accept exclusion of woman from political rights. Penned a Declaration of Rights of Women & Female Citizens - insisted women should have some rights of men. Ignored by National Assembly.
Racine
Playwright Perfected French neoclassical tragic style, focused on conflicts, such as in between love/honor or inclination/duty, characterized and revealed tragic dimensions of life.
Wollstonecraft: "Vindication of the Rights of Women"
Pointed out 2 contradictions in views of women held by Enlightenment thinkers (like Rousseau) - women obeying men = contrary to beliefs of men that a system based on the arbitrary power of monarchs over their subjects was wrong. Argued the Enlightenment was based on an ideal of reason innate in all humans.
unlimited submarine warfare
Policy enacted by Germany declaring they would sink all ships, including America's, in the war zone, thus jerking on their "string," in the Sussex ultimatum
German Inflation
Policy of Passive Resistance against Fr Coercion, printed more money. Economic disaster as value went from 1$ : 4 marks to 4.2 trillion by Dec 1923, caused Communist uprisings, Nazis trying to control Munich.
War Communism
Policy of expedience, nationalized industries, requisitioning produce of peasants, failed after war w/peasant sabotage. Droughts caused famines, collapse of productive forces.
Glasnost
Policy of openness initiated by Gorbachev in the 1980s that provided increased opportunities for freedom of speech, association and the press in the Soviet Union.
Brezhnev Doctrine
Policy proclaimed in 1968 and declaring that the Soviet Union had the right to intervene in any Socialist country whenever it determined there was a need.
Examples of Auth Regimes in E Europe
Polish Milit dict under Marshal Joseph Pilsudski 1926, Yugoslavian royal dictatorship under Alex I 1929, Bulgarian King Boris auth in Bulgaria, Hungary closer w/appointment of Julius Gombos 1932, Crushing Christian corporate state Austria, Engelbert Dollfuss, Romanian Fascism Corneliu Codreanu w/'Legion' Iron Guard, crushed by King Carol w/auth rule. Ian Antonescu - beginning WWII Romania, John Metaxas 1936 Greece. Only Czech Thomas Masaryk left.
Poland's Sjem
Polish diet (legislative assembly) - two chamber assembly in which landowners completely dominated. Prospective monarchs had to agree to share power [taxes, foreign/military policy] to be elected to king (usually foreigners). Real aim of most members = ensure central authority wouldn't affect their local interests --> power had disastrous results.
Concert of Europe
Political alliance between Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria which decided to return France to a normal status and induct it into the alliance. Used to crush potential revolutions that could threaten the status quo in Europe.
February Riots of 1934
Political instability, caused by Fr fascist leagues, fear drew together leftist parties.
Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)
Political leader of Huguenots and a member of the Bourbon dynasty. He realized that as a Protestant he would never be accepted by Catholic France, so he converted to Catholicism.
Chartism
Political movement organized by working class. Charter (1838) requested universal male suffrage and pay for Parliament members. Also demanded yearly Parliament sessions. Died out after 1848 without seriously threatening the British factory systems.
Dutch Realism
Portraits of themselves, group portraits of military companies, guilds, landscapes, seascapes, still lifes, interiors of residences. Primarily interested in realistic portrayal of secular everyday life.
1955 Geneva Conference
Possible Soviet-US peace w/death of Stalin failed, more later w/crushing of Hungarian independence.
Division of China
Post WWII: S Nationalist US-supported Chuang Kai-shek, N Comm Mao Zedong w/People's Liberation Army.
Ireland's Great Hunger
Potato blight in 1845 struck potato crops with a fungus that turned the potatoes black. Because potatoes were a staple of the diet in ________, this event drastically brought the population down. One million died of starvation and disease, and two million emigrated to American and Britain. The rural people who stayed believed that by moving to towns and cities would solve their poverty problem, making the 19th century a period of rapid industrialization.
Pluralism
Practice in which one person holds several church positions simultaneously, to increase revenue.
infanticide
Practice of leaving unhealthy or undesired babies to die on hillside. Babies were checked by the government to see if they were healthy, if not unhealthy babies would be left to die
Smith: "Wealth of Nations"
Presented strong attack on mercantilism. Condemned mercantilist use of protective tariffs to protect home industries. Thought free trade = fundamental economic principle. Claimed silver/gold were NOT source of nation's true wealth, but LABOR OF INDIVIDUALS was. Believed in laissez-faire. Assigned government 3 basic functions: army, police, keep up with public works (canals etc). Emphasizing economic liberty of ppl --> laid foundation for economic liberalism.
Woodrow Wilson
President of the United States (1913-1921) and the leading figure at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. He was unable to persuade the U.S. Congress to ratify the Treaty of Versailles or join the League of Nations. Sought to reduce the risk of war by writing his Fourteen Points.
Northern Renaissance
Prevalence of Gothic cathedrals. Limited space available for works --> careful to depict each object ---> masters at rendering details. Imitated nature through empirical observation of visual reality & accurate portrayal of details (as opposed to mastery of laws of perspective & proportion)
Adolf Hitler
Previous Vienna artist and rejected, was greatly influenced : Georg von Schonerer (pan-Germ movement), Karl Lueger (mayor, anti-Semetic), Adolf Lanz (anti-Sem monk, Ostara), Richard Wagner (lonely operas). WW1 dispatch runner. 'Mein Kampf'
Renaissance popes
Primary concern: govern Catholic church as spiritual leader. HOWEVER, temporal preoccupations came to overshadow spiritual functions. "Shocking" manner in which they pursued interests in Papal States & Italian politics. Could not build dynasties (not hereditary monarchs) ---> rely on nepotism to promote families' interests. Great patrons of Renaissance culture --> efforts made Rome cultural leader
Neville Chamberlain
Prime minister England 1936, advocate peace (esp w/Germ), said would not oppose change.
Count Camillo di Cavour
Prime minister of Piedmont. Led northern Italian unification movement and signed a treaty of annexation with France in exchange for military support. Eventually took over unification movement over the entire peninsula. Wanted unified Italy to be a kingdom, not a republic, and his goal was achieved.
Count Otto von Bismarck
Prime minister of Prussia under William I. Wages Danish War with Austria to liberate Schleswig and Holstein from Denmark.
child labor
Problem of children being forced to work in factories. Caused deformities in children who had to mine in the small spaces adults couldn't reach. It put food on the table for many British factory-dependent families. British Parliament attempted to resolve this issue with the Factory Act in 1833.
Galileo: "The Starry Messenger"
Relevations of discoveries made by telescope. Revealed himself as firm proponent of Copernicus' heliocentric system. Attacked by church because it threatened Scripture/entire conception of universe. Heavens were now = matter, not spiritual.
Nicolaus Copernicus: "On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres"
Relied on data from records of predecessors. Felt Ptolemy's geocentric system didn't accord with observed motions of heavenly bodies. Argued universe consisted of 8 spheres w/ sun motionless at the center. Movement of sun/stars actually = daily rotation of earth on its axis. First attacked by Protestants.
Baroque
Replaced Mannerism period. Began in Italy last quarter of 16th century + spread. Style embraced by Catholic reform movement. Artists sought to bring together classical ideals of Renaissance art with spiritual feelings of 16th century religious revival. Known for use of dramatic effects to arouse emotions. Some reflect search for power. Magnificent/richly detailed.
Winston Churchill ~
Replaced failed Chamberlain, to guide GB to victory w/rallying speeches.
Abbe Sieyes
Representative of the Third Estate. Issued pamphlet - asked: "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been thus far in the political order? Nothing. What does it demand? To become something." Many opposed since most delegates still wanted to make changes while maintaining respect for authority of king.
Ernst Rohm
Represented SA, wanted to join regular army via '2nd rev', was assn, to appease reg army's support of Hitler's control when Hind died. Oath required to take oath of loyalty, plebiscite revealed 85% of Germs approved.
Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)
Revival of Roman Catholic Church - new mysticism, monasticism. New/old religious orders formed/revived.
Menno Simons
Revived Dutch Anabaptism. Dedicated life to peaceful, evangelical Anabaptism - stressed separation from world --> truly emulate life of Jesus.
The Decembrist Revolt
Revolt against Nicholas I's accession to the Russian throne which took place because his brother's abdication was not made public.
Greek Revolt
Revolt against the Ottoman Turks which was supported by the Concert of Europe armies. Only revolution to succeed in Europe; succeeded because of the help of the Concert.
Reign of Terror
Revolutionary courts organized to protect revolutionary Republic form its internal enemies. Victims ranged from royalists (Marie Antoinette) to former revolutionary girondins (Olympe de Gouges) to lots of peasants. Many victims were those who had opposed the radical activities of the sans-culottes. Most destructive in the Vendee. French government during the time = led by group of 12 who executed all enemies of the Republic.
guillotine
Revolutionary device for quick/efficient separation of heads from bodies. Killed 16k people during Reign of Terror in a period of 9 months.
steam engine
Revolutionized production of cotton goods. Caused factory system to spread to other areas of production = creates entire new industries. Result of need for more efficient pumps to eliminate water seepage from deep mines. Since they were fired by coal, they didn't need to be located near rivers --> entrepreneurs now had greater flexibility in their choice of location
Bastille
Royal armory. Fall of = most famous of urban uprisings. Increased mob activity --> Parisian leaders form PERMANENT COMMITTEE to keep order. Organized pooular force to capture Invalides (royal arm.) & ______. Aka state prison, but its fall became symbol of triumph over despotism. Louis XVI became informed their royal troops = unreliable...acceptance signaled collapse of royal authority. Confirmed appt of Lafayette as commander of citizens' militiar NATIONAL GUARD. Saved National Assembly.
Catherine the Great
Russian autocrat whose husband, Peter III, was murdered by a faction of nobles. Familiar with works of philosophes. Claimed she wished to reform Russia w/ Enlightenment ideas, but knew her success depended on support of palace guard & gentry class. Couldn't afford to alinate nobility. CALLED FOR election of assembly in 1767 to debate details of new law code. "Instruction" - WRITTEN as guide to deliberations - QUESTIONED institutions of serfdom, torture, capital punishment - ADVOCATED principle of equality of all in eyes of law. Subsequent policies STRENGTHENED landholding class @ expense of all others. DIVIDED Russia into 50 provinces, each of which was SUBDIVIDED into districts (ruling officials chosen by nobles). Policy of FAVORING nobility let to worse conditions for peasantry. EXPANDED Russia's territory to Poland/Black Sea. Russia spread southward by defeating Turks.
Leon Trotsky
Russian revolutionary and Communist theorist who helped Lenin and built up the army. Established extremely well-disciplined army that led to Red's victory.
Crimean War
Russians vs. Ottoman Empire, Britain, France. Austria neutral. First war in which Britain and France fought together. Russia wanted warm water ports in the Mediterranean and used fighting for the protection of the Holy Land as their pretext. France fought against Russia because they were insulted that Russia wants to take their privilege of protecting the Holy Land. Britain fought against Russia because they did not want competition in the Mediterranean.
