APGOPO: Vocab: Unit 2: List 2

Inherent Power (definition)

Powers that aren't explicitly spelled out in the Constitution, either, but can reasonably be assumed to belong to the executive and legislative branches of government, simply because they are the sovereign power, and the powers would be necessary in fulfilling their named duties. They are implied so that the federal government can carry out its enumerated powers.

Reprieve (how we see)

President Lincoln is a famous example of a President who has granted many reprieves. He is quoted as saying "Let this man take the oath of Dec. 8, 1863 and be discharged". During and after the Civil War, many mothers, wives, sisters, and daughters traveled to the White House to plead for their loved ones who were in trouble, frequently jailed for desertion or held as prisoners of war.

Pardon (how we see)

Presidential pardons have been used many times in American politics. It is explicitly granted in the Constitution to the President, and they can pardon against any offenses except in cases of impeachment. During his presidency, Obama granted exactly 1927 pardons, Trump granted 237, and Biden has granted 9 thus far--not including the 6,500 pardoned by him for simple possession of marijuana. Franklin D. Roosevelt holds the record for most presidential pardons granted however, having dealt exactly 3687 during his time in office.

Signing Statement (how we see)

Presidents use signing statements to go along with the passing of a new bill to explain their intentions and what they hope to achieve with it. One of President Biden's most recent signing statements goes along with the K-12 Cybersecurity Act. His statement speaks of the significance of protecting the sensitive information maintained by schools across the country, and how thankful he and his administration are for Congress passing this bill.

Federal Register (definition)

An official document, published daily, that lists the new and proposed regulations of executive departments and regulatory agencies.

Legislative Veto (definition)

A congressional technique that provisionally granted the president to engage in government conduct ordinarily reserved for Congress with the provision that if the Congress did not approve of the presidential action, it might veto that action; refers to a resolution by a legislative body that invalidates an action by the executive branch.

Pocket Veto (definition)

A formal decision for the President to reject a bill passed by Congress; a veto taking place when Congress adjourns within 10 days of having submitted a bill to the president, who simply lets it die by neither signing nor vetoing it.

Pyramid Structure (definition)

A hierarchical structure where a President's subordinates report to them through a clear chain of command headed by a Chief of Staff.

Ad-Hoc Structure (definition)

A method of organizing a president's staff in which several task forces, committees, and informal groups of friends and advisers deal directly with the president.

Amnesty (definition)

A provision of clemency offered to citizens who break the law. When amnesty is granted, citizens are granted immunity from prosecution, and no record of the infractions remain. The end result is that these people are deemed free by the governing authority. Amnesty is always granted before an accused citizen is formally convicted of any crime; differs from a pardon because a pardon is a forgiveness of a citizen on the part of a government, but does not wipe out any record of the crime.

Pyramid Structure (importance)

A pyramid structure is important as it is another way the President can manage all his duties. The clear structuring provides for an orderly flow of information and decisions. However, with each "step" of the pyramid, there is also a greater risk of misinformation, misunderstandings, and the president not receiving all of the information he may need.

Emergency Power (how we see)

A type of inherent power, exercised only in times of great need. Some emergency powers are limited in scope. The president can declare a place devastated by a storm a federal disaster area, making it eligible for federal aid. Other emergency powers are much more vast in scope. During the Civil War, for example, President Abraham Lincoln spent money without congressional approval, and he also suspended a number of civil liberties, including the writ of habeas corpus.

Clemency (how we see)

All states and the federal government have a process for lowering the sentence or pardoning those facing criminal charges. Clemency is an especially important consideration for those on death row. Even after all appeals in the courts have been exhausted, there is still a possibility that the inmate's life will be spared.

Line-Item Veto (definition)

Also known as a partial veto, a veto power that allows an executive authority to cancel specific parts of a bill (usually budgetary provisions) while signing the rest of the bill into law.

Impeachment (definition)

An action by the House of Representatives to accuse the president, vice president, or other civil officers of the United States of committing certain high crimes or misdemeanors.

Cabinet (definition)

An advisory group selected by the president to aid in making decisions.

Kitchen Cabinet (definition)

An informal group of advisers to whom the president turns for counsel and guidance (members of the official Cabinet may or may not also be members of the Kitchen Cabinet).

Emergency Power (definition)

An inherent power exercised by the president during a period of national crisis.

National Security Council (NSC) (definition)

An interagency advisory group that shares information to advise the president, with respect to the integration of domestic, foreign, and military policies relating to national security.

Chief of Staff (definition)

Arguably the most important position among the many White House Staff positions, they are the person who is named to direct the White House Office, advise the President, and manage their duties.

12th Amendment

Changed the federal voting structure, where electors cast two votes for President, and had the second-most popular be the Vice President of the one that received the most votes. This requires that each elector cast one vote for President and their Vice President, as it ensures that the President will be paired with his running mate after the election, versus his runner-up.

Chief of Staff (how we see)

Currently, President Biden's Chief of Staff is Jeff Zients, the former White House COVID-19 advisor. He replaced Ron Klain, the former Chief of Staff. The average term-of-service for a White House Chief of Staff is less than three years. Many White House Chiefs of Staff are former politicians and many continue their political careers in other senior roles.

