APeuro Unit 2

Brahe

Tycho Brahe: Danish Nobleman, Astronomer, Astrologer, Alchemist (1546-1601) -Born in Scania -Last major astronomer to work without a telescope for observations -His data helped Kelper develop the Three Laws of Planetary Motion -Was sponsored to build the Uraniborg (Danish Astronomical Observatory) -Founded manufactories such as paper-making to help make his astronomical instruments more stable -Became imperial astronomer in Bohemia after disputes with Danish king Christian IV

Galileo

(1564-1642) poor Florentinian nobleman, first marked for a religious career became professor of mathematics (1589) new ideas of motion greatest achievement: the experimental method (using experiments to learn rather than hypothesizing) proved a uniform force produce a uniform acceleration formulated law of inertia: an object continues in motion forever, unless it stopped by an external force made a telescope for himself (DID NOT INVENT IT) and discovered the first four moons of Jupiter- also provided new evidence for Copernican theory employed by the Medici grand dukes of Tuscany in Florence Pope Urban VIII permitted him to write about different systems of the world, as long as he did not judge which actually existed published, in Italian, Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World (1632) openly mocked the views of Aristotle and Ptolemy and supported Copernicus tried for heresy by papal inquisitors - imprisoned threatened tortured

John Locke

(1632-1704) He said that people set up civil government to protect life, liberty and property. The Glorious Revolution used Locke's Second Treatise of Civil Government. He said that a government that oversteps protecting Life, Liberty and Property becomes a tyranny, and should then be overthrown. John Locke was also the great spokesman for the Liberal English Revolution of 1688 to 1689. Locke's Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) was a cause of European intellectual turmoil. This set forth a new theory of how humans learn and form new ideas and rejected the ideas of Descartes. One other thing that Locke said was that the human mind at birth was like a blank slate, or Tabula Rasa. He believed that human development determined by education, for good or evil.

Rousseau

- believed we each have an inner voice which is our conscience and it tells us when we are doing good or bad. -civilization trains us to ignore it -people are born corrupt -important forerunner of the Romantic movement -believed general will is sacred and absolute and his theory appealed to democrats and nationalists after 1789

Dutch East India Company

-A joint stock company -Made in 1602 by a group of regents of Holland -Investors each received a % of the profits proportional to the amount of money they had put it -Within half a century→ this company had cut heavily into Portuguese trading in East Asia -Dutch seized the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, & Malacca→ established trading posts in each place -1630s: DEIC was paying its investors about 35% annual return on their investments -Dutch West India Company→ founded in 1621/ traded mostly with Latin America & Africa -Initial purpose of both companies: commercial (import of spices/silks to Europe) -Dutch found them involved in imperialist exploitation of parts of East Asia/Latin America w/ great success

Philosophes

-Believed they were bringing the light of knowledge to the ignorant people in the Age of Enlightenment - Intellectuals that came about around the time of the American Revolution 1775 -Philosophe is the french word for philosopher -French philosophes were one reason for Enlightenment reaching highest in France by asking fundamental philosophical questions -Believed common people were doomed to superstition and confusion because they lacked money and leisure

Nicolaus Copernicus

-Polish clergymen/astronomer -1473-1543 -Studied church law and astronomy -Noticed how professional astronomers depended for their most accurate calculation on the work of Ptolemy -In youth, interested in astrology; felt that Ptolemy's cumbersome/inaccurate rules detract from God's majesty -Prefered Greek Idea: Sun center of universe -Never questioned Aristotelian ideas -Stars/Planets revolved around fixed sun -Published Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres the year he died -Enormous scientific/religious implications -Stars at rest; nightly movement because of Earth's rotation -Destroyed main reason for believing in crystal spheres -Suggested universe of enormity -Earth just another planet; destroyed basic idea of aristotelian physics - earthly world ≠ heavenly -Attacked by Protestants especially -Slow reaction caused by slow progress -Lived in time for "radical renovation"

Enlightenment

-World view in 18th century -Large role in shaping modern mind -Grew out of ideas: -diverse and conflicting competed for attention of well-educated readers -Three main ideas: -Reason -Natural science could/should be used to examine/understand life -Nothing accepted on faith -Rationalism led to conflict with church -Sci. method capable of discovering laws of human society + those of nature -Social science born -Progress -Enlightenment thinkers: possible for humans to create better societies with better people -Strengthened by some modest improvements in economic/social life in 18th century -Profound secularism, impact on urban middle class and aristocrats -Low appeal with poor/peasants

Habsburg Emperor Joseph II

-ruled Austria 1780-1790 and known as the revolutionary emperor who introduced major reformed -controlled Catholic church closely in attempt to produce better citizens -granted religious tolerance for protestants and Jews -got rid of serfdom in 1781 and in 1789 made all peasant labor have cash payments to peasants -died early and the empire was in chaos causing his brother, who took over the crown, Leopold II to cancel all of Joseph's new reforms to gain order

Puritans

-wanted to "purify the anglican church of all roman catholic elements" including: elaborate vestments/ceremonials bishops the position of the altar in the church the use of wedding rings -wanted to get rid of Bishops

Cabinet system

A Cabinet System is a form of government in which the leading ministers formulate a common policy and conduct the business of the country. This evolved mostly in the eighteenth century in England. It was discontinued by George II, son of the Hanoverian king George I.

joint stock company

A joint-stock company is a business entity where different stakes can be bought and owned by shareholders. -In 17th century England, during the reigns of James I and Charles I, many people engaged in foreign enterprises through joint stock companies. They were wealthy from the sale/dissolution of monasteries, and the improvement of agricultural techniques. -In 1602 group of Holland regents formed the Dutch East India Company. It was a joint stock company that established trading posts in the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and Malacca. They also cut in to Portuguese trading in East Asia, and traded with Latin America and Africa. This joint stock company brought the Dutch much wealth.