Vietcong
S Vietnamese Communist guerrillas, supported by N Vuetnam, S said unable to deal w/because of corruption, lack of support for Diem regime.
Rudolf Hoss
SS colonel and commandant of Auschwitz received orders from Eichmann hanged following trial in 1947
Constantinople / 1453
Sack [capture] of caused extreme weakening of Byzantine Empire. Ottoman Turks spread rapidly throughout empire, beginning from NE Asia Minor. Captured ___ after siege of several months.
Alexander Graham Bell
Scottish inventor who invented the telephone in 1876.
Resistance Movement
Secret groups opposing Hitler, sprang up in every country occupied by Germany. Aim to harm Germans. Aided by the British , Americans, members trained in spying, radio, decoding, sabotage, forgery, and assassination.
OVRA
Secret police of Mussolini's Fascist dictatorship.
Carbonari
Secret societies in Italy which conspired to revolt against Austrian dominance of Italy.
Guglielmo Marconi
Sent the first radio waves across the Atlantic Ocean in 1901.
Air Raids
Sept 1940 w/Luftwaffe air raids, scatted over large cities, diminished morale somewhat but strengthened.
W German Federal Republic
Sept 1949 created, later Germ Democratic Repub in East.
Black Hand
Serbian terrorist group that planned to assassinate Franz Ferdinand, part of the Pan-Slavism nationalist movement, with the intention of uniting all of the territories containing South Slav populations (Serbs, Croats, Macedonians, Slovenes, etc) annexed by Austria-Hungary.
Factory Act
Series of acts (1809-1833) passed by British Parliament. Limited child labor hours for children ages 9-16 to 12 hrs/day, forbade employment of those under 9, and required children to attend school during working hours
(Robert) Walpole
Served a prime minister from 1721-1742. Pursued peaceful foreign policy to avoid new land taxes. Flourishing trade/industry --> growing middle class bagan to favor expansion of trade and world empire.
Israeli Blockade
Set by Colonel Gamal Abdel Nassar, Egyptian ruler, in PLO, blocked Israeli shipping through gulf Aqaba, 1967 preemptive Isr strikes.
Law of the General Maximum
Set by Committee of Public Safety to help with economic control. Established price controls on goods declared of first necessity. Failed since government lacked machinery to enforce.
Louis XIV
Set standard for monarchies & aristocracies all over Europe. Restructured central policy-making machinery of government. Greatest danger = high nobles/royal princes (wanted to assert policy-making role of royal ministers). BUT..problem-solved by removing them from royal council/government. Relied on ministers (from aristocratic noble families). Desire to maintain religious harmony --> didn't want to allow Protestants to practice their faith --> felt it undermined his authority.
cyclical depressions
Short term crises during which unemployment rates skyrocketed and repeatedly devastated single-industry towns.
Rasputin
Siberian peasant whom the the tsarina regarded as a holy man because he was able to stop the bleeding of their hemophiliac son, Alexis. His influence made him a power behind the throne; didn't hesitate to interfere in government affairs => economic/military disasters, Russians become unhappy with tsarist regime. Conservative aristocrats feel they need to reverse these ruins, so they assassinate this man in 1916.
Charles Fourier's phalansteries
Small, self-contained cooperative communities containing 1620 people. People in these communities worked together for mutual benefit and rotated jobs to prevent one person from doing undesirable jobs.
Scandinavian Example
Social Dem govs development of rural/indust cooperative enterprises to battle depression. Avoided Comm/Cap mistakes. Also expanded social services; pensions, insurance unemp, also housing, prenatal care, vacations. Resulting taxes, bureaucracies, prosperity.
working class
Social class consisting of factory workers who receive low wages and are at high risk for unemployment. They do not own the means of production and simply sell their labor for meager wages.
Robert Owen
Social reformer who founded utopian socialism. Supported the idea of trade unions and formed the Grand National Consolidated Trades Union (1834)
Benito Mussolini
Socialist, editor of 'Avanti'. Rejected from Socialists when he wanted to intervene w/war. Founder of Fascism
Affects of WW1 on Italy
Soldier deaths, great financial burden, some little territory, mostly to east. Domestic confusion, Italy felt 'cheated, inflation hurt middle class, demobilization = unemployment.
Neo-Gothic architecture
Some Romantics possessed a passionate interest in the past. This historical focus was manifested in many ways, resulting in the revival of medieval architecture. European countrysides were adorned with pseudo-medieval castles and cities bedecked with this type of grandiose cathedrals, city halls, parliamentary buildings, and railway stations.
Philip II
Son & heir of Charles V. Consolidated Spain, Netherlands, possessions in Italy & New World ---> strict conformity to Catholicism (enforced by use of Spanish Inquisition) and establishment of strong, monarchical authority. Problems: attempt to crush revolt in Netherlands + screwed up relations with Queen Elizabeth / Englad
Surrealism
Sought reality beyond the material, sensible world, found in unconscious. Dreams, fantasies. Portrayed illogical.
(Cesare) Beccaria
Sought to create new approach to justice. "On Crimes & Punishments" - argued that punishments should serve only as deterrents, not as exercises in brutality. Opposed to use of capital punishment: harmful to society as example of barbarism.
Absolutism
Sovereign power/ultimate authority in the state controlled by king who claimed to rule by "divine right". [Sovereign power = authority to make laws, tax, administer justice, control state's administrative system, determine foreign policy]
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)
Soviet Union by Lenin 1922 and on, created state.NEP saved economy long-run,
Mikhail Gorbachev
Soviet statesman whose foreign policy brought an end to the Cold War and whose domestic policy introduced major reforms (born in 1931)
Salvador Dali
Spanish Surrealist, representational. 'Persistence of Memory' portrayed things unrecognizably in relationships,
Vasco Nunez de Balboa
Spanish explorer. (1513) Led expedition across Isthmus of Panama (narrow strip of land linking 2 larger ones) --> reached Pacific Ocean
Family Planning Clinics
Spread to working class families, Margaret Sanger US, Marie Stopes GB.
Korean War
Stalin & NK tried to capture SK 1950, countered w/US troops, opposed more w/Comm Chinese troops, unconclusive armistice 1953.
Tehran Conference
Stalin, Roosevelt, Churchill Nov 1943 decide future course of war. Churchill - wanted GB & US to attack Germ through Balkans, Stalin & Roosevelt - US-GB invasion through France. Churchill-Stalin division of influence spheres in European smaller countries.
Berlin Wall
Stemmed from Nikita Khrushchev's threatening to hand over access to E Germ if Allies didn't surrender W Germ, later Berlin Wall physically separated 2 sides, stopped conflict. Later restarted w/JFK, empty threats.
EEC and the EC (European Community)
Strategic Trading union creating/strengthening commercy and prosperity in Europe.
Socialist Realism
Strictly imposed realistic, 19th cen art pictorial style.
General Strike of 1926
Strike of miners when wages were to be lowered, settled w/compromise.
David Hume
Strong believer of science of man. "Pioneering social scientist".
Mary Wollstonecraft
Strongest statement for rights of women in 18th c. Founder of modern European feminism.
Joseph II
Successor of Empress Maria Theresa. Determined to make changes, and also carry on mother's chief goal of enhancing Habsburg power within monarchy. Earnest man who believed in need to get rid of anything that countered reason. Reform program - ABOLISHED serfdom/tried to give peasants hereditary rights to their holdings. ABANDONED economic restraints by ELIMINATING internal trade barriers, ENDING monopolies, REMOVING guild restrictions. New penal code instituted that RETRACTED death penalty + ESTABLISHED principle of EQUALITY OF ALL before law. Introduced drastic religious reforms (religious toleration/restrictions of Catholic church). However..alienated nobility by freeing serfs. Alienated church by attacks on monasteries. ATTEMPT TO RATIONALIZE administration of empire by imposing German as official language alienated non-German nationalities. Complained there weren't enough ppl for kind of bureaucracy he needed.
Leo X
Successor of Julius II. Patron of Renaissance culture as deeply involved participant. Acquired refined taste in art, manners, social life among Florentine Renaissance elite.
puddling
System developed by Henry Cort. Coke used to burn away impurities in pig iron to produce iron of high quality. Development are iron = response to demand for new machines - hi-quality wrought iron produced by this process made it the most widely used metal until 1860s. Growing supply of cheap metal encouraged use of machinery in new means of transportation!
Bourbon dynasty
Temporarily rejuvenated Spain. Provided opportunity to centralize the institutions of the state. Under Philip V - the laws, administrative institutions, and language of Castile were established in other Spanish kingdoms. French-style ministries REPLACED old conciliar system of government. Officials similar to French "intendants" were introduced.
German mobilization WWII
To maintain home front,, Hitler didn't convert to arms productions in cities, Bltizkrieg stole resources to not affect home economy, 1942 changed w/arms production mass scale, total mobilization 1944 but too late. Women's role in work improved, increased slightly, many didn't want to be employed.
Leonardo da Vinci
Transition figure in shift to High Ren. principles. Carried on 15th c. experimental tradition. Stressed need to advance beyond realism: 1) idealization of nature + 2) reveal person's inner life through gesture & movement
Montesquieu: "Spirit of the Laws"
Treatise, comparative study of governments in which author tried to apply scientific method to social/political arena to ascertain "natural laws" governing social relationships of human beings.
Alexander II
Tsar of Russia who abolished serfdom in Edict of Emancipation (1861) and created zemstvos. Freed serfs but provided them with land that they had to pay for in installments to the mir (village commune). Mir owned land worked by the peasants so system was similar to original serfdom.
rotary engine
Turn a shaft --> drive machinery. Crucial to Industrial revolution, it could pump water from a mine efficiently. Invented by James Watt in 1784.
Bay of Pigs
US-supported attempt to invafe cuba, overthrow Castro 1961, next year Soviets stationed nuclear weapons there, threatened US, though they had 'backup' in Turkey. Blockade of missle fleet (Soviet)delayed confrontation. Resolved w/US promising not to invade in return for no missles. Close to nuclear war.
Hermann Hesse
Unconscious reflecting Carl Jung, Eastern religions, spiritual loneliness in urbanized socierty. 'Demian' incest, 'Stepppenwwold' confusion of modern existence, impacted German youth. Nobel Prize.
Atomic bomb
Under J.Robert Oppenheimer in New Mexico. Attacks w/'normal' B-29 Super fortresses, Japanese mobilization in 'people's volunteer corps'. Little Boy & at Man dropped on Hiroshima, Nagasaki, in which Japan surrendered
Communist China
Under Mao, 1955 collective farms, 'Great Leap Forward' program 1958 w/farm people's communes to speed Comm process. Distaster, drove food production down w/weather, hatred. 1966 Red Guards to 'cleanse' Chinese impurity.
Labor Front
Under Robert Ley, regulated labor, state-controlled, sponsored leisure.
