APES Semester 2 Final Exam Review
Why are populations of large predatory species most vulnerable to overfishing?
They have long reproductive spans and takes them awhile to repopulate.
What is bycatch?
Unwanted, non-targeted species that makeup ⅓ of catch. Ex: Seabirds, sharks, turtles, rays.
What is the Urban Heat Island Effect? Why does it occur?
Urban areas hotter than the surrounding rural areas Why? Asphalt & concrete have high thermal mass absorbing, storing, & then releasing heat More cars, industry=more heat as a byproduct of combustion Less trees & vegetation=less evapotranspiration, less shade & higher temps Tall buildings & narrow streets block air flow * reduce cooling
What are some major ways dams impact ecosystems?
Fish: Prevents migrating, procreating, finding food, and escaping predators Water: Restricts water movement results in temperature rise, destroys the natural flow of the water, and leaves areas without water (as dams that divert water for power, directs water to other areas) Habitat: Dams trap sediment, logs and key habitat features behind dams which negatively impact habitats downstream
Why are wetlands important?
Flood control Produces wetland products Isolates sediment, contaminants, & nutrients Provides habitat to support biodiversity Produces aesthetic services & recreational opportunities Releases slower & cleaner water
What is the foal of Tertiary wastewater treatement?
Tertiary Goal: To kill pathogens & remove excess nitrates & phosphates Disinfection of pathogens using chlorine, ozone, & UV. Removal of nitrates & phosphates w/ nitrifying bacteria or polyphosphate bacteria prevents eutrophication Effluent is then returned to water.
Coal - types of coal which is "best", which is used the most Pros and Cons of coal
Types of coal from lowest to highest quality: Peat->Lignite->Bituminous (most used)->Anthracite Coal Benefits: Cheapest energy source in the world Easily obtained, transported, stored, and turned into electricity Helps developing countries Coal Drawbacks: Half of all global CO2 emissions Major source of air pollutants Thermal pollution
What are some problems with mining?
Use of mercury in gold mining Damage to aquatic ecosystems and water supply Acid mine drainage Soil erosion & turbidity Habitat fragmentation and destruction Noise and Air Pollution
The equation for how CO2 reacts with water
CO2+H2O=H2CO3
What is leachate and what is done at landfills to prevent it from contaminating soil and groundwater?
"Garbage Juice" Any contaminated liquid that is generated form water percolating through a solid waste disposal site Landfill liner must prevent leachate from contaminating groundwater. Made from clay, plastic, other non-permeable material
Infant Mortality Rate
# of babies per 1000 that die before their 1st birthday. Reflects the country's general level of nutrition & health care.
When did Greenhouse gasses begin to drastically increase?
1900s
What is a vector?
A living organism that transmits an infectious agent (mosquitos, ticks, flies, fleas)
Solar - passive solar, how PV solar panels work, Pros and Cons of solar
Active Solar Energy Systems: Use solar energy to heat a liquid through mechanical and electrical equipment to collect and store the energy captured from the sun Passive Solar Energy Systems: Absorb heat directly from the sun without the use of equipment and energy cannot be collected or stored PV effect occurs when lights hit the PV cell and hit a plate made of silicon Released electrons are attracted to the opposite plate Wires connecting the two plates let electrons slow, creating an electric current Pros of Solar: Renewable energy No emissions Allows for decentralized energy production and cost has decreased Battery storage has improved Jobs Cons of Solar: Sin intermittent not abundant everywhere Need back up source or battery storage Upfront cost can be high Large solar farms require lots of land Rare metals and materials must be mined and disposal releases toxic metals into environment
What activities are responsible for nitrous oxide emissions?
Agriculture, land use, industrial activities: Combustion of fossil fuels and solid waste; & treatment of wastewater
Crude Death Rate
Deaths per 1000 CDR=Multiple DR by 1000
What is a Watershed?
An entire river system or an area drained by a river & its tributaries. It is sometimes called a drainage basin.
Sources of fecal coliform bacteria
Animal waste, sewage, discharge from wastewater treatment plant.
Total Fertility Rate
Average number of children born to women in their reproductive years (15-49)
Age structure diagrams: Stationary
Declining BR, High life expectancy, developed countries (US, Canada, Japan), little to no growth
What are the benefits and drawbacks of Aquaculture?