Absolutism

Absolutism is a form of government where all power is vested in one ruler, based on the notion of the divine right of kings. Sovereignty is embodied in the person of the monarch, who has both power (the ability) and authority (the legal right) to act. Absolute rulers attempt to control all competing groups within their territories - religious, political and social - however, they often lacked financial and military resources to do so completely. Therefore, absolutism is not the same as totalitarianism, a 20th c. phenomenon, where every aspect of state life is controlled by the government. Absolute rulers had to find ways to either suppress or work with the nobility, their greatest threat to power. Absolutist states were characterized by three things: centralized bureaucracies, professional standing armies, and state-directed economies. In centralized bureaucracies, civil servants reported directly to the monarch. Bureaucratic offices were owned by the state and temporarily bestowed on the holder, rather than private property or means of getting rich. Absolutist states maintained permanent standing armies, no longer disbanding them in peacetime. Absolutist rulers included Louis XIV of France, Peter the Great of Russia, Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire, and Frederick William I of Prussia. Louis XIV of France best personifies absolutism. For the first time in history, all the institutions and powers of the state were embodied in one person, the monarch, representative of God on earth.

the English Parliament

After the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215, the king of England could not do much of anything (particularly tax) without the consent of the royal council, which eventually became the English Parliament. Parliament restricted the monarchy's power, and, after the Glorious revolution in 1688, the power of monarchs was further restricted by a newly created constitution.

William Laud

Archbishop of canterbury under Charles I - tried to make all churches perform "elaborate rituals and rich ceremonials" -wanted uniformity with the church services and the "Court of high commission" -Tried to make scotland use an anglican prayer book(1637)which caused scotland to revolt against Charles I. Meaning he had to make up with parliament to get enough money to stop the revolts.

French literature

As a result of the Enlightenment, France witnessed a sudden explosive growth in book consumption in the early 1700s - Influenced the "Reading Revolution" Number of religious books legally published in Paris declined significantly Proportion of legally published books about the arts and sciences surged France's unpredictable but significant censorship of certain books caused many books to be printed abroad and then smuggled into the country The majority of French books produced between 1750 and 1789 came from foreign publishing companies located outside France This illegal book trade featured growth of denunciations of high political figures and inappropriate works

Serfdom

Between 1400 and 1650, nobles and rulers established serfdom in the eastern lands of Bohemia, Silesia, Hungary, eastern germany, Poland, Lithuania, and Russia. In general, eastern peasants lost their rights and freedoms. They became bound first to the land they worked and then, to the lords they served. The lords made made their kings and princes issue laws that restricted or eliminated the peasants right of free movement. Second, lords steadily took more and more of their peasant's land and imposed heavier labor obligations. Between 1500 and 1650, the social, legal, and economic conditions of peasants in eastern europe continued to decline. In prussia in 1653, peasants were subjected to hereditary subjugation- bound to their lords from one generation to the next as well as to the land. The legal re-establishment of permanent hereditary serfdom and become the common fate of all peasants. The consolidation of serfdom was accompanied by the growth of estate agriculture.

Long Parliament

Called long because sat from 1640-1660, enacted legislation that limited power of monarch and made arbitrary government impossible. brought together by Charles I

Ottoman monarchs

Called sultans, most notable was Suleiman the Magnificent Owned all agricultural land Defended peasants from officials so they could afford taxes and support More tolerant of other religions than other Europeans Created millet system: different regions had different religious leaders who supported the Ottoman Empire After Suleiman's death absolutism decreased, weak sultans followed

Cardinal Richelieu

Cardinal Richelieu was a member of the council of ministers that held power in France during the reign of Louis XIII. Quickly becoming first minister of the French crown, he began reducing the power of the nobility and quickly stamped out revolts. Richelieu divided France into thirty-two generalités that were run by intendants, special servants of the king who enforced royal orders and weakened the power of the nobility. Richelieu supported the foundation of the French Academy that standardized the French language. He was committed to destroy Habsburg power in the territories that surrounded France, and supported the Swedish Lutheran king, Gustavus Adolphus, in the 30 Years War. Richelieu was able to centralize France into a powerful force and into the beginning of French Absolutism.

Charles I

Charles I attempted to govern without Parliament and by financing his government by arbitrary non-parliamentary levies, brought England to a crisis. He supported the high-church. policies of William Laud (archbishop of Canterbury). People feared a return to Roman Catholicism. Charles I was an intelligent man, but many found him deceitful, dishonest, and treacherous, and they did not trust him. He dissolved Parliament in 1629 after arguing over the right to collect customs duties on wine, wool, and over what the Commons perceived as religious innovations. From 1629-1640, he ruled without Parliament. Many considered his arbitrary taxes illegal. (e.g. Tax, or "ship money," for coastal defense levied on all counties, including inland ones.) In 1640, Scots rebelled against Laud's policies; Charles I forced to summon Parliament to get money to put down rebellion. Parliament believed taxation without consent was arbitrary, absolute despotism. Charles was forced by the Commons to summon Parliament every three years (Triennial Act). When Irish revolted, due to economic, political, religious oppression, Parliament wouldn't give Charles I and army; they didn't trust him. Civil war ensued. King and Parliament each drew up their own armies. In 1649, Charles was executed on the charge of high treason, a severe blow to notion of divine right monarchy.