Vietnam War
Under US Lyndon B. Johnson, US troops sent to defeat Vietcong, stop N from invading/uniting w/Communism, important because 'or else all Asian countries will be Comm'. Efficient Vietcong & S opp, US failed esp w/antiwar movement, led Nixon to stop 1973.
First Battle of the Marne
Under the leadership of steel-nerved General Joseph Joffre, the French attacked a gap in the German line on September 6. For three days, France threw everything into the attack. At one point, the French government desperately requisitioned all the taxis to Paris to rush reserved to the troops at the front. Finally, the Germans fell back. Paris and France had been miraculously saved. It turned the war into a long stalemate.
James I
Understood little about laws, institutions, customs of English. Supported divine right of kings --> alienated Parliament. Puritans wanted him to eliminate episcopal system - refused (thought Anglican church = major support of monarchical authority.
Federal Republic
Unification of 3 W zones 1949, Konrade Adenauer leader of CDU. Looked for respect for W Germ, cooperated w/ powers, reconciled w/ France. Adenauer later replaced w/Erhard, to rise of Social Dems.
Dual Monarchy
United monarchy consisting of Austria and Hungary. Also called the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Both sections had their own domestic government seated in separate capitals, but held together by one monarch, Francis Joseph. Foreign policy, currency, and army were common between Austria and Hungary. Allowed German Austrians and Hungarian Magyars to dominate the minorities (Poles, Serbs, Slovaks, etc) in Austria and Hungary.
Ptolemaic (geocentric) universe
Universe seen as a series of concentric spheres with a fixed or motionless earth at its center. Composed of material substances: earth, air, faire, water, - earth is imperfect and constantly changing. Spheres surrounding earth = made of crystalline + moved in circular orbits around earth. God/saved souls at one end, humans in center.
Edwin Chadwick
Urban reformer. Background in law. Obsessed with eliminating poverty and squalor of metropolitan areas. Became civil servant. Soon appointed to some government investigatory commissions. Secretary of Poor Law Commission - initiated passionate search for detailed facts about living conditions of working classes. Summarized, after 3 yrs, the results in his "Report on the Condition of the Labouring Population of Great Britain" (1842). Argued these conditions could be eliminated. Advocating system of modern sanitary reforms consisting of efficient sewers & supply of piped water.
How Stalin defeated Trotsky
Used power as secretary to control Comm party, expelled Trotsky and later assn him in Mexico. Stalinist Era ~ Econ, soc, pol revolution, esp economic policy.
Death camps
Used when Einsatzgruppen became ineffective, 6 large camps in Poland where Jews were shipped and killed. Auschwitz-Birkenau. 30% to labor camps, the rest to gas chambers, then burned w/valuables taken, some 'medical' experiments. 5-6m Jews killed, 3m in camps. Also killed Gypsies, leading Slavs, Soviets, homosexuals, many others died in slave labor.
The Aztecs
Valley of Mexico. Established capital at Tenochtitlan. By 15th century, was leading city-state lake region. Consisted of semi-independent territories governed by local lords, who were confirmed in authority by Aztec ruler, in return for payment of tribute. Constructed causeways (raised roads) across Lake Texcoco to the north, south, and west - linking multiple smaller islands to the mainland. Also developed aqueducts. Loose political organization = later lead to downfall :(
Suburbs
Where wealthy, middle-class inhabitants insulated themselves. Able to have individual houses and gardens.
Japanese Imperialization ~
With population growth, lack of resources, political democracy & expansion, empire in Pacific began 1937 - Nchina, IndoChina, Islands angered Europeans & US who cut off sales & resources. To preempt conflict, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor Dec 1941.
Italian Opinion to Women
Women given medals w/more children, less working accounted for better employment of men.
Women in Nazi State
Women seen as producers of new race, 'German Mother's Cross'. Encouraged women to not work, esp in 'hard' industries men-dominated. With later war, opinion changed.
Social Reparations of Depression
Women took low-paying jobs, men unemployed, reversed roles, gangs and protest.
domestic servants
Women who made money by selling their household services to other families.
Hannah Hoch
Women's role to Dadaism, only female in Berlin Dada Club, 'Dada Dance' criticized & potentialized women.
William Harvey: "On the Motion of the Heart and Blood"
Work based on meticulous observations & experiments ---> demolished ancient Greek's erroneous contentions. Demonstrated that the heart (NOT the liver) = beginning point of circulation of blood in body; same blood flows in both veins and arteries ; blood makes complete circuit as it passes through the body. Laid foundation for modern physiology.
(Jacques-Louis) David
Work involved evident classical elements. 'Oath of the Horatii' : re-created scene from Roman history. Neoclassical style - moral seriousness + emphasis on honor/patriotism = Extremely popular during French Revolution.
Central Powers
World War I alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire
Thomas Malthus
Wrote "Essay on the Principles of Population". Believed population increased at a geometric rate while food supplies increased at an arithmetic rate. Thought misery and poverty were part of nature and no one should interfere with that.
Edmund Burke and conservatism
Wrote "Reflections on the Revolution in France." Believed that the state was a partnership between the dead, the living, and those not yet born. Believed it must be passed down to the next generation. Also advocated slow change instead of violent revolution.
Josip Broz
Yugoslav statesman who led the resistance to German occupation during World War II and established a communist state after the war (1892-1980)
IRA
a militant organization of Irish nationalists who used terrorism and guerilla warfare in an effort to drive British forces from Northern Ireland and achieve a united independent Ireland
Perestroika
a policy initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev that involved restructuring of the social and economic status quo in communist Russia towards a market based economy and society
Spice Islands
aka Moluccas
Bourgeois
aka middle class. Originally meant burghers - merchants, officials, artisans, lawyers, or scholars who enjoyed a special set of rights from the charter of the town. However, as wealthy townspeople bought land, original meaning of the word became lost. Term came to include ppl involved in commerce, industry, and banking, + professionals like government officials on various levels.
Neoplatonism
based on 2 primary ideas -- 1. Hierarchy of Substances: chain of lowest (plants) to highest/purest (God) -> humans are in the middle = link between material world (body) & spiritual world (soul) 2) Theory of Spiritual Love: the universe is held together by bonds of sympathetic love
Erich Honecker
communist leader in east germany / DDR. Forced fleeing east germans to return to germany. Then he was forced out of the gov.
Falklands War
conflict between Britain and Argentina; a military junta claimed ownswership of the British colony sparking an international crisis. The British won the war and the military junta lost authority in Argentina
Francis Bacon
lawyer/lord chancellor. Rejected Copernicus/Kepler + misunderstood Galileo. "The Great Instauration". not doubt humans' ability to know natural world, only that they'd proceeded incorrectly. New foundation (correct scientific method) to be built on inductive principles. Wanted science to contribute to "mechanical arts" by creating devices that would benefit industry, agriculture, trade.
Margaret Thatcher
leader of conservatives in Great Britain who came to power. Pledged to limit social welfare, restrict union power, and end inflation. Formed Thatcherism, in which her economic policy was termed, and improved the British economic situation. She dominated British politics in 1980s, and her government tried to replace local property taxes with a flat-rate tax payable by every adult. Her popularity fell, and resigned.
Final Solution
the Nazi program of exterminating Jews under Hitler
Slovenia and Croatia
the declared their independence from Yug. when Tito died. Mil. attacked them because he didn't want them to separate. Genocide of minorities by Milosevic.
Mary Astell
"A Serious Proposal to the Ladies" - women needed to become better educated. Believed men would resent her proposal, but if they could justify superiority, then so could she. "Some Reflections upon Marriage" - argued for equality of the sexes.
Querelles des Femmes
"Arguments about women" - nature & value of women as subject of debate. Male opinions: basically same as medieval times & not favorable. Women were portrayed as inherently immoral, prone to vice, easily swayed, sexually uncontrollable. Women opinions: eomen also had rational minds/could grow from education. Since most were pious, chaste, temperate - no need for male authority over them. Emphasized education as key to women's ability to move into the world.
Shakespeare
"Complete man of the theatre." Best known for writing plays. Actor/shareholder in Lord Chamberlain's Company. Instrumental in codifying languages in period of transition.
John Locke
"Essay Concerning Human Understanding" - denied Descartes's belief in innate ideas. Argued everyone was bron with a tabula rasa: knowledge is derived from our environment, not heredity / from reason, not faith. Implied that ppl = molded by their own environment. So subjecting ppl to proper influences through new environment = improved society.
Montesquieu
"Persian Letters" - format of 2 Persians traveling in W. Europe & telling their impressions, allowed him to criticize French monarchy/Catholic church. Distinguished 3 kinds of gov. - republics (small states, citizen involvement), monarchy (middle-sized states, ruling class's adherence to law), despotism (large empires, used fear to inspire obedience). Mostly insisted on SoP because he wanted French nobility to play a more active role in government.
European Recovery Program / Marshall Plan 1947
$13B for European economic recovery, believing it would prevent Communism.
Oswald Spengler
'Decline of the West' disillusionment w/Western decadence, collapse, avant-garde irrationality ofhumans.
John Maynard Keynes
'General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money' in 1936 - condemned view of free economy where depressions left alone. Argued unemployment was from decline in demand, could be increased w/public works, financed w/deficit spending.
Blitzkrieg
'Lighting War' speedy German attacks using panzer divisions (300 tanks, planes, supports) and following infantry units. Captured Poland in 4 weeks to be divided w/Soviets.
Kraft durch Freude
'Strength through Joy' to coordinate free time of working class offering recreation activities.
Cosimo d'Medici
(1434) Took control of Florence's small merchant oligarchy & maintained a Republic appearance. He used patronage & political ally courting to dominate the culture centered city
Peace of Augsburg
(1555) Ended religious warfare in Germany. Granted Lutheranism equal legal standing with Catholicism. Accepted right of German rulers to determine religions of their subjects.
Richard Trevithick
(1804) Pioneered first steam-powered locomotive on industrial rail line in south Wales. Pulled 10 tons of ore + 70 ppl at 5mph :OOOOOOO.
Battle of Leipzig
(1813) Aka the Battle of the Nations. Prussia, Austria, and Russia coming together to push Napoleon back into France. Once they enter Paris, Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba and Louis XVIII is restored to the throne.
John Cockerill
(1817) Agressive businessman who established highly profitable industrial plant at Seraing near Liege in S. Belgium. Thought nothing of pirating innovations of other British industrialists to further his own factories.
French Policy of Coercion
(1919-1924) Search for French security based on enforcement of Versailles treaty. Issues of reparations, payments. Allied Reparations Commission settled for 132b marks ($33 billion) paid in annual installments. Germ paid because of threats to industrial Ruhr Valley.
Inductive method
(Bacon) Scientists should proceed from the particular to the general, rather than beginning with assumed first principles from which logical conclusions could be deduced. Carefully organized experiments & thorough, systematic observations --> correct generalizations could be developed. Empiricism.
Deductive method
(Descartes) One could start with self-evident truths, and deduce more complex conclusions. Rationalism.