Benefits: Reduce demand on wild stocks, can treat wastewater, source of food and income, flexibility, employment Drawbacks: Spreads disease, destroys habitat (shrimp farms in estuaries and mangroves), lead to carnivorous fish, health drawbacks (for both humans and fish), reduces biodiversity (bycatch),
Biomagnification - Why are organisms higher up the food chain impacted by toxins more than lower trophic level consumers?
Biomagnification: Increasing concentrations of fat-soluble compounds at each level up the trophic pyramid (food chain). Animals on a higher trophic level eat animals that have toxins stored in their fatty tissue & over time accumulate in the high trophic level animal's diets Biomagnified in higher trophic levels
Biomass and Biofuels - where is biomass used the most, Pros and Cons of Biomass
Biomass: Organic matter burned for fuel (Wood, plants, waste) Main source of energy for 40% of worlds population due to people in poverty. Pros of Biomass: Helps developing countries Easy, cheap, & accessible Cons of Biomass: Worse than coal Health effects, indoor smoke Releases CO2 Biofuels: Ethanol (alcohol) and biodiesel, made from plants Biofuel Pros: Can be carbon neutral if CO2 is absorbed by new plants Grow on existing agricultural land Can be a substitute for gasoline Domestic energy source Biofuel Cons: Hard to scale up More expensive than oil fuels Low energy density Requires lots of land, water, fertilizer, pesticides, takes away land for food production
Demographic Transition: Stage 4
Birth Rate drops lower than Death Rate and growth stabilizes or becomes negative (eventual population decline) Highly modernized affluent countries TFR declines further as families become wealthier and spend more time on education & career pursuits Increased wealth & education leads to higher use of contraceptives & family planning
Crude Birth Rate
Births per 1000 CBR=Multiply BR by 1000
What is an estuary?
Body of freshwater mixes with body of saltwater. Provides habitat and food.
What activities are responsible for Carbon dioxide emissions?
Burning fossil fuels, transportation, deforestation, agriculture
What causes thermal pollution and what are the effects of thermal pollution?
Causes: Industries and power plants release water back which elevates the temperature of freshwater habitats. Effects: Increases water temperature reduces the amount of oxygen in the water, warmer water=less dissolved oxygen=fish deaths (heat tress, range of tolerance), kills fish eggs,
What countries are the largest emitters of CO2? Per capita who emits the most?
China (largest), US, & India
How are fossil fuels formed?
Coal: Fossilized plant material that was subject to heat and pressure over millions of years After plants died they underwent chemical decay to form a product known as peat Emissions: Nitrogen, Sulfur, Lead, Carbon, Mercury
Catalytic Converters
Converts CO to CO2 and NOx to N and O2 also reduces VOC emissions
Baghouse Filter
Dirty air forced through bag filters which trap Particulate Matter
How is climate change fueling the spread of infectious disease?
Disease spreading from the tropics to temperate regions Warmer & wetter weather allows insects to breed Warmer winters no longer suppress/kill disease vectors
What is toxicity dependent upon?
Dose, Age, Genetic Makeup, Solubility, & Persistence of the Chemical
What are Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals? How do they affect men and women?
EDC: Interferes with the normal functioning of hormones. Effects: Reduced male fertility (sperm quality & quantity), reduced birth weight, abnormalities in sex organs, early puberty in girls, altered neurological functioning, immune function, cancers, growth, learning, disabilities, metabolic functioning, diabetes, obesity.
Ecosystem services of coral reefs?
Ecosystem services: Coastal protection, Moderate atmospheric temperatures, Nurseries for commercially valued species, Provides habitat, Tourism & recreation, Medicine, Food & FIshing
Describe the process of eutrophication leading to the formation of a dead zone.