Charles II

Charles II was a king of England, and was the oldest son of Charles I. Charles II began the restoration of the English monarchy; the Restoration failed to solve two problems: what would be the attitude towards those who did not follow the Anglican Church, and what would be the relationship between the King and Parliament. Charles II refused to get along with Parliament, however he avoided conflict by appointing five new members of Parliament, who were also his main advisers. These members of Parliament bridged the gap between the executive and legislative branches of government; the new members were called the "Cabal" which is an acronym for the last names of the five new members of Parliament. Charles II's Parliament did not give him the tax money that he needed, so in 1670, he entered a secret agreement with Louis XIV, in which Louis XIV would pay Charles, and in return Charles would try to make England more Catholic, and he would support the French in their foreign policy against the Dutch.

Constitutionalism

Constitutionalism is the limitation of government by law, developed in the 17th century. Constitutionalism is the balance between authority and power of the government and rights and liberty of the subjects. A constitution must have the government's respect and the state must govern by those laws. In a constitutional state, the sovereign power resides in the electorate and is exercised by representatives. Unlike a democracy, not all people participate, only the representatives vote. England and Holland evolved into the constitutional state. In England, the law was made by Parliament and could not be suspended by the Crown. When Charles I tried to rule without the help of Parliament he brought his country to a crisis.

Oliver Cromwell

Controlled the army that defeated the royal forces and controlled the government. He constituted a military dictatorship. In theory, a commonwealth, or republican government, was proclaimed. Parliament had legislative power. The army had prepared a constitution (Instrument of Government [1653]) that invested executive power in a lord protector, Cromwell, and a council of state. After repeated disputes, Cromwell tore the document up and continued the standing army and proclaimed quasi-martial law. He divided England into 12 military districts each governed by a major general. Cromwell favored religious tolerance, and the Instrument of Government gave all Christians (except Roman Catholics) the right to practice their faith. In 1649 he crushed a rebellion at Drogheda, Ireland with merciless savagery, leaving a legacy of Irish hatred for England. His regulation of the nation's economy was similar to absolutism. He enforced a Navigation Act requiring English goods be transported on English ships. He welcomed the immigration of Jews because of their skills. Died in 1658.

Poland's partitions

Created by Catherine the Great of Russia. This was said to be her greatest accomplishment. Between 1768 and 1772, Catherine had won many battles that could have disturbed the power in Russia and Austria. Frederick of Prussia then made a proposal in which turkey would be left alone, but Prussia, Austria, and Russia could take a huge part of land from Poland. Catherine was the first to take a huge piece of land from Poland in 1772 and the other two happened in 1793 and 1795. These partitions completely took Poland off the map.

Democracy

Definition: A form of government in which all people participate in government through franchise, or voting different from constitutional government in a constitutional government, power rests with the electorate, but not all people get to vote in 1600s, mostly only upper class people were voting most men couldn't vote until late 19th century women couldn't vote until 20th century

capitalism

Economic and political arrangement in which the trade and production of a country is dominated by private organizations rather than the state of government. Capitalism declined with the rise of mercantilism under Louis XIV, government policies regulated commercial activities. It increased in England during the 16th and 17th centuries, where many people invested in businesses, such as the cloth industry. Many capitalists were in the House of Commons and wanted political power that corresponded to its economic strength, which brought them in conflict with King James I and Charles I of England. Calvinist virtues - hard work, thrift, sobriety, competition, etc. were popular among many English capitalists.

Peace of Utrecht

End of the War of the Spanish Succession War ends in the peace treaty due to the being very expensive Demonstrates balance of power Effects of the Peace of Utrecht Spain to decline in power Spain focuses on expanding into the Americas France expands its boundaries into Europe British territories expanded into France and Germany First big peace treaty with many nations Experience with cooperation for Europe

St. Petersburg

Founded by Peter the Great Swedish fortress at location Peter took fortress in 1702 Modern Baroque city Became new Russian capital instead of Moscow Built after Russia won Battle of Poltava in 1709 A fortress, a port, shipyards, and a Russian navy were established there Architecture was influenced by Western Europe Broad, straight, stone roads All buildings conformed to strict architectural regulations Each class lived in a certain section of the city Peter used methods of autocracy to establish city Peasants were drafted to work on city Population of 300,000 in 1782

Frederick William I

Frederick William I - King of Prussia (1713 - 1740) Known as the "Soldiers King" Originally was known as Elector Frederick III (1688 - 1713) Established Prussian absolutism Instilled military values into Prussian society He believed that the welfare of the king depended on the army above all else At first he tried to get rid of the Junkers to make peace with them, they became the officer class Built a strong, first-rate army: he had bizarre love for tall soldiers he had a violent temper Prussia's army became the fourth largest army by 1740 Best army in Europe he hated to use his army for fear of losing men Created a strong centralized bureaucracy Honest and conscientious army Administered the country & tried to develop it economically

Frederick William the Great Elector

Frederick William was an elector of Brandenburg who was supposed to help choose the Holy Roman Emperor; he was known as the Great Elector. The Great Elector had taken huge steps to unite Prussia into a royal absolutist government during the Seventeenth century. A member of the Hohenzollern family, Frederick inherited the original territory of Prussia (when a junior branch of the family died out), Brandenburg (around Berlin), and scattered principalities along the Rhine in western Germany. He strove to unite his holdings into a single, absolutist state. During his rule, Frederick overcame the Prussian nobility called the Junkers and the Prussian and Brandenburgian Estates in order to institute absolutist rule. With the threat of war on many sides, he had done this by forcing the estates to accept permanent taxation without consent, and as a result the power of the Estates and the Junkers decreased. Second, he played the landed nobility against the town governments, who might otherwise have united against Frederick's power grab. The nobles accepted a compromise, letting taxes fall on the towns instead of the rural nobility. Prussia was finally united into to a single state, in which King Frederick William I strengthened and solidified royal absolutism.