Renaissance
(Italian 1350 - 1550) "Rebirth" of classical culture after the Dark Ages. Renewed interest in antiquity / Greco-Roman civilization. --->Individualism & secularism
Edict of Restitution
(March 1629) Issued by Emperor Ferdinand II at height of his power after success of his imperial armies during Danish phase. Prohibited Calvinist worship + restored Catholic church of all property taken away by Protestants in the past.
Pico della Mirandola: "Oration"
(late 15th century) Prominent magi. Combined 'nuggets of universal truth' [from works of many philsophers] + unlimited potential of humans.
Charles I
(son of James I).(1629-1640) Pursued course of personal rule --> forced him to find ways to collect taxes without cooperation of Parliament.
"Family planning"
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"Yellow press"
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Abstract Impressionism
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Albert Einstein
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Alexander III
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Anarchism
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Balkans' Crisis
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Bismarck's welfare legislation
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Bismarckian System
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Bloody Sunday
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Boer War
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Cartels
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Cubism
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David Lloyd George
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Eduard Bernstein
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Emile Zola
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French Third Republic
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James Watt
1760s: Asked to repair a Newcomen engine (steam pump) but added a separate condenser/steam pump and transformed Newcomen's machine into a genuine steam engine.
Agricultural Revolution
18th cen: changes in methods of farming & stock breeding ---> significant increase in food production ---> feed more people at lower prices with less labor.
potatoes/maize
18th century witnessed greater yields of vegetables. Both brought to Europe from America in 16th century. _____ = staple in Germany, the Low Countries, esp. Ireland (repression by English landlords forced large numbers of poor peasants to survive on small pieces of marginal land). Took little effort to produce in large quantities.
Marie Stopes
1918 English 'Married Love', emphasizing sex in marriage.
Bauhaus School of Arts
1919 Weimar, Germany by Walter Gropius. Architects, artists, designers blending fine arts w/applied arts.
"March on Rome"
1922 March in Rome to Naples, calculated bluff to make gov, and King Victor Emmanuel III surrender position of prime minister.
German Financial Problems
1922 unable to pay reparations, French troops to occupy Ruhr Valley, use to help collect reparations through operations. Ultimately did not pay back anything due to cost of occupation.
bourgeoisie
8% of society = 2.3 million people. AKA middle class. Owns 20-25% of land. Merchants, industrialists, bankers - controlled resources of trade, manufacturing, and finance. Benefited from economic prosperity after 1730. Included professionals - lawyers, doctors etc. Members sought security and status through purchase of land. Often excluded from social/political privileges monopolized by nobles. Appealed to Enlightenment ideas - liberal political thought. Frustrated by political/social order.
Lech Walesa
A Polish politician, a former trade union and human rights activist, and also a former electrician. He co-founded Solidarity, the Soviet bloc's first independent trade union, won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983, and served as President of Poland from 1990 to 1995.
overproduction
A devastating economic issue regarding the lack of demand and excess of supply that caused unemployment.
reasons of state
A ruler looks beyond dynastic interests (desire of ruling families to extend their dynastic holdings), into the long-term future of their states.
no man's land
A strip of land beween the trenches of opposing armies along the Western Front
war communism
A system introduced under Bolshevik rule after 1917 which involved land being seized and redistributed, factories given to the workers, banks being nationalized, and church property being granted to the state. This was enforced by the Cheka.
League of Nations
A world organization established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed in 1918 by President Woodrow Wilson, although the United States never joined the League. Essentially powerless, it was officially dissolved in 1946.
Edict of Nantes
Acknowledged Catholicism as official religion of France / guaranteed Huguenots right to worship in selected places in every district & retain a number of fortified towns for their protection. Huguenots also allowed to enjoy all political privileges, including holding of public offices.
Grand Alliance ~
Addition of US turned the war, milit operations over political differences 1943 agreed to fight until Axis surrender.
Poor West-Soviet Relations
Alliance because of common aim to defeat Nazism, later deterioration. Soviet anger at Us termination o Lend-Lease aid, refusal of loan request. US anger at Soviet not signing Declaration, engineering of Romanian 'Little Stalin', trying to force Soviet power in Poland.
Union of Utrecht
Alliance of 7 northern provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands
(W. A.) Mozart
Allowed Concerto, symphony, opera to reach their prime. Sough a patron, but discontent with overly demanding archbishop of Salzburg forced him to move to Vienna. Wrote music prolifically and passionately. Carried tradition of Italian comic opera to new heights. Composed with an ease of melody, blend of grace/precision/emotion.
Henry Cort
Allowed better quality of iron to be produced when he developed a system called puddling - coke used to burn away impurities in pig iron to produce iron of high quality.
Munster
Anabaptist uprising in city of powerful Catholic prince-bishop. Even though this city had converted to Lutherism it became a safehaven for anabaptist. Melchiorites (believed in vivid millenarianism/impending end of the world) took control in 1534, drove everyone they considered godless/unbeliever.
Nuremberg Laws
Anti-Sem laws excluded Germ Jews as citizens, marrying rights. Social, political, legal discrimination.
Popular Front
Antifascist group of dems, socs, rev left, took over 1936. Unacceptable to old milit who had bloody 3-year civil war. Aided in war by Soviet Union, planes, tanks, volunteers, milit advisors, etc.
Czechoslovakia Sudetenland
Appeasement at Munich conference w/GB, Fr, It allowed Germ to occupy N Czech frontier defense, industry. Czech abandoned, Chamberlain believed assurances, 1939 w/disorder Germ took Cz, Slovakia 'state' (Nazi)
Auguste Comte
Applied the growing interest in science in the 19th century to study of humans and society. wrote System of Positive philosophy and developed system of positive knowledge based on hierarchy of sciences with math on bottom and sociology on top.
Palestine
Arab/Muslim, GB reduced Jewish imm 1930s, rejected Palestine. After Holocaust, sympathies led Truman to approve Palestine, UN divided into Jewish/Arab state, 1948 state of Israel, Arabs shocked w/90% pop Muslim. Failed invasions.
Nagasaki
Area where 2 major foreign trading posts were forced to close by the government. Allowed small Dutch community to remain, bc it hadn't allowed missionary activities to interfere with their trade interests. .
Arnold Schonberg
Atonal music where tonality was abandoned, 12-toned composition using 12 independent notes.
Rousseau: "Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind"
Began with humans in their primitive condition, where they were happy. No laws, no judges; everyone's equal. But then, ppl adopted laws/governors to preserve their private property --> rushed into chains. Government = evil, but necessary.
Societe Generale
Belgian Continental bank
Broadcasting Facilities
Broadcasting for mass audiences introduced, mass radio production. Included propaganda (ie Hitler and Joseph Goebbels, propaganda minister of Germ. 'Triumph of the Will')
Tyco Brahe
Built Uraniborg castle w/ library, observatories, instruments designed for more precise astronomical observations. Compiled detailed record of his observations of positions/movements of stars and planets for twenty years. Before death, spent years in Prague as imperial mathematician to Emperor Rudolf II - also took on assistant: Johannes Kepler
Elizabeth I & the Spanish Armada
By Philip II, opposed neutrality of Elizabeth, lost to English peasants.
Assn of Socialist Giacomo Matteotti
Campaign of intimidation at height, challenged because people thought he was involved.
Tenochtitlan
Capital of Aztec Empire. Located on an island in Lake Texcoco. Population was about 150,000 on the eve of Spanish conquest.
Mediterranean strategy ~
Capturing Egypt & Suez to blockade GB oil. Failed with Italy, unable to defeat African GB & Balkans.
CENTO
Central Treaty Org, Intended to prevent Soviets from expanding at expense of S countries.
Ninety-Five Theses
Challenged teachings of Church authority of the pope & usefulness of indulgences. Sparked theological debate ---> the Reformation + birth of Lutheran and Anabaptist traditions within Christianity
general will
Championed by Rousseau, who believed society should be governed by this. Represents community's highest aspirations, whatever was best for entire community.
Deism
Championed by Voltaire. Religious outlook built on Newtonian world-machine; implied existence of a mechanic (God) who created universe. Therefore, God has no direct involvement in the world he had created + allowed it to run according to its own natural laws. DIdn't extend grace/answer prayers as Christian liked to believe. Jesus was not divine.
Enclosures
Change in landholding = increase in food production ---> yeomen enclosed old open fields; combined many small holdings which made up fields into larger units. Parliament dominated by landed aristocracy - enacted legislation allowing agricultural lands to be legally enclosed ---> England became land of large estates; many small farmers forced to become wage laborers. Largely destroyed traditional patterns of English village life.
Louis H Sullivan
Chicago School of 1890s, built skyscrapers.
Iron Curtain
Churchill's words - Germany & Europe division w/hostility, some took it as 'call to war against Soviets'.
Political Reparations of Depression
Classic deflation policy of budgets (lower wages, add tariffs) failed, mass discontent, led to gov in economy, interest in Marxism, Communism, easiness of dictatorial rule, fascism. Democracy hid.
First Estate
Clergy. 130k ppl. Owns 10% of land. Exempt from taille, France's chief tax - BUT church agreed to pay a "voluntary" contribution every 5 yrs to the state. Radically divided - higher clergy (from aristocratic families) shared interests of nobility VS. parish priests who were usually poor commoners.
natural rights
Closely related to Enlightenment idea of natural laws. Inalterable privileges that were given to everyone. Included equality before the law, freedom of religious worship, freedom of speech and press, and the right to assemble, hold property, and seek happiness.
Karl Marx
Co-author of The Communist Manifesto. Created communism with Freidrich Engels.
Cartel of the Left
Coalition gov formed by Radicals & Socialists, both antimilit, anticlerical, liked education. Radicals: democratic prop owners, Socialists: Marxists. Differences made failures, led to return of Poincaré who stabilized.
National Gov w/Depression
Coalition of Labor, Lib, Conserv parties. Used traditional policies, helped in worst time of era.
2nd New Deal
Collective efforts after criticism; WPA (Works Progress Admin) employed up to 3m people to build public structures, American welfare state ; Social Security State (pensions, unemployment insurance), National Labor Relations Act (encouraged Labor Unions)
Baron Haussmann
Commissioned to redesign Paris. Made streets wider to make it easier for troops to suppress rebellions and harder for rebels to barricade themselves. Also created a new water supply and sewage system.
Coitus interruptus
Common French method of birth control. It was the withdrawal of the male before ejaculation. The French were the early leaders of this method; they used it to limit family size during the end of the eighteenth century
Francisco Pizarro
Conquered Incan empire with spread of smallpox and death of emperor (--> civil war between 2 sons for throne). Had help from many Incan alliances. Seized Atahualpa and captured Cuzco after that. By 1535, established capital at Lima = new colony of Spanish Empire.
Stanley Baldwin
Conserv prime minister, era of renewed prosperity to 29 albeit superficial; unemployment still high, overseas investments lost, coal miners.