Eutrophication: Massive algae bloom feeding off human cause water pollution, dead zones, which occurs when the environment becomes enriched with nutrients. Nutrients involved: Nitrogen & Phosphorus Where do they come from: Fertilizer, CAFOs, sewage, fish farming, deforestation Causes- Cities: Run-off from rain, outdated sewer system, absence of water waste treatment facilities Casues- Agriculture: Largest contributor comes from nutrients in fertilizers, CAFOs Causes-Industry: Burning of fossil fuels, cars, planes, dissolves nitrogen pollutants in water Dead Zone: Hypoxia, reduced oxygen level in the water Nutrient runoff flows into body of water. Algae feed off of nutrients and grow Algae eventually die Bacteria decompose dead algae & consume oxygen in the process creating a hypoxic dead zone Marine organisms especially those that can't swim out of the area die People who rely on coastal fisheries lose income, prices for seafood go up.
What has the biggest impact on population growth (especially during stage 2 of the demographic transition)? What contributes to that?
Falling mortality rate and high fertility rates- People are living longer due to medicine
Sources of Nitrogen Oxides
Forest fires Burning plant material
Sources of Ozone
Formed in the atmosphere through chemical reactions between pollutants emitted from vehicles, factories and other industrial sources, fossil fuels, combustion, consumer products, evaporation of paints, and many other sources.
What is Fracking? Effects of Fracking?
Fracking: The process of injecting liquid at high pressure into rocks to force an open existing fissures and extract oil or gas. 1. Locate oil/gas and drill a well up to 10,000 ft deep 2. High Pressure Injection: pump in fluid (water, chemicals, sand) 3. Rock surrounding the well cracks or fractures 4. Oil/natural gas is released through cracks, travels back up well, and is collected above ground Risks of Fracking: Methane leaks into atmosphere during extraction & transport & contaminates groundwater Uses lots of water that cannot be reclaimed & returned to source Fracking fluids containing VOCs & carcinogens can leak into groundwater Injecting wastewater into geological formations can cause earthquakes Fracking locations fragment habitat Benefits of Fracking: Employment/Boosts economy Low prices/cheap Less pollutants/cleaner than coal Less emissions
Sources of VOCs
Freshly mowed grass Smell of pine trees Methane produced by cows Forest fires Volcanic eruptions Formaldehyde Cleaning supplies Paint Pesticides
Hydrogen fuel cell Pros and cons
Fuel Cell vehicles use Hydrogen to generate electricity that runs a motor. Electrolysis is used to break hydrogen & oxygen bonds in water to form Hydrogen, At the anode (+) hydrogen is oxidized and electrons flow in a circuit to the cathode (-). At the cathode, oxygen reacts with the hydrogen to produce water. Water & heat are by-products of the reaction. 2H2 + O2 🡪 energy + 2 H2O Hydrogen fuel cell Pros: Only emission is water Highly efficient (80%), Gasoline (20%) Easy to store Hydrogen fuel cell Cons: Energy needed to produce Hydrogen either from reforming methane or electrolysis of water is costly Nonrenewable if hydrogen is produced with nonrenewable energy No fuel distributed system exists (hydrogen "gas" stations)
How does a fuel source generate energy?
Fuel Source is burned (coal, natural gas) Heat boils water Stream spins turbine Turns generator which makes electricity Distributed
Describe how the greenhouse effect works
Gases in the troposphere trap heat creating Earth's climate. When the high-energy UV radiation from the Sun strikes the atmosphere, about one-third is reflected from the atmosphere, clouds, and the surface of the planet. Much of the high-energy UV radiation is absorbed by the ozone layer where it is converted to low-energy infrared radiation (heat). Some of the ultraviolet radiation and much of the visible light strikes the land and water of Earth where it is converted into low-energy infrared radiation (heat). The infrared radiation radiates back toward the atmosphere where it is absorbed by greenhouse gases that radiate much of it back toward the surface of Earth. Collectively, these processes cause warming of the planet.
Benefits of Green Roofs and community gardens
Green roofing with plants that absorb sunlight, purify the air, absorb water & reduce runoff Used to grow food Plants reduce cooling costs Aesthetic value Air & water purification Increases building value
Age structure diagrams: Expansive
High BR, low life expectancy, developing countries (Chad & Benin), extreme pyramid=rapid growth, less extreme=slow, stable growth
How do impervious surfaces impact the water cycle?
Impervious surfaces can have an effect on water, both in water quality & stream flow & flooding characteristics. Storm-water runoff degrades surface water quality Runoff also depletes ground water (aquifers) as water no longer drains through the soil into the ground Increases flooding which damades property & also leads to erosion
What human activities have led to increases in Zoonotic Diseases?