Sully

He was appointed chief minister by Henry IV (Henry of Navarre). Henry chose Sully, a protestant, as his minister to better connect with the protestant people in France. Sully lowered taxes, and as aresult, trade increased and revenues increased. He supported and worked with overseas trade companies, such as the Company for Trade in the Indies. He and Henry IV made economic prosperity in France, as well as restored order and peace. After Henry IV died, there was chaos, and Marie de' Medici got power. Richelieu fixed france after this.

Immanuel Kant

Immanuel Kant (1624-1804) was a German philosopher and professor in eastern Prussia. He argued freedom of press, and he thought that if thinkers had the opportunity to print their ideas freely, the Enlightenment would surely follow. He also believed that Frederick the Great of Prussia was an enlightened monarch because he allowed freedom of press.

The siege of Vienna in 1683

In 1529, the Ottoman Turks had nearly captured Vienna and held massive territory, including the Balkans, most of Hungary, and parts of southern Russia. The Ottoman Empire was greatly feared and misunderstood by western Europe. The Turks were old foes of the Catholic Habsburgs. The siege of Vienna in 1683 was when the Ottoman Turks tried to take over Vienna once more with a massive army. After holding out for two months, Vienna was saved at last moment by a mixed force of Habsburg, German and Polish troops. The Turks were driven back, and the Habsburgs conquered almost all of Hungary and Transylvania (part of present-day Romania). This battle was significant because someone finally put a stop to the domination of the Turks. Before this battle the Turks were conquering any land that they pleased in Eastern and Central Europe. It was also significant, because the Habsburgs emerged greatly strengthened, setting themselves up to unify their territories. However, they were ultimately unable to create a centralized, absolutist, unified state.

Hereditary subjugation

In Prussia in 1653, peasants were assumed to be tied to their lords in hereditary subjugation - bound to their lords from one generation to the next as well as to the land. Noble's power eventually went out of hand. 1) Lords made monarchs issue laws that didn't allow peasants to leave without the lord's permission. 2) Lords took more of their land and established heavier labor obligations. Hereditary Subjugation was established or reestablished in Poland, Prussia, and Russia "PPR"

military in Europe in the early 1700s

In contradiction to medieval armies which were conditionally raised by feudal lords, absolute monarchs had permanent standing armies. They were drawn together by the monarchs, and scattered where convenient. The armies were greatly feared to the point where others were afraid to fight them, very compulsive, and cleverly worked the system, even with the use of secret police.

Versailles

It started out as a hunting lodge ten miles from Paris for Louis XIII so he could get away from his wife. Louis XIV turned it into a palace. The whole place was adorned with paintings, candles, carved pieces and the Hall of Mirrors. He used it to overawe his subjects and foreign visitors, and it eventually became the epitome of Baroque architecture, which seeks to awe viewers with the monarch's strength. Versailles was synonymous with Louis XIV's enormous power and influence, and many monarchs built replicas of their own as a statement of their equality with Louis XIV. Examples include Emp. Leopold's Schönbrunn in Vienna, King Charles XI's Royal Palace in Sweden, and Prince Eugene's Summer and Winter Palaces in Vienna.

James I

James I was the successor of Elizabeth. James believed in the divine right of kings; the king was responsible to God only. James lectured the House of Commons telling them that king had jurisdiction over liberties, persons, and properties of the English people. James I was the son of Henry VII, and was thus the nephew of Henry VIII who had broken away from the Catholic Church and formed the Anglican Church. The Puritans in England wanted to purify the English Church of Anglicanism, by creating new ceremonies, and bishops. James was not a Puritan, he was a Calvinist; he and his son Charles I were sympathetic to the Roman Catholic church. James I's son Charles I supported the ideas of William Laud who wanted to to expand the rituals and the rich ceremonies of all churches. Laud wanted there to be uniformity in all church services, and used the Court of High Commission in order to enforced this uniformity. 1637 William Laud tried to impose two new ideas in Scotland, one was a new prayer book, which was based on the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, and he tried to create bishoprics in Scotland. Revolts started in Scotland, which forced Charles I to call Parliament in 1640

James II

James II was the Duke of York, and was the brother of Charles II. Charles II did not have a legitimate son, therefore his brother succeeded the throne. Once the details of the secret deal that his brother Charles II had with Louis XIV went public, many people feared that James II would reinstate Roman Catholicism. Parliament tried to pass a bill that would make it impossible for a Roman Catholic to succeed the throne, however Charles II dissolved the bill. Many Roman Catholic supporters feared the rule of James II; James went directly against the Test Act, which protected the church of Anglicanism, by appointing Roman Catholic officials to high positions in the army, universities, and local government. Eventually, James II created a declaration of indulgence which granted religious freedom. Bishops eventually revolted against the declaration of indulgence, however they were imprisoned. James daughter Mary married William of Orange, and they were crowned in 1689. James II and his wife fled to France in 1688.

Kepler

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) in Germany was Tycho Brahe's assistant, who went much further with Brahe's data due to Tycho Brahe's limited understanding of mathematics. -He came from a minor german noble family. -He believed that the universe was built on mystical mathematical relationships -He formulated three famous laws of planetary motion: 1 -Orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular. 2 -Planets do not move at uniform speed in their orbits. 3 -Time planet takes to make complete orbit is related to it's distance from the sun. Whereas other people (such as Copernicus) had speculated, Kepler was able to prove mathematically the relations of a sun centered solar system, which demolished the old system of Aristotle and Ptolemy.