Verdun
Considered some of the bloodiest fighting in WWI and the German offense was stopped; offensive battle on the western front initiated by Germany in which they hoped to crush France and taken them out of the war, however France was in a very good defensive position and French held it for 10 months. Nearly a million killed. French drew reserve troops from the Somme to help defend. No territory was gained; Battle in WWI that ended in massive casualties and had little direct result
German Confederation
Consisted of thirty-eight states from the now dissolved Holy Roman Empire. Governed by a federal diet which could not take action without the consent of all member states. Used by Metternich to suppress rebellion.
Jean Baptiste Colbert
Controller general of finances. Sought to increase wealth/power of France through general adherence to mercantilism (stressed gov. regulation of economic activities to benefit the state). Attempted to expand quantity/improve quality of French goods to increase exports. Founded new luxury industries. Built roads/canals - improve communications & transportations of goods internally. Raised tariffs on foreign goods - decrease imports directly.
Jacob Burckhardt
Created modern concept of Renaissance in "Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy." He portrayed Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries as the birthplace of the modern world. Saw distinguishing features: 1) the revival of antiquity 2) the "perfecting of the individual" 3) secularism. Exaggerated individuality & secularism of Renaissance & failed to recognize the depths of its religious sentiment.
George Stephenson
Created more advanced locomotive in workshops in Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Built locomotives for FIRST MODERN railways in Britain. "Rocket" - used on first public railway line, which opened in 1830 (extended 32 mi from Liverpool to Manchester).
New Deal
Created new agencies to help; Federal Deposit Insurance Corp (safety bank deposits), Federal Emergency Relief Admin (funds for states' destitute), Civilian Conservation Corps (employed people for reforestation).
Louis XV
Decided to rule alone after Cardinal Fleury's death in 1743. Lazy and weak. Easily influenced by ministers & mistresses, who were then able to control the affairs of state + undermine the prestige of the monarchy.
Battle of Austerlitz
Decisive battle during the Napoleonic campaigns (1805). French under Napoleon defeated the Russian armies of Czar Alexander I and the Austrian armies of Emperor Francis II.
Act of Supremacy
Declared English monarch now had control over the church in all matters of doctrine, clerical appointments, and discipline. --> Treason Act: denying king was supreme head of church = punishable by death
Franklin Delano Roosevelt
Democrat, landslide victory president. 'New Deal'(1st &2nd) to help aid in Great Depression, averted social rev. Still, slow recovery.
Russian serfdom
Desirable to landowners due to abundance of land and shortage of peasants.
Michael Faraday
Discovered electromagnetic induction and laid foundation for electricity
Austro-Prussian War
Dispute over joint administration of Schleswig and Holstein. Prussia won this war because of new military technology that came from the highly industrialized society of Prussia.
June 22, 1941 ~
Eastern attack by Germans on Soviet Union to prevent 2-front war, crush hope of allies.
Methodism
Emphasized that people "reborn in Jesus" must forgo immoderation & follow a disciplined path. Laziness & wasteful habits = sinful. Acceptance of hardship in this life paved way for joys of the next. Evangelical values paralleled efforts of new factory owners to instill laborers with their own middle-class values of hard work, discipline, and thrift.
Maria Theresa
Empress of Austria. Resolved to reform her empire after War of Austrian Succession, in preparation for next war with rival Prussia. ABOLISHED Austrian/Bohemian chancelleries - replaced with departments of foreign affairs, justice, war, commerce, internal affairs. REDUCED role of provincial assemblies (diets) in taxation & local administration. Clergy/nobles forced to pay property/income taxes to royal officials, rather than diets. DIVIDED Austrian/Bohemian lands into provinces, then district (run by royal officials, rather than reps of diets) -> made Austrian Empire more centralized/bureaucratic. Done to strengthen power of Habsburg state. Accompanied by enlargement + modernization of armed forces. Staunchly Catholic/conservative. Not open to wider reform calls of philosophes.
General Directory
Established by King Wilhem I to promote evolution of Prussia's highly efficient civil bureaucracy. Served as chief administrative agent of central government, supervised military, police, economic, and financial affairs.
French New Deal
Established collective bargaining, 40-hour work week, 2-week paid vacations, minimum wages.
Maria Sibylla Merian
Established reputation as important entomologist by beginning of 18th century. Training came from working in father's workshop - learned art of illustration (observations demonstrated through drawings). (1699) Expedition into Surinam [Dutch colony] --> major scientific work "Metamorphosis of the Insects of Surinam" - used 60 illustrations to show reproductive/developmental cycles of insect life.
Common currency
Euro created in Maastricht Treaty, uniting most European countries by the 2000s.
National Nazi Party
Expanded w/Hitler as Fuhrerprinzip on regional basis, gave young people 'active' politics, 'young man's movement'. Worked Urban strategy to win workers, began pursuing middle/lower-class votes.
Rene Descartes
Father of modern rationalism. Reflected doubt/uncertainty that was prevalent in confusion of 17th century. Jesuit education. (1619) Perceived outlines of a new rational mathematical system w/ sense of divine approval - made commitment to mind, mathematics, & mechanical universe.
Containment policy
Fear of Soviet aims led Americans to have more involvement in European affairs, containment.
Simone de Beauvoir
Feminist, relationship w/Jean-Paul Sartre (existentialist) led to politics, 'The Second Sex' argued male-dominated society in France.
Cuban Missle Crisis 1959
Fidel Castro revolutionist Soviet-supported totalitarian regime, overthrew previous Fulgencio Batist.
trench warfare
Fighting with trenches, mines, and barbed wire. Horrible living conditions, great slaughter, no gains, stalemate, used in WWI.
Scientific Societies
First appeared in Italy. English Royal Society - created from informal gatherings of scientists @ London & Oxford in 1640s; didn't receive formal charter from Charles II until 1662. Received little government support; members appointed new members. French Royal Academy of Sciences - arose out of informal scientific meetings in Paris @ Paris in 1650s; formally recognized by Louis XIV in 1666. Received lots of state support/remained under government control; members appointed/paid salaries by state. BOTH: formally emphasized practical value of scientific research. Created committee to investigate tech improvements for industry. Primary interest - work in mech/astro.
assignats
Form of paper $$ issued based on collateral of newly rationalized church property.
Great War for Empire
Fought in India/N. America. French returned Madras to Britain after WoAS, but struggling for power CONTINUED as French/British supported OPPOSING native Indian princes. British under Robert Clive won. ENDED by Treaty of Paris 1763.
Hitler Youth/German Girls
Foundation of new totalitarian state (all inst under Nazis), oath of devotion to Hitler,
Giuseppe Mazzini and Young Italy
Founder and organization whose goal it was to unify Italy. Eventually failed to work as the Austrians regained control over Italy.
Credit Mobilier
French Continental bank.Took in savings of small investors. Bought shares in new industries. These investments = essential to Continental industrialization.
Francois Mitterrand
French Socialist who tried to nationalize industries and expand welfare benefits in the 1980s.
The Somme
French and British offensive on the German trenches near a river in northern France fought in 1916. The battle was a failed attempt as over 1 million casualties were suffered by both forces combined. Although it was one of the bloodiest battles of the war, the combined French and British armies only advanced 6 miles.
Marquis de Lafayette
French aristocrat. Volunteered for service in America to "strike a blow against England" (old enemy of France). Closely associated with George Washington. Returned to France with ideas of individual liberties & notions of republicanism & popular sovereignty.
Maginot Line ~
French concrete, steel artillery lines to protect on defensive, resulted in phony war.
Georges Clemenceau
French representative at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He pushed for a revenge-based treaty at Versailles.
Nazi racial ideology
From great ancient 'Aryan' race, superior to all else, especially the Jews.
Decolonization of India
GB negotiation w/Indian National Congress, realization colony would need to be split into Muslim/Hindu countires to avoid conflict. Mahatma Ghandi objected because of possible war.
Montezuma
Gave Cortes a friendly welcome when his troops entered Tenochtitlan. Believed Cortes was a representative of Quetzalcoatl (god who had departed from his homeland a long time ago + had promised he would return). Offered gifts of gold to Cortes + his troops, and gave them a palace to use temporarily.
Anti-Comintern Pact
Germ & Japan (rising power) common front against communism.
Polish Danzig
Germ demanded pre-Germ Danzig (made free by Versailles), foreign powers outraged by taking of Czech.
Yalta Conference
Germany declined, fear of Soviet takeover of Eastern Europe, Declaration on Liberated Europe, Soviet help against Japan, creation of United Nations, Germany division into occupational zones (one to be carved out for France), $20m in reparations, provisional Polish gov, free elections, political friendliness to Soviets, latter 2 led to tension.
blank check
Germany's response to assassination of future Austrian heir Archduke Ferdinand. Assured Austria-Hungary that Germany would fully support them no matter what happened. Didn't realize Austria-Serbia war would lead to wider war.
Predestination
God has foreknowledge of all events ---> has predetermined those who will be saved (the elect) and those who will be damned
Voltaire
Greatest figure of Enlightenment. Classical Jesuit education. First success as playwright/hailed as successor to Racine. "Philosophic Letters on the English" - expressed deep admiration of English life (freedom of press, politics, religion). Believed women were capable of all that men are. Initiated modern ideal of social history.
Albrecht Durer
Greatly influenced by Italians ---> mastery of laws of perspective + Renaissance theories of perspective, BUT did not reject use of tiny details. Basically tried to integrate details more harmoniously in works ---> achieve standard of ideal beauty by careful examination of human form
Michelangelo
Greatly influenced by Neoplatonism. Neoplatonic fashion: more beauty = more god-like
Feminist Movement
Ground w/participation in world wars, rights to vote, esp w/more in workforce, movement in late 1960s, for legal/political equality.
Swedish Phase (3: Thirty Years War)
Gustavus Adolphus enters the war. His armies swept imperial forces out of north - moved into heart of Germany. Desperate imperial side recalled Wallenstein. (1632) Battle of Lutzen - Swedish forces won, but Adolphus died :( (1634) Battle of Nordlingen - Imperial army defeated Swedes + drove them out of S. Germany --> victory guaranteed S. Germany would remain Catholic. Emperor tried to make peace w/ Germany by agreeing to annul Edict of Restitution but still no peace.`
(18th c.) Parliament
Had power to make laws, levy taxes, pass budget, and indirectly influence king's ministers.Dominated by landed aristocracy divided into 2 groups: 1) peers - sat for life in House of Lords 2) landed gentry - sat in House of Commons, served as justices of peace in counties. Both were landowners with similar economic interests. Frequent intermarriages.
Hiroshima & Nagasaki ~
Harry Truman instead of direct war, dropped 2 atomic bombs directly after Roosevelt death. Japanese immediately surrendered.
Truman Doctrine
Harry Truman's response to Brit weakness in E Mediterranean, essentially US would provide money threatened by Comm expansion to hinder it. 400$M for Greece & Turkey.
J. M. W. Turner
He produced over twenty thousand paintings, drawings, and watercolors that expressed his concern with nature. He did not idealize nature or reproduce it with realistic accuracy but focused on the interplay of light and color to convey various moods.