Divided Government (how we see)

Currently, we have a quite diverse and divided government in terms of political parties. The executive branch is led by the Democratic party, and so is the Senate, but the House is controlled by the Republican party.

Line-Item Veto (how we see)

Despite the US President no longer being able to use this ability, forty-three US states give their governors some form of line-item veto power, as well as the mayor of Washington DC. One such state is Wisconsin and Wisconsin governors have the power to strike out words, numbers, and even entire sentences from appropriations bills. Many federal politicians have made efforts to re-allow this act for the President, but none have succeeded.

23rd Amendment

Extends the right to vote in the presidential election to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the District electors in the Electoral College, as if it were a state.

Amnesty (how we see)

Granted in the US usually for political crimes against the state, such as treason, sedition, or rebellion. It is addressed generally to classes or communities and takes the form of a legislative act or other constitutional or statutory act of the supreme power of the state.

Patronage (definition)

Granting favors, giving contracts, or making appointments to office in return for political support.

Ad-Hoc (how we see)

How this system works in politics is that several subordinates, cabinet officers and committees report directly to the President on different matters. Bill Clinton was a famous example of a President that utilized this system. He appointed his wife, Hilary Clinton, to head his health care initiative. He also appointed his Vice President Gore and another advisor to lead his major reorganization of the federal bureaucracy.

Impeachment (how we see)

Impeachment in the US government has been used about a handful of times including on Presidents Buchanon, Johnson, Nixon, Clinton, and most recently, Trump. None of them have been convicted thus far, but it has the potential to even remove them from office.

Gridlock (how we see)

In US politics, gridlock happens when the US House of Representatives and the Senate are controlled by different parties, or a party different from the President. It can also occur in the Senate within the Senate, when no party has a filibuster-proof majority. It is argued that most gridlocks occur because the nation's party leaders are more concerned with their own power and positions and fear backlash from the media, financial contributors, and extreme party voters.

Gridlock (importance)

In situations like these, nothing gets passed. The US legislative branch can become so divided, where any action is halted for a significant amount of time, and it does a huge disservice to the American people. Their needs and urgent issues may be unsatisfied and not acted upon for some time. Although, it can also viewed positively as it proves that the system of Checks and Balances is working.

Pocket Veto (how we see)

In the US, if the President does not sign a bill within 10 days of its passage by Congress, it automatically becomes law. However, if Congress adjourns within the 10-day period and the president does not sign the bill, it is automatically vetoed, and the veto is absolute, and cannot be overrode by Congress.

Chief of State (how we see)

In the United States, our Chief of State is the president. As Chief of State, they do a variety of both symbolic and diplomatic duties including: presiding over commemorations of war heroes, throwing the first pitch at baseball games, attending funerals of world leaders, and representing us in global matters, among other duties.

Signing Statement (definition)

Informal pronouncements issued by the President of the United States at or near the time a bill is signed into law. They are used to forward the President's interpretation of the legislature and its implementations.

Bully Pulpit (importance)

It allows someone who already has a public office or position of authority to use it to speak out and be listened to on any matter. This is one of the many ways someone can be politically or socially influenced, and it allows the "bully" to use their influence to sway the public into advocating to their legislators on behalf of the "bully's" agenda.

Amnesty (importance)

It demonstrates that the law is not guaranteed to work equally for everyone. Most people are convicted of a crime, while a few can receive amnesty and be completely cleared of any wrongdoing. And it also demonstrates the government using administrative discretion as they are using reasonable judgment in implementing the laws.

Chief of State (importance)

It designates someone to look to as leader of the country. They serve as the public face and figurehead of the country. Without a Chief of State, a nation would not look like a unified nation in the first place, but rather a mere scatterment of people residing on a common land. A Chief of State gives people of the country someone that represents them, and leaders of other foreign nations someone to communicate with regarding matters of their country.

Impeachment (importance)

It holds even high elected officials responsible for any misdeeds they may do. If, say, the president is not acting in a civil, lawful, or moral conduct beneficial to the welfare of the people, they are not immune to consequence, and can even be removed from office.

Ad-Hoc Structure (importance)

It is a system a President can use to manage all his duties. However, it does have both positives and negatives. A positive is that it allows the President great flexibility, and can gather ideas and information from separate channels. But, a negative is that it can overwhelm the President or easily become disorganized, due to its lax structuring.

Expressed Power (how we see)

It is indisputable that the government is able to collect taxes, because it is an enumerated power, as the Constitution specifically names this ability under authorities of the government. Other examples of enumerated powers that take place today are the ability to coin money, regulate commerce, and declare war.

Federal Register (importance)

It is the official daily publication for rules, proposed rules, and notices of Federal agencies and organizations, as well as executive orders and other presidential documents. The Register brought order to the administrative process by providing a uniform system for filing and publishing documents and by ensuring the American public access to government information and evidentiary material.