Increased contact with animals: Deforestation, land use changes, urbanization, mining, logging, CAFOs, illegal & legal wildlife trade
Sources of PCBs
Industrial lubricants, electrical transformer oils, fire retardants in fabrics/furniture, hydraulic fluids, paints, adhesives, pesticides.
Two best indicators of a nation's quality of life
Infant mortality rate and life expectancy
What is a pandemic?
Infectious disease spreads worldwide
How is photochemical smog formed? When is it typically formed and why?
It is created when nitrogen oxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) react to sunlight. When these two compounds are combined it can cause an eruption of pollutants. This causes a hazy smog above cities. It tends to occur more often in summer because that is when we have the most sunlight.
What is LD50? Is a toxin with a smaller LD50 more or less lethal than a toxin with a greater LD50?
LD50: Dose that causes the death of 50% of the test population Smaller LD50s are more toxic than higher ones.
What activities are responsible for methane emissions?
Landfills, oil & natural gas systems, agriculture activities, coal mining, wastewater treatment, manure, cows
Demographic Transition: Stage 1
Little to no growth due to high Crude Birth Rate & Crude Death Rate balancing each other out High Infant Mortality & High Death Rate due to lack of access to clean water, stable food supply, and healthcare High Total Fertility Rate due to lack of access to Education for women Contraceptives Need for child agricultural labor Stage for much of human history, traditional subsistence societies World population of 1 billion not reached until 1800 Practically no country today is in Stage 1
What is a pathogen?
Living organisms that cause disease (virus, fungi)
Age structure diagrams: Constrictive
Low BR, high life expectancy, population declining
Threshold Level of Toxicity
Maximum dose with no measurable toxic response OR the dose above which toxic effects are apparent. The point of the graph just before the line rises above the x-axis.
What gas is produced by landfills during decomposition? What can be done with it?
Methane: Collected and used for fuel (garbage trucks), electricity, or heating (cogeneration)
Natural gas - why is natural gas considered "cleaner", Pros and Cons of Natural gas
Natural Gas is methane, which is mostly hydrogen. Used for heat, electricity, and increasingly transportation Methane is produced when plants decay without oxygen- Aerobic decomposition Pros of Natural Gas: Less expensive than other fossil fuels Most environmentally friendly fossil fuel- it burns cleaner (no NOx, SO2, or heavy metals) Extremely reliable Most efficient storage & transportation compared to renewable energy Abundant source Cons of Natural Gas: Nonrenewable source Emits CO2 Difficult to harness
Replacement level Fertility
Number of children to replace parents. 2.1 children per women is replacement level.
What is ocean acidification? What causes it? What types of organisms does it threaten and how does it affect them (there are 2 ways)?
Ocean acidification: Increasingly acidic water and the decrease in ph levels caused by the uptake of CO2. Causes: Increase in carbon in the atmosphere Shells are made of calcium & carbonate. Acidity prohibits the production of calcium carbonate & can deteriorate shells. With more hydrogen ions floating around in the ocean, organisms have to spend more energy building their shells & have less energy finding foos: harder to grow & more will die off before they get big. Threatens whole food chain.
What is coral bleaching? What causes it?
Ocean warming causes coral bleaching, when water gets too warm the coral expel algae within their tissues.
Sources of Particulate Matter (PM 10 & 2.5)
PM 2.5: All types of combustion activities such as motor vehicles, power plants, certain industrial processes PM 10: Crushing or grinding operations & dust from paved or unpaved roads. Dust from construction sites, landfills, agriculture, wildfires, waste burning industrial sources.
What are Persistent Organic Pollutants? Examples?
POPs are synthetic organic chemicals used in many pesticides, industrial chemicals, and plastics. Rx: DDT, PCBs, Phthalates, Dioxins
Why are phytoplankton important? What zone of the ocean are they found in?