Junkers

Junkers were the nobility and landowning class who dominated the Estates of Brandenburg and Prussia in the 1600s. King Frederick William wanted power from the Junkers and in his early years he wanted to destroy them. Frederick William forced the Estates to accept the taxation for his army. The Junkers became the officer caste under King Frederick William I. This allowed them to command the peasants in the army as well as on the estates.

labor shortages- peasants in western Europe and peasants in eastern Europe

Labor Shortages-when absolute monarchy took shape in Eastern Europe in 17th Century, it built on social and economic foundations Between 1400 and 1650, nobles and rulers reestablished serfdom in the eastern lands of Bohemia, Silesia, Hungary, Eastern Germany, Poland, Lithuania and Russia In Eastern Europe: the princes and the nobility reduced the importance of towns and the middle classes The princes and the nobility, with the exception of the ottoman rulers the Balkans, rolled back the gains made by the peasantry in the High Middle Ages The Princes and nobility reimposed a harsh serfdom on the rural masses peasants lost their rights and freedom 1300's In Eastern Europe a general improvement in peasant conditions had occurred in Eastern Europe; serfdom (slavery) all but disappeared Peasants bargained freely with their landlords and moved as they pleased social and economical developments headed in same direction through Europe in High Middle Ages 1500's In Eastern Europe by 1500's in Eastern Europe, eastern peasants were well on their way to becoming serfs again In Western Europe Peasants won greater freedom urban capitalist middle class continued its rise many sided landlord reaction occurred as lords sought to solve their tough economic problems by more heavily exploiting the peasantry (Page 567) & this FAILED by 1500, almost all of the peasants were free & in the rest of W Europe, serf obligations had declined Labor Shortages drop in population and process in 14th and 15th century caused labor shortages Eastern landlords used political & police power to turn tables on peasants lords made their kings issue laws that restricted the peasants time honored right of free movement = peasants could no longer leave to take advantage of better opportunity lords took more of their peasants land and imposed heavier labor obligations lords could command their peasants to work for them without pay as many as six days a week

Pugachev's Rebellion

Lasted from 1773-1775. Emilian Pugachev started a rebellion with the serfs against Catherine II and claimed that he was the "true tsar" of Russia. He issued false decrees that abolished serfdom, taxes, and army service. Many joined him and slaughtered landlords and nobles along the way. Catherine the Great was no match for him until he was turned against by one of his followers and killed. Catherine changed her policies from condemning serfdom, to giving her nobles absolute power. She saw the serfs as a clear danger and threat that had to be oppressed.

Sultan

Leader of the Ottoman Empire. Had total control of all capital- there was no private property or hereditary nobility. Owned all agricultural land of the empire and exploited it as he saw fit according to the Ottoman political theory. The sultan also defended peasant communities from greedy officials, so that they could afford to pay their taxes and support the state. The top ranks of bureaucracy were staffed by the Sultan's slave corps. Every year the the sultan levied a tax of one to three thousand male children on the conquered Christian populations in the Balkans. These and other slaves were raised in Turkey as Muslims and trained to fight and administer. The most talented slave rose to the top of the bureaucracy: the less fortunate formed the brave and skillful core of the Sultan's army, the so-called janissary corps Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent Weak with an alliance with Louis XIV of France, surrounded Vienna and laid siege to it in 1683, but the Habsburg defeated them, expanding into Hungary and Transylvania

Louis XIV

Louis XIV was the most influential absolutist ruler of France and had the longest reign in European history. The time of his rule was called the "Grand Century" and the "Age of Magnificence." He received ruling education under Mazarin and from personal experience. His reign really began with Mazarin's death. He had absolute royal dignity, and was "every inch a king." He made several governing innovations to manipulate and gain power from the nobles, the biggest threat to the monarchy (see #4 for more information). He created a highly structures and centralized government by using intendants, councils of state, and terror. His great Palace of Versailles was created in a true Baroque style to not only use as a luxurious and controlled meeting place for French nobles, but also to awe Louis' subject and admirers. The Palace expressed his absolute power and authority over everyone. Many later rulers mocked his style and strategy by building their own version of Versailles. Louis XIV's weak spot was finances. He had to have regional taxes approved by the Estates, which weakened his absolutist power, and they fell most heavily on the merchants, artisans, and peasants. Jean-Baptiste Colbert managed the French finances for Louis and encouraged mercantilism. He set laws that would increase the wealth of the state over that of the individual. Louis supported new world exploration. He revoked the Edict of Nantes, forcing Huguenots to flee and depriving France of its craftsmen. He adored music and acting, especially that of Jean-Baptiste Lully, Moliere, and Racine. Louis spent 33 of his 54 years of reign in war as he tried to be a conqueror. He created a more organized army than ever seen in Europe before. In his struggle for power, he brought France into extreme debt and economic issues. Louis was a very absolute monarch and increased the size of France a little, but he left the country with serious financial problems when he died in 1715.

mercantilism

Mercantilism is a collection of government policies for the regulation of economics activities, especially commercial activities, by and for the state. In the 1700-1800s, the power of a country was based on its wealth, mainly its amount of gold. To accumulate gold, a country had to sell more goods than it bought. Mercantilism was established in France by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, a financial genius and the controller general of finances. He believed that the wealth and economy of France should serve the state, and wanted France to become self-sufficient, meaning that they produce everything themselves and only sell their products, buying nothing back. To accomplish this self-sufficiency, Colbert made all craftsmen join guilds, and set up a system of inspection and regulation to ensure a high quality finished product. He also supported and gave special privileges to old and new industries (cloth, rug and tapestry, mirrors, looms, steel, firearms, etc.) and encouraged foreign craftsmen to immigrate to France. Colbert abolished many domestic tariffs and enacted high foreign tariffs, which prevented foreign products from competing with French ones.

Colbert

Minister of Finances under Louis XIV. Colbert worked towards better balance of trade in France by improved manufacturing in France. His efforts brought France back from near-bankruptcy and helped make France the most powerful European state. Despite his economic efforts, France still did lose lots of money due to the heavy spending of Louis XIV for his military campaigns.