Eugene Delacroix
He was fascinated by the exotic and had a passion for color. His Death of Sardanapalus shows his use of light and its patches of interrelated color. He combined theatricality and movement with his daring use of color.
"Liberal Studies"
History, moral philosophy, eloquence (rhetoric), letters (grammar & logic), poetry, mathematics, astronomy, music. Purpose = produce individuals who followed path of virtue & wisdom + possessed rhetorical skills to persuade others to do the same
Annexation of Austria
Hitler coerced Chancellor Kurt von Schuschnigg into Nazi control w/law, 1938 annexation. No oppose.
dictated peace
How the Big Four basically cut down Germany's army, navy, and air force, as well as demilitarizing German land west of the Rhine to serve as a barrier to any future German military moves westward against France.
Salvation by faith
Human beings are weak and powerless before God, so one can never do enough good works to merit salvation. Thus, humans are saved through their faith in the promises of God.
Erasmus: "The Praise of Folly"
Humorous yet effective criticism of corruptness of society; especially harsh on abuses within the clergy.
Balance of power
Idea which kept any one country from dominating Europe. Prussia and Austria balanced Russia and a barrier consisting of the new kingdom of the Netherlands balanced France
Ricardo's "iron law of wages"
Idea written in "Principles of Political Economy" in which population increases which brings more workers. An excess of workers decreases the wages below subsistence levels, causing starvation and a reduction in population. The number of workers declines and wages increase again. This encourages workers to have larger families, thus increasing the population and completing the cycle. Believed wages must be kept constant in order to prevent this cycle.
Emelyn Pugachev
Illiterate Cossack. Succeeded in welding elements of peasant discontent (from attempt of Russian gov. to impose restrictions on free peasants in border of Russia) into mass revolt. Basically organized Russian peasant revolt. Rebellion spread across S. Russia from Urals to Volga River. Initially successful. Won support of many peasants when he issued a manifesto in July 1774 freeing all peasants from oppressive taxes/military service. Then executed; serfdom continued expansion.
Slave trade
Increased during 16th-18th c. Primary market = Middle East; most used as domestic servants. Increase caused from discovering of Americas in 1490s/sugar plantations, which required more work AND high death rate. Most were prisoners of war before coming of Europeans in 15th c. African merchants very active in the process, able to dictate price/number of slaves to Euro purchasers.
Edward VI
Inherited throne at age 9 --> control of England passed to council of regency --> those inclined toward Protestant doctrines able to move English Church in Protestant direction
Fritz Harkort
Initiated engineering industry in Germany. Exclaimed he could scarcely wait for Germans to be trained "so that the Englishmen could all be whipped out: we must even now treat softly with them, for they're only too quick to speak of quitting if one does so little as not look at them in a friendly fashion."
Frank Lloyd Wright
Innovative domestic architecture using built-in furniture, geometric designs. Modern American hous.
Andreas Vesalius: "On the Fabric of the Human Body"
Inspired by Galen. Deviated from traditional practice by personally dissecting body to illustrate what he was discussing. Anatomical treatise that presented careful examination of individual organs/general structure of human body. Relied on artistic advances of Renaissance & technical developments in printing. Corrected Galen's assertion that great blood vessels originated from liver (came from heart).
Six-Day War
Isr stikes of retaliation against Egypt/other Arab states 1967, hurt Nassar's forces, tripled territory, more hatred. Conflicts still unresolved.
pocket boroughs
Issue of who could vote deputies to HoC during parliamentary elections ---> enabled wealthy landed aristocrats to gain support through patronage & bribery. Basically where a single person has control over representatives from several different boroughs. Aristocratic control extended to county
Glorious Revolution
Issue of who would be monarch. English Parliament and William and Mary agreed to overthrow James II for the sake of Protestantism ---> constitutional monarchy and the drafting of the English Bill of Rights.
Declaration of Pillnitz
Issued by Leopold II (Austria) & King Frederick William II of Prussia. Invited other European monarchies to take "the most effectual means...to put the king of France in a state to strengthen, in the most perfect liberty, the basis of a monarchical government equally becoming to the rights of sovereigns & to the well-being of the French Nation."
Giulio Douhet
Italian general argued bombing of civilians was effective to coerce govs into making peace.
Cardinal Mazarin
Italian trained successor of Richelieu. Disliked by French --> nobles started the Fronde in rebellion
(Maximillian) Robespierre
Jacobin who led the Committee of Public Safety and wanted to kill any opposers to the revolution. Main figure of Reign of Terror. Obsessed with purifying body politic of corruption.
Joseph Stalin
Joined Bolshs 1903, bank robbery to fund Bolsh cause, bureaucratic, organizer, secretary (appointed secretaries of entire county, used to give to followers). Neither L or R, but liked only Rus as Socialist state.
The Lusitania
Large British passenger liner whose sinking in 1915 prompted some Americans to call for war against Germany
Newton: "Principia"
Last highly influential book in Latin. Spelled out mathematical proofs demonstrating his universal law of gravitation. Culmination of theories of Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo. Defined basic concept of mechanics - elaborated on 3 laws of motion --> applied theories to astronomy: 3 laws governed planets as well.
Nicholas II
Last tsar of Russia. Turns to army/bureaucracy to keep up his rule (since Russia's lack of industrialization & WWI makes gov weaker). Went to the frontlines in WWI to try to rally the troops, but was forced to abdicate after his wife made horrible decisions under the influence of Rasputin.
Law of 14 Frimaire
Law - Committee of Public Safety sought to centralize administration of France more effectively + exercise greater control in order to check the excesses of Reign of Terror. Activities of both reps on mission and revolutionary armies - scrutinized more carefully & campaign
Navigation Acts
Laws that governed trade between England and its colonies. Colonists were required to ship certain products exclusively to England. These acts made colonists very angry because they were forbidden from trading with other countries.
Francisco Franco
Led bloody civil war against Popular Front, aided by arms, men, money of Fascist countries, finally wore down Front, captured Madrid 1939 w/end of Spanish Civil War. Franco estab dictatorship lasting until 1975 death. Conserv auth gov.
New German Government
Led by Gustav Stresemann, ended passive resistance, and carry out most of Treaty Versailles, sought new settlement.
German Communist Party
Led by Walter Ulbricht, in charge of political reconstruction of Soviet zone in E Germany.
Raymond Poincaré
Led conserve National Bloc gov of strongest power, needed to rebuild hurt N, E Fr, wanted Germ reparations to pay, forced to raise taxes, voted out. Later stabilized.
Peace settlement post-WWI
Left nations unhappy over borders, especially 'losing' countries. Cause of future conflicts.
Zemstvos
Local assemblies created by Tsar Alexander II. Representatives elected by landowners. Had power to provide education, famine relief, and maintenance and could levy taxes to pay for the services. Could not reach full power as bureaucrats stopped the assemblies each time out of fear of possible self-government. Did lead to creation of courts and judicial code that granted equality before the law.
Sarajevo
Location where the Archduke Francis Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of the Austrian Empire was assassinated
Queen Victoria
Longest reign in English history: 1837-1901, known as Victorian Age.
Econ/Pol Decline in GB
Lost prewar revenuesm burden of debt from international commitments, older technology, angry trade unions, taxes for welfare state. Rise of USSR, US, esp in Suez Crisis limited power.
Ludendorf
Major general that worked with Hitler and gave him credibility in the Beer Haul Putsch
Hobbes: "Leviathan"
Major treatise on political thought. Claimed - in the state of nature, before society was organized, human life = short and sad. Humans guided by animalistic instincts/ruthless struggle for self-preservation. Contracted to form commonwealth - placed its collective power into hands of sovereign authority (served as everything) --> possessed unlimited power. Subjects may not rebel - if they do, must be suppressed.
Justification for WW1
Make the world safe for democracy, led to universal suffrage including females.
Colonial Decline
Many countries overran weakened European power supremacy, won own independence, through WWII, 1947-1962, almost all conolies achieved long-term independence, violent & nonviolent.
Military Rearmament
March 1935 Hitler revealed secret rearmament, air force, military troop draft. Led to condemning by no action by other countries. 'Open acceptance' w/ Anglo-German Naval Pact ~ 1935, GB & Germ pact allowing Germ to build navy 35% of GB's, policy of appeasement, stability, alliance/help against Soviet communism.
Madagascar Plan
Mass shipment of Jews to Madagascar, failed w/war, more extreme plans made.
Galileo Galilei
Mathematician. First European o make systematic observations of heavens by means of telescope. Although received as conquering hero, increasingly suspect by church authorities. Condemned by Roman Inquisition (Holy Office) of Catholic church for "Starry Messenger". Told he could continue Copernicanism as long maintained it was mathematical supposition, not a fact. Felt it was dumb for church to determine nature of physical reality on basis of biblical texts that were subject to radically divergent interpretations.
Battle of the Coral Sea ~
May 1942 US navy stopped Jap advance, prevented Aus invasion. Battle of Midway Island destroyed Jap aircraft carriers, naval superior.
Congress of Vienna
Meeting between the victors against Napoleon (Great Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia) to decide how to reestablish the old order before Napoleon and prevent another French Revolution from occurring.
Gavrillo Princip
Member of the Black Hand who assassinated the Archduke Ferdinand and his wife, the spark that started WWI
Eisenhower's Retaliation Policy
Mid-1950s use of nuclear bombs to counteract Soviets in Eur.
Social Structuring
Middle-class became educated, managers and experts depended on higher education, etc. Move from rural to urban areas, less people in agriculture, no change because of pop growth, increase in wages meant 'consumer society' esp w/automobile. Mass leisure, decreased workweek, paid holidays, mass tourism.
Robert Clive
Military genius who saved the British from being taken over by the French. Agressive empire-builder who eventually became chief representative of EIC in India. Consolidated control in Bengal, where local ruler had attacked Fort William.
Count Claus on Stauffenberg
Military officers, conserv. politicians June 1944 bomb planted in East Prussian headquarters, didn't work. Many executed.
The Jacobins
Most famous of political clubs offering radical solutions to nation's problems. First emerged as gathering of more radical deputies at beginning of revolution. Members usually = elite of local societies.
Invasion of Russia (1812)
Napoleon invaded Russia but failed as the Russians kept on retreating farther in Russia and weakening the Napoleonic Army; finally Napoleon retreated from Russia; this marked the start of Napoleon's fall
Code Napoleon (Civil Code)
Napoleon's attempt to codify the ~300 different legal systems of France. Brought to completion in 7 codes - preserved most of revolutionary gains by recognizing principle of equality. Clearly reflected revolutionary aspirations for a uniform legal system, legal equality, protection of property/individuals. BUT...limited some rights too. Women now "less equal" than men.
Enlightened absolutism
Natural rights could be established & preserved with guidance of an enlightened ruler, who allows religious toleration, freedom of speech/press, the right to hold private property, foster the arts/sciences/education - must logical and obey/enforce laws. Reforms should come from rulers, rather than from ppl. Ex: Frederk II (Prussia), Catherine the Great (Russia), Joseph II (Austria).