Phytoplankton are single-celled organisms that contain chlorophyll and require sunlight in order to live and grow. They live in the upper part of to ocean, where sunlight penetrates. Importance: Base of several aquatic food chains Use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to produce oxygen and nutrients for other organisms Responsible for producing up to 50% of the oxygen we breathe Primary producer of the ocean Carbon sink
Point vs Nonpoint sources of pollution and examples of each
Point Source: Pollutant introduced at a single, identifiable source. Easy to identify, monitor, & regulate. Examples: Drain pipes or sewer lines from factories, sewage treatment plants, oil, tankers. Non-point Source: Pollutant introduced overbroad, diffuse areas. Difficult to identify & control. Expensive to clean up. Examples: Runoff of chemicals from cropland, urban streets.
What can be done to prevent dead zones?
Prevention: Nutrient management, cover crops, buffer, conservation tillage, managing livestock waste, & drainage water management, treat stormwater runoff from cities, improve farming techniques, use organic fertilizers.
What is the goal of Primary Wastewater treatment
Primary Goal: To remove solid materials (trash & large waste). Screening removes any trash or large objects that may have entered the sewage stream. Grit Chambers remove sand, gravel, egg shells, etc that settle out of the water. Clarifiers allow solids to further settle out.
Nuclear - pros and cons of nuclear Where do we currently store radioactive waste?
Pros of Nuclear: No emissions, No CO2 or air pollutants No more meltdowns Cons of Nuclear: Costly Stigma Waste-stored for a long time Proliferation Thermal pollution Nuclear waste is currently held in concrete containers at power plants.
Pros and Cons of Oil
Pros of Oil: Superb transportation fuel at affordable prices Cons of Oil: Oil spills Influence on the economy Emissions, Pollutants Non-renewable resource
Hydroelectric - pros and cons
Pros: Renewable energy Affordable: provides low-cost energy No emissions Reduces risks of flooding Reliable & safe Cons: Expensive to build Drought potential Limited reserves Sediment build up
Geothermal Pros and cons
Pros: of Geothermal Clean energy Availability Homegrown & renewable energy Cons of Geothermal: Expensive
Demographic Transition: Stage 2
Rapid Population Growth due to high Birth Rates and declining Death Rates Modernizations bring access to clean water, healthcare, stable food supply Infant Mortality Rate & Death Rate Decline Total Fertility Rate remains high due to lack of education for women & contraceptives/family planning Need for child agricultural labor Cultural Traditions/Norms
Electrostatic Precipitator
Reduces Particulate Matter
Fluidized Bed Combustion:
Reduces sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matter
How can we slow population growth?
Reducing poverty, education & employment, encouraging family planning, & incentives for fewer children (tax breaks).
Sources of Radon
Rock & soil produce radon gas
Sources of nutrient pollution
Runoff of fertilizers & animal waste, detergents Eutrophication->Decreases dissolved oxygen
What type of landfill is used in the US and developed countries?
Sanitary landfills
What are some major effects of climate change?
Sea level rising warming then rising Major weather events (increase storm intensity, longer heat waves, increased flooding) Decrease biodiversity (loss of habitats, coral bleaching, ocean acidification, loss of species) Increased health effects (deaths, diseases)
What is the goal of Secondary Wastewater treatment
Secondary Goal: To break down organic matter (food, human waste). Aeration: Adds oxygen & aerobic bacteria to decompose organic matter into activated sludge.
Sources of Asbestos
Serpentinites, altered ultramafic rocks, and some mafic rocks Attic and wall insulation Vinyl floor tiles and the backing on vinyl sheet flooring Roofing and siding shingles Textured paint Oil and coal furnaces Heat-resistant fabrics Automobile clutches and brakes
Demographic Transition: Stage 3
Slowing Growth Rate as Birth Rate drops closer to Death Rate Modernized economy and society increases family income so Total Fertility Rate declines significantly due to: more educational opportunities for women Delayed age of marriage and first child to focus on ed./career Access to family planning & contraceptive
Why are Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals such a concern in children?
Small doses have large effects, timing of exposure is the most critical factor (windows of development), & Body of burden is acquired early and effects may not appear until later in life.