Experimental method

Proposed by Galileo Involved actually performing experiments to achieve results, as opposed to theoretical methods Involved running multiple experiments to come to a conclusion Example was Galileo's acceleration experiment

States General

Republic of United Provinces of the Netherlands (seven northern provinces of Netherland after gaining independence from Spain) had new form of government oligarchies of wealthy merchants (regents) handle political matters, while States General, or federal meeting, deals with foreign affairs such as war States General had little power because decisions had to be approved by Estates Stadholder is appointed by States General in each province as a representative Holland ended up dominating states general and republic, so the Estates gathered at Holland's capital, the Hague

Republican Government

Republican government which was used during commonwealth, gave some power to people to elect other groups to make decisions for them -legislative power was placed on the surviving members of the Parliament(decision making organization) -executive power gave to the Council of State

Louis XVI

Ruled France from 1774-1792. He came to the throne at 20 years of age, and was eager to please his people. Quoted to have said "What I should like most is to be loved." Dismissed Maupeou, who was chancellor of France and had tried to get rid of parliament. Under Louis XIV's rule, all the old parlements were reinstated. Married to Marie Antoinette and was the last French monarch.

Peter the Great

Russian monarch Took control in 1689 Made many reforms Absolutist interested in military power Maintained alliance with Austria and Poland against Ottoman Empire Charles XII of Sweden defeated Peter At Battle of Narva in 1700 Peter was leader in Northern War (1700-1721) Required nobles to serve in army Established a standing army of peasants with special forces of Cossacks and foreigners Peter made Russian serfdom more oppressive Russia won Battle of Poltava in 1709 Russia gained new territory, Estonia and present-day Latvia established St. Petersburg

The English Navigation Act of 1651

The English Navigation was enforced in 1651 by Oliver Cromwell, which required that English goods be transported on English ships. This boosted the English merchant marine and also started a war with the Dutch, which the English quickly won. Since the Dutch were the leaders in sailing, trade and exports, they dominated the market and profits. A lot of English and other countries' goods were being transported by the Dutch. The Navigation Act was supposed to eliminate or at least minimize the Dutch competition. Also, the English wanted to practice the well-liked idea of mercantilism, by controlling at least their own trade and by selling more exports than buying, this way getting all the money for themselves.

Fronde

The Fronde was a series of civil wars that occurred as a result of Cardinal Jules Mazarin trying to centralize French powers by raising royal revenues. The word fronde means slingshot or catapult, and a frondeur was originally a peasant who threw mud at rich carriages. The term came to be applied to anyone who opposed the policies of the government. Many people, especially previously powerful nobles, resented the increase of the monarch's power and felt like they were being manipulated. Mazarin could not control them like Richelieu. The entire nation refused to pay taxes, weakening the government significantly. Their success in the Battle of Rocroi against Spain made the people think that they did not need taxes to sustain the state. Nobles banded together with peasants and led intense rebellions. Violence continued for 12 years. The revolts/wars had three main results: the French government was forced to compromise with the bureaucrats and the elites, the economy was disrupted, and young future King Louis XIV was traumatized and developed a hatred for the nobility.

Bohemian Estates

The Habsburgs defeat in central europe, forced them to turn inward and eastward in an attempt for them to fuse their diverse holdings into a strong unified state. Bohemia had already taken this route during the Thirty Years War. Protestantism was a strong practice within the Czechs. The lesser Czech nobility was mainly protestant and they had great political power because they dominated the Bohemian estates. The Bohemian Estates were the representative body of different states, or legal orders, in Bohemia. In 1618, the Bohemian Estates had risen up in defense of Protestant RIghts. However, this revolt was overturned in 1620 at the battle of white mountain. Ferdinand II, the Habsburg king, reduced the power of the bohemian estates.

The Parlement of Paris

The Parliament of Paris was the chief judicial body under the ancien régime. The parliament consisted of a number of separate chambers: the central pleading chamber, the Chambre des Requêtes (to deal with petitions) and the Chambre des Enquêtes (to handle inquests); the Chambre de la Tournelle (to settle criminal cases); and finally the Chambre de l'Édit (to process Huguenot affairs). The Parliament of Paris represented the people of France. They constantly challenged the power of the royalty, and protected the liberty of the people.

Second Treatise of Civil Government

The Second Treatise of Civil Government was written by John Locke and was what the Glorious Revolution found its best defense in. This book outlined Locke's ideas of more of a civilized society based upon contract theory and natural rights. It explored how if a government oversteps its proper function (protecting life, liberty and property), it becomes a tyranny and how citizens under a tyrannical government will rebel.

Empiricism

This is the general theory of inductive reasoning. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) formalized the empirical method used by Brahe and Galileo before him. He thought the empirical method would result in more knowledge and highly practical, useful knowledge. He also thought that researchers shouldn't think and theorize about rocks or leaves if they want to learn about it, but collect specimens and compare and analyze them.

Scientific Revolution

This was the emergence of modern science, or precise knowledge of physical world based on experimental observations and sophisticated mathematics. These new ideas in the sciences and mathematics influenced views on society and nature. Some historians say that this was the foremost cause of change in the view of the world. This modern science started in the 17th century.

Thomas Hobbes

Thomas Hobbes was an English philosopher and theorist (1588-1679) who believed that people are inherently cruel and greedy and that only absolute sovereignty could resolve the problems caused by greedy humans. He believed the central human drive is desire for power; left to themselves, humans will compete violently for power and wealth. He also wrote the Leviathan, which stated that sovereignty is derived from the people of society, who transfer it to the monarchy through a social contract. Society is like a human body, where the people are parts of the body and the monarch is the head. Once the contract is accepted, just as a body cannot cut off its own head, society cannot rise up against its king. He was deeply shocked by the beheading of Charles I. His book had also stated that the power of the ruler was absolute, however, kings did not rule by divine right. As expected, the English population did not like his beliefs; however, his views along with those of John Locke and Montesquieu largely influenced the U.S. constitution.