Junkers
Nobility/landed aristocracy who owned large estates with many serfs. Played dominating role in the Prussian state. Held complete monopoly over officer corps of Prussian army. As officers, became saturated with sense of service to king. All virtues to Prussian nobility = military virtues.
The Fronde
Nobles hated centralized administrative power (cost the nobles) --> temporarily allied with Parlement of Paris members (opposed new taxes levied to pay costs of 30YW) + other commoners who were mad at more taxes. (1648-1649) First Fronde - led by nobles of robe. Broke out in Paris --> ended with compromise. (1650-1652) Second Fronde - led by nobles of sword. Wanted to overthrow Mazarin to secure own positions/more power.
Reparations of Nazism
Nuremburg trials, payments to survivors, Israel, continued persecution to lower levels.
House of Orange
Occupied stadholderate in most of the 7 provinces & favored development of centralized government (w/ themselves as hereditary monarchs. lol.)
Collectivization
Of agriculture to stop growing of wage-labor-using 'kulaks' capitalism. Law = eliminated private farms. Orginially to punish only wealthy kulaks, spread to almost all peasant households at strong resistance and cost.
Disarmament
Only Germ reduced munitions, other countries ignored what was imposed on Germ.
1524: The Peasants War
Peasants unaffected by economic improvements, abused by lords, new demands for taxes ---> dissatisfaction in Germany. Fueled by radical Thomas Muntzer. Luther opposed with "Against the Robbing & Murdering Hordes of Peasants" - called on German princes to repress peasants.
(Georg Friedrich) Handel
Perfected techniques of Baroque music. Experienced stormy int'l career / profoundly secular. Began career by writing Italian operas. Patronized by English royal court, but wrote music for large public audiences. Best known for religious music ('Messiah')
(Johann Sebastian) Bach
Perfected techniques of Baroque music. Held post of organist/music director at a number of small German courts. Then became director of church music @ Church of St. Thomas in Leipzig (1723), where he composed his Mass in B Minor, St. Matthew's Passion, and cantatas/motets. BELIEVED music was above all, a means to worship God.
Ulrich Zwingli
Preaching in Zurich --> began Reformation in Switzerland. Looked to state to supervise church. Abolished relics & images, replaced by whitewashed walls. Mass replaced by new worship. Music eliminated from service (distraction from word of God). Basically abolished all remnants of papal christianity
Fontenelle: "Plurality of Worlds"
Presented in form of intimate conversation between lady aristocrat & her lover, who proceeds to tell her of tremendous advances in cosmology.
Thomas More: "Utopia"
Presented new social system in which cooperation & reason replace power & fame as proper motivation for human society. Account of idealistic life & institutions. Reflects concerns with economic, social & political problems.
noble savage
Primitive humans who are naturally good and that whatever evil they develop is the product of the corrupting action of civilization.
The asiento
Privelege for British of transporting 4500 slaves/year into Spanish Latin America.
(putting-out) domestic system
Production of textiles. Merchant capitalist entrepreneur buys raw materials (wool/flax), and "put them out" to rural workers, who spun raw material into yarn, then wove it into cloth on simple looms. Capitalist-entrepreneurs sold finished product, profited, and used $$ to manufacture more. AKA cottage industry - spinners/weavers did their work on spinning wheels/looms in their own cottages.
Aix-la-Chapelle peace treaty
Promised return of all occupied territories except Silesia to their original owners following the War of Austrian Succession.
Constitution of 1789
Proposal created a central government separate from/superior to individual state governments. Split into 3 branches, each with some power to check the functioning of the others: executive, bicameral legislature, judicial Supreme Court which enforced the Constitution as "supreme law of the land". Bill of Rights = important to overall success.
George I & II
Protestant rulers of German state of Hanover. Relied on Robert Walpole as their chief/prime minister. Relied on duke of Newcastle as their main dispenser of patronage --> duke became center of British politics. F
Ernest Rutherford
Proved atom could be split, dubbed 1920s 'heroic age of physics' Subatomic particles later recognized.
War of the Austrian Succession
Prussia's Frederick II seized SILESIA, violating PRAGMATIC SANCTION, and it grew into a huge WAR with Austria gaining ALLIES from all over the place. Led to SEVEN YEARS' WAR. Prussia --> Silesia France --> Austrian Netherlands/Madras Great Britain --> Louisbourg
Friedrich Wilhelm I
Prussian king. Further developed 2 major institutions (army & bureaucracy) which were main supports of Prussia. Promoted evolution of Prussia's highly efficient civil bureaucracy by establishing General Directory. Personally kept close watch over officials to ensure they performed their duties. Under his rule, rigid class classification persisted.
Zollverein
Prussian-founded German customs union created in 1834. Eliminated tolls on rivers and roads among member states, stimulated trade and added to the prosperity of its member states. Consisted of all German states except Austria.
Diderot: "Encyclopedia"
Purpose was to "change the general way of thinking". Became major weapon of philosophe's crusade against the old French society. Contributors = philosophes who expressed their major concerns. Attacked religious superstition. Advocated toleration+a program for social, legal, political improvements that'd lead to a more cosmopolitan, tolerant, humane, reasonable society. Reducing price = more available to population = more spread of Enlightenment ideas.
Prince Albert
Queen Victoria's husband. Expressed sentiments of the age when he described the Great Exhibition of 1851 as a sign that "man is approaching a more complete fulfillment of that great and sacred mission which he has to perform in this world...to conquer nature to his use". Also linked British success to divine will: "In promoting [the progress of the human race], we are accomplishing the will of the great and blessed God."
Wiliam III & Mary II
Raised army + invaded England. Confirmed as monarchs from Revolution Settlement. Offered throne by Convention Parliament (after asserting James had tried to subvert constitution). Accepted offer, along with provisions of declarations of rights --> Bill of Rights.
Economic patterns of 18th c.
Rapid population growth, expansion in banking/trade, agricultural revolution (Britain), stirrings of industrialization, increase in worldwide trade.
Realism
Reaction against romanticism, focused more on the outside world and realistic situations. often very pessimistic
Thermidorean Reaction
Reaction against the violence of the Reign of Terror after Robespierre was executed; Terror began to decline and National Convention curtailed power of Committee of Public Safety, shut down Jacobin club, attempted to provide better protection for its deputies against Parisian mobs. Economic regulation --> laissez-faire.
Gustave Flaubert
Realist novel who attempted to portray real people in real settings. Wrote Emma Bovary, a sad pessimistic story of a lady who wants romance, finds its not real, and kills herself.
Millet
Realistic artist, with some romantic features. painted French peasants. The Gleaners
Charles Dickens
Realistic author who vividly portrayed brutality of urban poverty. Oliver Twist and The Old Curiosity Shop
Courbet
Realistic painter who painted scenes of everyday people. The Stonebreakers
French Classicism
Rejected Baroque style as overly showy/impassionated - remained committed to classical values of High Renaissance. Emphasis on clarity, simplicity, balance, harmony of design. Triumph reflects shift in 17th century French society from chaos to order. Rejected emotionalism + high drama of Baroque, but continued conception of grandeur in portrayal of noble subjects,
Paracelsus
Rejected work of Aristotle & Galen. Hoped to replace traditional system w/ new chemical philosophy that was based on a new understanding of nature from observation/experiment --> closely connected to view of universe - based on macrocosm-microcosm analogy: humans are small replica (microcosm) of larger world (macrocosm). Believed chemical reactions of universe were reproduced in human beings on smaller scale - disease is actually due to chemical imbalances in certain organs.
Versailles
Residence of the king/high nobility/royal princes, reception hall for state affairs, office-building for members of king's government, home of thousands of royal officials/aristocratic courtiers. Symbole for French absolutist state + power of Louis XIV. Visible manifestation of superiority/wealthy --> supposed to overawe subjects + impress foreign powers.
Berlin Air Lift
Response to Berlin blockafe, many tons of supplies flown in to support people, Soviets did not interfere, lifted in May 1949.
Gustavus Adolphus
Responsible for reviving Sweden + turned it into a great Baltic power. Military genius - brought disciplined/well-equipped Swedish army to N. Germany. Devout Lutheran: felt need to help his coreligionists.
The Sacraments
Rites considered imperative for a Christian's salvation. Consisted of eucharist (Lord's Supper), baptism, marriage, penance, extreme unction, holy orders, and confirmation of children. Protestant reformers typically recognized only 2: baptism & communion (Lord's Supper)
Partitions of Poland
Rivalries of this country's 3 great neighbors, Austria, Russia, Prussia. Wanted to avoid war, so leaders of these powers decided to compensate themselves by dividing country. 3 powers agreed to acquisition of roughly equal territories @ Poland's expense - to maintain balance of power in central/eastern Europe. 1(1772) Lost land/ppl. Austria gained Galicia, Russia took eastern part of country, Prussia got W. Prussia (united 2 of chief sections of Prussia). 2(1793) Russia/Austria/Prussia militarily intervened Poles' attempt to establish stronger state under hereditary monarchy. 3(1795) After General Kosciuszko/Polish attempt at rebellion, A/P/R obliterated remaining Poland.
Declaration on Liberated Europe
Roosevelt attempt to cease Soviet control over East, 'end of unilateral action system, exclusive alliances, spheres of influence'. Grand Alliance approval, pledge to assist Europe for democracy.
Pachakuti
Ruler of Incas. Created a highly centralized and very well organized state with the quarter/province system.
Alfonso de Albuquerque
Saw need for land base --> set up port facilities at Goa, which became headquarters for Portuguese operations throughout region. (1511) Sailed into harbor of Malacca. Wanted control for 2 purposes: destroy Arab spice trade & provide Portuguese with stopping point on route to Spice Islands
Robert Owen's New Lanark
Scottish factory town transformed into a flourishing community due to the idea of cooperative living.
Bayle
Skeptical about religion. Growing secularization of thought. Protestant, while becoming leading critic of traditional religious attitudes. Attacked superstition, religious intolerance, dogmatism. BELIEF: thought forcing ppl to believe in a religion was hypocritical and wrong. Individual conscience should determine one's actions. Argued for complete religious toleration - existence of many religions = beneficial to state. Also thought new rational principles of textual criiticism should be applied to both religious/secular docs.
Nazi Order use of Slaves
Slavs & other nationalities used for slave labor, 20% Germ economy became foreign labor, but were neglected w/food/resources, many deaths. Slaves in own countries - farms, industry, military camps. Counter-productive, created economic chaos.
The Inca
Small community in Cuzco (Peru). Launched campaign of conquest under ruler Pachakuti - gained control over entire area. Empire divided into 4 quarters (each ruled by a governor), which were then divided into provinces (also ruled by a governor).
SEATO
South Asia Treaty Org protect SAsia from Comm.
Falange
Spanish fascist movement led by Jose Antonio Primo de Rivera, son of previous dictator, contributed little.
Miguel Primo de Rivera
Spanish personal dict supported by King Alonso XIII, failed 1930 w/failing economy. King left, new Spanish republic fought for control between parties, until Popular Front.