Solutions to impervious surfaces and urban heat island effect
Solutions: Pervious pavement: Allows water to percolate into soil, helps reduce runoff, recharge aquifer, purifies water, & reflects light Increase vegetation: Green roofing with plants that absorb sunlight, purify the air, absorb water & reduce runoff Increase canopy cover Reflective Surfaces
Sources of Lead and its health effects
Souces: Gasoline addictive, pipes, lead paint, cosmetics, lead bullets, batteries, mining/refining processes Enters Human Body: Ingesting contaminated food (especially fish) & water, inhaling contaminated dust or vapors, cosmetic applications Health Effects: Death, birth defects, learning disorders, nervous system disorders, ADHD, headache/fatigue, anxiety, depression, kidney damage, convulsions
Sources of Mercury and its health effects
Sources: Inhalation from burning coal Mercury was/is used in gold mining or deposited in soil and water Deposition of mercury in water, accumulates in fish, eaten by people Health effects: Brain damage to children and fetuses, nervous system damage, learning disabilities, birth defects, paralysis, ADHD, kidney damage, reduced fertility
Sources of Arsenic and its health effects
Sources: Natural components of Earth's Crust that can dissolve in groundwater, Mining that breaks up Arsenic containing rock, Wood preservatives Commonly found in groundwater especially untreated well water Health Effects: Cancer of the skin, lung, kidney or bladder, skin lesions, nervous system disorders
Sources of heavy metals and the most common heavy metals found in water
Sources: Natural deposits, mining, coal burning, e-waste, industrial processes like smelting Common heavy metals: Arsenic, lead, nickel, zinc, mercury, chromium, cadmium
Sources of sediment pollution, its effects on temperature and dissolved oxygen
Sources: Pipes, sewers, soil erosion, or decomposition of plants & animals Effects: Increases water temperature and decreases dissolved oxygen
What is an epidemic?
Spread of an infectious disease through populations across a region
What is reclamation?
The act of returning the land used for mining to something resembling its original state Mining company must: Replace the soil (add nutrients, limestone if necessary) Recontour land Replant vegetation Monitor for 5-10 years
What is acid mine drainage and what causes it?
The formation of highly acidic water rich in heavy metals contaminating water supply and aquatic ecosystems surface mines receiving precipitation drains into surface and groundwater Tailings contain toxic metals (Arsenic, Mercury, Cadmium...) Sulfur in overburden and coal reacts with water to create sulfuric acid
What is turbidity?
The quality of being cloudy, opaque, or thick with suspended particles
Sources of Sulfur Dioxide
Their eruptions cause large deposits of gas into the atmosphere. Their respiration causes the release of this gas as a by-product. As organic matter burns in fires it releases gas. Coal, petroleum, and oil all give off this gas when burnt.
Sources of Phthalates
Vinyl flooring, PVC pipe, toys, nail polish, packaging, electrical cables, lotions, shampoos, fragrances
Sources of Carbon Monoxide
Volcanoes Brush Fires and Forest Fires Clothes dryers. Water heaters. Furnaces or boilers. Fireplaces, both gas and wood-burning. Gas stoves and ovens. Motor vehicles. Grills, generators, power tools, lawn equipment. Wood stoves
What are the primary greenhouse gasses?
Water Vapor: Evaporation from bodies of water Carbon Dioxide: Burning of fossil fuels for transportation, heat, electricity, industry Methane: Natural gas, cows, landfills, manure Nitrous Oxide: Released by soil bacteria breakdown N fertilizer CFCs: Refrigerants & Aerosols
Sources of BPA
Water bottles, baby bottles, microwave dishes, packaging, can lining, receipts Leeches into food & water especially when heated
Wet/Dry Scrubber
Wet & Dry Scrubbers capture PM, sulfur dioxide, mercury Wet scrubber dirty air forced through water misters containing limestone slurry Water knocks out PM Limestone captures SO2 Dry scrubber: Dirty air forced through limestone material (halogens used for mercury removal)
Wind - Pros and cons
Wind Pros: No emissions (CO2, pollutants) More efficient and more affordable than fossil fuels Local areas can be self-reliant Landowners can lease land $$ Job creation Offshore wind more powerful than onshore Wind Cons: Visual pollution Transmit electricity over long distances Intermittent so need back up energy generation Offshore is expensive to build Kills birds, bats, and offshore wind can interfere with fishing operations
What is a Zoonotic Disease? Examples of Zoonotic Diseases.
Zoonotic: Originate in animals and spread to humans Ex: Rabies, MERS, WNV, Salmonella, HIV, Swine & Bird Flu, Lyme Disease, SARS, COVID-19