Cartesian Dualism

Two fundamental entities regarding Rene Descartes' view of the world was called Cartesian Dualism. Descartes' analysis eventually led to him categorizing everything to either mind or matter, or more literally, spiritual or physical.

Totalitarianism

Totalitarianism controls all the pieces of a society such as art, education, religion, the economy, and politics in the interests of the state. Totalitarian rule is total regulation, it evolved in the twentieth century. Absolute monarchs could not achieve this because they lacked the financial and military resources to do so.

the Spanish Succession

When Charles II of Spain died in 1700 without an heir, his will left the Spanish crown and the entire Spanish Empire to Philip of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV. Even though the will explicitly stated that France and Spain should not be united, Louis still tried to combine the kingdoms. The possible union could have seriously upset the European balance of power, and the conflict started the War of the Spanish Succession, which lasted 12 years. In 1701, the English, Dutch, Austrians and Prussians formed the Grand Alliance against Louis XIV. They claimed that they were fighting to prevent France from becoming too strong, but they also wanted to check France's growing power in North America, Asia and Africa. In this war; Eugene, prince of Savoy, representing the HRE; and Englishman John Churchill were prominent soldiers who defeated Louis in many battles. In 1713, Louis XIV was forced to sign the Peace of Utrecht. Philip (Louis's grandson, previously Philip of Anjou) remained the first Bourbon king of Spain, giving up his place in the line of French succession, under the circumstances that the Spanish and French crowns would never unite. France was also forced to surrender many of its territories to England.

Classicism

When- French classicism in 17th century (and before) Where- France Who- French Classicism Louis XIV supported all of the following classicists Jean-Baptiste Lully orchestra works in restrained austerity Composed court ballets His operatic productions gave powerful influence throughout Europe Francois Couperin Harpsichord and organ works possessed regal grandeur (monarch splendor) Marc Charpentier Solemn, religious music entertained the French king Payed for Te Deums, Hyms of thanksgiving Jean Baptiste Poquelin or "Moliere" Playwright, stage manager, director actor Produced brilliant comedies-- careful social observation was structure of plays Tartuff Le Bourgeois Gentilhomme Les Femmes Savantes Jean Baptiste Racine Analyzed power of love Based plays off of Greek/Roman legends Consisted the conflict of good and evil His plays: Adromaque Berenice Iphigenie Phedre Mithridate Britannicus What- French art that with the aspects of discipline, balance, and restraint Official style of King Louis XIV's court

absolutist Spain

When- Spain prospered in earlier 16th century and power declined when disaster struck in 1590 and later on in the years Where- Spain(kingdom of Castile) Mexico and Peru--Spain gained silver from these countries England and Netherlands(Dutch)--interfered with silver trade between Spain and Mexico/Peru Who- Spanish kings Philip III-- handed gov. over to even lazier duke of Lerma who only used it to advance his personal and familial wealth Philip IV-- left management of several of his kingdoms to Gaspar de Guzman (duke of Olivares) Charles II-- mentally defective and sexually impotent Selfish aristocrats not wanting to be taxed Poor and tiny middle class What- Spain was the ideal absolutist country but its power declined during the late 16th century Why- [PROSPERED] Spain had permanent bureaucracy (Gov. where important info made by state officials not elected representatives) staffed by professionals Had a standing army Forced national taxes (servicios) mostly on the poor. Why- [DECLINED] Spains flow of gold and mostly silver stopped when England and the Netherlands started trading with the silver suppliers (Mexico and Peru). Spain had a tiny middle class from its expulsion of the Jews and Moors, so the national taxes that fell upon the poor was not efficient as they raised the price of taxes on the already impoverished middle class Spain faced military difficulties against France and the treaty of their wars (Treaty of Pyrenees of 1659) marked the end of great Spanish power

Montesquieu

Who Baron de Montesquieu What one of the greatest philosophes wrote indirect attacks on government, church etc in novels, plays, histories, and philosophies with double meanings to spread message to public wrote The Persian Letters(1721) influential social satire amusing letters in the perspective of Persian travelers who see European customs in unique ways cleverly criticize existing practices and beliefs wrote The Spirit of Laws(1748) see above #72 separation of powers argued that despotism could be avoided if there was a separation of powers political power divided and shared by a variety of classes and legal estates holding unequal rights and privileges strong independent upper class = especially important bc in order to prevent the abuse of power, "power checks power" admired English balance of power among king, houses of Parliament, and independent courts believed that in France, the 13 high courts protected liberty against royal despotism constitutions of US in 178 and France in 1791 largely based on his theory When 1689-1755 Where France Relation to other terms: wrote the Spirit of Laws one of the greatest philosophes in Enlightenment

law of inertia

Who Galileo Galilei What stated that rest was not the natural state of objects an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by some external force basis of new physics in 17th cent When early 1600s Where Italy Why examine motion and mechanics Relation to other terms: first of Newton's 3 laws defied/refuted Aristotelian physics

Aristotle

Who: 4th century BC Greek philosopher Ideas recovered in Middle Ages Ideas: Motionless Earth at center of universe 10 transparent crystal spheres - the celestial spheres Beyond 10th was Heaven Distinguished celestial spheres and earth (sublunar) Spheres - perfect, incorruptible fifth essence Light elements - air and fire Heavy elements - water and earth Uniform force moved an object; object would stop when force removed Mostly accepted for 2k years explained what could be seen his views aligned with Christianity