Encomienda
Spanish system permitting conquering Spaniards to collect tribute from natives + use them as laborers. In return - Spaniards had to protect natives, pay the wages, supervise their spiritual needs ---> settlers = free to implement paternalistic system of government. Abolished in 1542 by government in response to publications of de Las Casas ---> more protection for natives.
Genevan Consistory
Special body for enforcing moral discipline. Was set up as a court to oversee the moral life/doctrinal purity of Genevans
Prince Henry the Navigator
Sponsorship allowed Portugal to take lead in European age of expansion when they began exploring coast of Africa. Motives: blend of seeking Christian kingdom as an ally against Muslims, acquiring trade opportunities for Portugal, extending Christianity. Founded school for navigators ---> Portugal fleets began exploring south for gold
U of Nanterre revolt 1968
Spread to Sorbonne, took control, led to workforce rebellion (solved w/Gaullist wage hike), spurred other student revolts.
separation of powers
Stemmed from Montesquieu's analysis/praise of England's constitution. Created checks and balances. Separate executive, legislative, judicial powers served to limit/control each other = greatest freedom/security for a state.
Acerbo Law
Stipulated that any party winning at least 25% of vote would get 2/3 of parliamentary seats. Victory for Fascists albeit election under harsh atmosphere.
Louis XVI
Successor of Louis XV. Knew little about operations of French government. Lacked energy to deal decisively with state affairs. Caused France's financial crises to worsen.
African Political Parties
Such as Gold Coast Kwame Nkrumah's Convention People's Party, Jomo Kenyatta's Kenyan African National Union, all usually non-violent, led by West-educated Aftracna intellects, constituted of professionals, though rural movements - Mau Mau among Kikuyu w/terrorism from GB. 1918 Egyptian Wafd, indep 1922, final complete control 1952 w/overthrow of King Farouk for republic. France gave indep Morocco, Tunisia 1956 because of own weakness. Nat Liberaton Front 1954 guerilla war Algeria to liberate, eventually gave indep 1962. Difficult in S Afr w/Eur polit sys, Aftican Nat Congress 1912, peaceful polit changes, later segregation 1950s, demonstrations led to repression, arrest of ANC leader Nelso Mandela 1962, call to arms. Most nations became indep when there was GB&Fr resistence late 1950-60s.
Prussian militarism
Synonymous with extreme exaltation of military virtues = duty, obedience, sacrifice. Prussian army = most important institution in state, due to size and reputation.
Reds
The Bolsheviks (Communists), who favored a Socialist state. The appealed to nationalism and favored expelling foreigners from Russia. Triumphed because they were well-disciplined under Trotsky, and took advantage of interior lines of defense as they moved troops quickly from fronts. They translated revolutionary faith into power, nationalized banks/industries, got grain from peasants, and centralized the states under themselves. Used revolutionary terror under Cheka to add fear. Took advantage of Allied powers who were Anti-Bolshevik to prompt more patriotism
Second Republic
The French government which consisted of a uni-cameral legislature of 750 people elected by universal male suffrage for a term of three years along with a president elected similarly for four years. The first and only president was Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte.
Caspar David Friedrich
The artist devoted his life to using God and nature as his subjects of painting. He painted landscapes with an interest that transcended the mere presentation of natural details. In his Man and Woman Gazing at the Moon, nature was a manifestation of divine life. The artistic process depended on one's inner vision.
November 11, 1918
The day World War I ended after the German leaders agreed to the armistice terms-the eleventh day of the eleventh month.
Stasi
The east german Ministry for State Security. Regarded as one of the most effective, repressive intelligence and secret police agencies in the world.
Romanticism
The new intellectual movement that emerged to challenge the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason in discovering truth. This movement tried to balance the use of reason by stressing the importance of intuition, feeling, emotion, and imagination as a source of knowledge.
peace, land and bread
The slogan used by Lenin/the Bolsheviks to win the support of the people; Peace appealed to the soldiers; Land appealed to the peasants; and Bread appealed to the workers.
Fourteen Points
The war aims outlined by President Wilson in 1918, which he believed would promote lasting peace; called for self-determination, freedom of the seas, free trade, end to secret agreements, reduction of arms and a league of nations.
Corn Laws and the Peterloo Massacre
These laws were passed by the Tory-dominated British Parliament to place tariffs on foreign grain in response to falling agricultural prices. They were met by protests and one in front of St. Peter's Fields in Manchester (1819) led to 11 people being killed by cavalry, an event later known as this.
Reform Act of 1832
This act of British Parliament redistricted the boroughs in order to give new industrial cities a fair representation in Parliament. Still only allowed votes from upper middle class property owners.
Elba
This island in the Mediterranean Sea off of Italy where Napoleon was initially exiled after he abdicated the throne for the first time. He promised to never leave, but does so and regains power in France for a short period called the Hundred Days
Malacca
Thriving port & major stopping point for spice trade. Seized by Portuguese & large massacre occurred.
Mass Nazi Demonstrations
To develop total 'German Aryan State', employed demonstrations combining religion & amusement.
British East India Company
Took over DEIC, gradually transferred all of indian subcontinent to these ppl. Received authority to collect taxes from lands in area surrounding Calcutta, from failed Mughal.
Dutch East India Company
Trading company established under government sponsorship. Set up settlement in southern Africa @ Cape of Good Hope - meant to serve as base to provide food and other provisions to Dutch ships on the way to the Spice Islands. Eventually developed into permanent colony.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty in which Russia lost substantial territory to the Germans. This ended Russian participation in the war (1918).
Allied Second Front / June 6 44 ~
Tricked Germans into believing invasion N France, instead naval invasion June 6 Normandy beaches, broke Germ defense, liberated French cities.
Pascal: "Pensees"
Tried to convert rationalists to Christianity by appealing to their reason/emotions. Argued humans were frail creatures deceived by their censes, misled by reason, & battered by their emotions. Determined to show Christian religion was not contrary to reason.
Rousseau: "The Social Contract"
Tried to harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority. Social contract = agreement on part of entire society to be governed by its general will. Liberty was achieved through being forced to follow what was best for all ppl. Since ppl are responsible for framing the general will, the creation of laws could never be delegated to a parliamentary institution.
Tories and Whigs
Two political factions in British Parliament during the nineteenth century. The faction which dominated the government refused to make reforms and were eventually met by rebellion.
American Intro to WWII ~
US declared war Japan because of Pearl Harbor, Germ declared on US (not required by Alliance).
Red Scare
US systematic fear/disapproval of Communists. \
WW1 Uncertainty on Art
Unconscious contents of the mind, nightmare landscapes led to Dada and Surrealism movements.
John Cabot
Venetian seaman. Explored New England coastline of America under license from King Henry VII
Divided Vietnam
Viets defeated French colonial masters 1954, divided Vietnam - N under nationalistic Ho Chi Minh (soviet aid), US-established S pro-West regime w/autocratic Ngo Dinh Diem.
Great East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere ~
W Pac under Jap control, liberate others from Eur rule, but J used area for war production.
Treaty of Locarno
W/Gustav Stresemann, Aristide Briand (Germ, Fr), guaranteed Germ west borders w/Fr, Belg, missed east, Polish border. 'Peace'. Little substance, Germ had no power anyways
Economic Miracle
W/Ludwig Erhard, minister of Finance, economy & employment greatly improved, imported 'guest' workers.
The Great Depression
War debts, trade barriers, downturn of domestic economies, international financial crisis caused US crash 1929, affected US-supported Europe (loans), caused withdrawals and less trading. Many left jobless.
Kurt Weill
Went from classical to jazz due to demand of mass society. 'The Threepenny Opera'
Barclays & Lloyds
Were both bankers and are examples of religious minority manufacturers who were successful. Specifically they were Quakers.
Helmut Schmidt
West Germany chancellor who believed that if a war arose between East and West Europe, Germany would suffer and lose no matter what; tried to ease tension
Beer Hall Putsch
When Weimar Republic was on verge of falling, march on Berlin by Nazis w/arms, Hitler arrested and pit on trial for treason w/light 5-year jail time. Turning point enforced faith.
Marie Antoinette
Wife of Louis XVI. Spoiled Austrian princess who devoted much of her time to court schemes.
Alexandra
Wife of Nicholas II, last tsar of Russia. German-born princess who increasingly insulated him from events. Well-educated, fell under influence of Rasputin because he was able to stop the bleeding of Alexis, their hemophiliac son.
Ostpolitik
Willy Brandt's policy of "opening toward the east" that increased relations between West and East Germany in 1972
Germ setup for War
With GB, France still hurt from war, alliance-less, Stalin's Russia collapsed, little US involvement, weak, post-Prussian states all allowed Germ to seek Lebensraum as only real power.
The Communist Manifesto
Written by Marx and Engels. Heavily affected by Engels's firsthand knowledge of factory conditions. Advocated creation of a classless society, starting with the rebellion of the proletarians.
Louis Saint-Just
Younger member of Committee of Public Safety. Justified execution of enemies of Republic: "Since the French people has manifested its will, everything opposed to it is outside the sovereign. What is outside the sovereign is an enemy." ---> Rousseau's concept of general will.
Young Fascists
Youth program to indoctrinate young Italians with Fascist ideals, hoped to create a new Italian populous, reinforcing traditional expectations/roles.
Temple of Reason
aka Cathedral of Notre-Dame: during Nat'l Convention's attempt to dechristianize for creation of new order. Churches were pillaged and closed. (11/1793) public ceremony dedicated to worship of reason held in former cathedral - patriotic maidens paraded before it. Dechristianization backfired since most of France was still Catholic.
Huguenots
aka French Calvinists. Came from all levels of Society. Made up 40%-50% of French nobility --> potentially dangerous political threat to monarchical power.
OPEC
an organization of countries formed in 1961 to agree on a common policy for the production and sale of petroleum
Calicut
da Gama's fleet: arrived in this city to search for Christians (didn't find) & spices (found!). Returned to Europe with ginger/cinnamon = huge profit
Arthur Harris
directed GB air raids 1942 on Germany. American entry bombed war industries. Many killed overall, some refuged in basements. Fought on stubbornly, didn't affect war production, which increased overall.
Slobodan Milosevic
he became the leader of Yugoslavia in 1987 and then waged a war against both Croatia and Bosnia during the 1990s - this conflict also marked the first direct military action waged by NATO
Bourgeoisie v. proletariat
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First International
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positivism
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Christian Democrats
progressive Catholics and revitalized Catholic political parties that became influential after the Second World War. (995)
Ignatius Loyola
resolved his religious crisis by vowing to be soldier of God. Wrote "The Spiritual Exercises" - training manual for spiritual development; emphasis on exercises by which human will could be strengthened + made to follow will of God as manifested through his instrument: Catholic church.
Reagan Revolution
the policies of the first reagan administration which increased defense spending reduced social programs and cut taxes they were based on supply side theory of growing the economy by cutting government interference and taxes