The Scientific Revolution

Who: Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho Brahe, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, Isaac Newton, Sir Francis Bacon, René Descartes What: the rise of modern science through experimentation and precise mathematics increased world-view precise knowledge of the physical world from observations, constant patterns, and math; rational thinking (experimental method) heliocentric view of the universe (sun center) Copernicus increased competition in the scientific community changed old views of a geocentric universe from Aristotle (Earth at the center of celestial spheres), different laws for Earth and heavens, and use of experiments instead of speculation When: 1540-1690 Where: Royal Society in England, which had an international impact on Western society; other societies in Florence, Paris, and Berlin How/ Causes: medieval universities taught philosophy, physics, and astronomy; navigational problems; instruments

Catherine the Great

Who: Catherine the Great of Russia What: The absolute empress of Russia who became empress after plotting against, and killing her husband, Peter III. She set three goals. First, to to bring back sophisticated culture of western Europe back to Russia, second to have domestic reform, and her last goal was territorial expansion. Where: Russia When: 1762-1796 How: For her first goal, she brought back western architects, sculptors, intellects, and musicians to westernize the thinking of Russia. For her second goal, she made better laws. For her last goal, she took over parts of Poland.

the Pragmatic Sanction

Who: Charles VI What: An edict that stated Habsburg possessions were never to be divided and were to be passed intact to a single heir Where: Germany When: April 19th, 1713 Why: Charles Vi wanted to ensure that the Habsburg hereditary possessions could be inherited by his daughter (Maria Theresa)

Voltaire

Who: Francois Marie Arouet; most representative philosphe What: wrote various works praising England and popularizing English scientific progress; Newton was history's greatest man, portrayed Louis as dignified leader of his age in Age of Louis XIV; admired Frederick the Great; believed that a good monarch was the only hope for good gov't, because human beings "weren't worthy to govern themselves."; only believed that the citizen should depend on the laws for absolute equality in spite of strength; had radical philosophical and religious positions; believed in religious tolerance; "love God and neighbor as yourself" Where: Cirey, France When: 1740s - 1750s Why: he was a philosphe; deeply influenced by his continuous conflict with legal injustice and unequal treatment before the law; lived in England for three years; enthusiastic for English institutions; long time companion with intellectually gifted woman Gabrielle-Emilie Le Tonnelier de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet How: mixed glorification of science and reason with appeal for better individuals and institutions Influence: influenced by French and American revolutions; had a major influence on other philosophes

Law of universal gravitation

Who: Invented by Sir Isaac Newton What: FG=Gm1m2/d2. Says that all objects are affected by a force of gravity from all other objects; this force is directly proportional to the masses of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Newton

Who: Issac Newton What: created a new synthesis; a single explanatory system that comprehends motion on both the earth and skies; published Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia); created law of universal gravitation, - every body in the universe attracts every other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship; whereby the force of attraction is proportional to the quantity of matter of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them Where: born into lower English gentry; attended Cambridge University When: 1660s - 1680s Why: fascinated by alchemy; sought elixir of life, intellectual genius; incredible powers of concentrations How: obtained a professorship; studied optics for many years; returned to physics in 1684 for 18 intensive months; sought to combine the astronomy of Copernicus, as corrected by Kepler's Laws, with physics of Galileo and his predecessors through the law of universal gravitation; unified into a majestic system Influence: combined the research of previous scientists; highly praised by Voltaire;

Johannes Kepler

Who: Johannes Kepler, assistant of Tycho Brahe; was medieval figure; What: organized Brahe's mountain of observations; came up with three laws of planetary motion based on Copernican theory/ hypothesis; unraveled planetary motion: orbits of planet around the sun are elliptical rather than circular planets do not move at uniform speed in their orbits the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the Sun Where: Denmark When: 1571 - 1630 (lifetime) Why: to contribute to the spirit of the scientific revolution and the Enlightenment How: see "What" Influences: assistant of Brahe; did same time as Galileo Galilei

Louis XIII

Who: Monarch of Valois and King of France What: Became king France and was known as the "Father of the people" Where: France When: 1498-1515 Why: Louis XII did not encroach on the power of local governments or the privileges of the nobility. This was very unusual since monarchs at the time were attempting to achieve absolutism. He was also famous for reduction of the tax known as taille, legal reforms, and civil peace within France.

Elector of Brandenburg

Who: Person, along with six others, who had ability to chose Holy Roman emperor, but had no military strength. The Hohenzollern family was able to rule Prussia through their positions as dukes and electors of Brandenburg. What: a position that decided who became Holy Roman emperor Where: Brandenburg, an area around Berlin When: after 1400 Why: attempt to bring back princely power

Pragmatic Sanction

Who: Proclaimed by Charles VI What: the Habsburg possessions were never to be divided and were to always be passed intact to a single heir. Charles spent most of his reign trying to have this accepted by the various branches of the Habsburg family, the different Estates, and by the states of Europe. Attempted to join the separated Habsburg territories under a single monarch. Where: kingdom of Bohemia When: 1713 Why: to keep the nobility from manipulating Habsburg absolutism

Skepticism

a skeptical attitude; doubt as to the truth of something.: "these claims were treated with skepticism". synonyms: doubt, doubtfulness, a pinch of salt the theory that certain knowledge is impossible..

Frederick II (the Great)

aka Frederick the Great of Prussia (1740-1786) when Charles VI of Austria died, (1740) his daughter Maria Theresa inherited, and Frederick invaded her German province of Silesia War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748)- gained all of Sylesia, and population doubled → Prussia became a great European power Seven Years war (1756-1763) - alliance between Austria, France, Russia, wanted to conquer Prussia, however, Peter III of Russia called off attack believed humane policies might strengthen state: religious and philosophical tolerance, improved schools, simplified laws, torture abolished, reconstruction, and monarchy in terms of results tried to change social structure, rejected serfdom in abstract, but accepted it in practice, extended privileges of nobility did not listen to Moses Mendelssohn who argued for religious toleration, Jewish freedom, and civil rights