Clemency (importance)

It may reduce a defendant's sentence or grant a pardon. Clemencies have been granted in death-penalty cases for a variety of reasons. Because the power of clemency is vested in the executive branch of the government, courts have been reluctant to impose standards on this procedure. Governors are subject to political influence, and even granting a single clemency can result in harsh attacks. Hence, clemencies in death penalty cases have been unpredictable and immune from review.

Divided Government (importance)

It reinforces the policy of separation of powers and checks and balances. This can happen because not one person or group manages all aspects of the government. While it doesn't require it, a divided government shows that the goal of having separate branches of government is a success.

20th Amendment

Moved the beginning and ending of the terms of the President and Vice President from March 4 to January 20, and of members of Congress from March 4th to January 3rd.

Statutory Power (how we see)

One example of a Presidential statutory power is the President's right to declare a national emergency. It is not explicitly stated in the Constitution, but the National Emergencies Act, passed in 1976, empowered the President to activate special powers during a crisis. Presidential abilities available under this Act are limited to 136 emergency powers Congress has defined by law.

22nd Amendment

Outlined term limits and how no person may be elected to the office of the President more than twice; prohibits anyone who has been elected president twice from being elected again.

Pardon (importance)

Pardons are significant because they are essentially the political "Get Out of Jail Free card". There is no limit on the number of people a President can pardon, and it cannot be challenged by Congress, as a Supreme Court decision declared that it "cannot be fettered by any legislative restrictions". Presidential pardons only apply to federal crimes and offenses against the United States. This is a subset of federal crimes, and does not include things like fines. A pardon from the Governor can only be applied to state crimes. Also, pardons do not apply to civil cases, only criminal ones.

Statutory Power (definition)

Refers to the powers and duties assigned to a government official or agency through a law passed by Congress or a state legislature; also known as a statutory grant of authority; powers given through new Congress legislation rather than the Constitution. It demonstrates that Presidents do not live by constitutional authority alone, and even many of the most important presidential initiatives involve claims of statutory authorization.

Reprieve (importance)

Reprieves are very significant because it postpones the imposition of a criminal sentence, particularly a death sentence. Although only a pause, a reprieve granted by the president can offer an inmate extra time to appeal or provide the president more time to consider a pardon or commutation.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) (definition)

Serves the President of the United States in managing the implementation of their vision across the Executive branch, oversees the performance of federal agencies, and administers the federal budget.

Expressed Power (definition)

Sometimes referred to as enumerated or delegated powers, expressed powers are powers or abilities explicitly stated in the Constitution as belonging to the government.

25th Amendment

States that in case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or resignation, the Vice President shall become President.

Cabinet (importance)

The Cabinet is a significant aspect of American politics as its members advise the President on all important problems they must face. They also lead the departments for the Executive Branch of our government. They establish internal and external policies and are regarded as the government's policy-making institution. Cabinets help make decisions on various issues, and also play an important role in the Presidential line of succession: after the Vice President, Speaker of the House, and Senate President pro tempore, the line of succession continues with the Cabinet offices in the order in which the departments were created.

Executive Office of the President (EOP) (how we see)

The EOP's responsibilities for tasks can range from communicating the President's message to the American people, to promoting our trade interests abroad. They include a council of economic advisers, White House office, Office of Management and Budgets, etc.

Pyramid Structure (how we see)

The Pyramid Model in politics is based on a strict military-like chain of command. In this usage, the President can be viewed at the very top of the metaphorical "pyramid". Under them, the Chief of Staff runs the White House staff with a great deal of authority and acts as a clearinghouse for information and access to the president. This system emphasizes a powerful Chief of Staff, and the president receives information through them and is not burdened with all the details of running the White House

Inherent Power (importance)

These are important because inherent powers are ones not explicitly stated in the Constitution, but necessary for governing the country. These powers come from the "Necessary and Proper Clause", or the "Elastic Clause". The clause was first invoked by Alexander Hamilton, three years after the ratification of the US Constitution, to justify the creation of the First Bank of the United States. It is the clause that allows Congress to have implied powers in order to do whatever is "necessary and proper" to carry out their expressed responsibilities.

Inherent Power (how we see)

The US Constitution loosely gives the president the authority to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed", so inherent powers would be derived from anything that allows the president to enforce his duties. An example is the ability to use missiles to defend our country against attack in the case of a war. The Constitution doesn't explicitly state that the president is able to "use missiles" to protect our country, but it does name him "Commander in Chief" of the military, and this would fall under executing the laws of the country, so that would be an inherent power. Or, in order to regulate commerce, which is an expressed power of Congress outlined in the Constitution, the "Necessary and Proper Clause" also allows Congress to establish a minimum wage. The Constitution says nothing about a minimum wage, only about regulating commerce. But, the former is "necessary and proper" in order for Congress to enact the latter, so this clause gives them the authority to do just that.

Bully Pulpit (definition)

The ability to have an audience to convince the public to support their policy preferences; a terrific platform from which to advocate an agenda; a prominent public position, like a political office, that provides an opportunity for expounding one's views

Cabinet (how we see)

The current Cabinet of President Biden consists of fifteen department heads. They are all headed by Secretaries--except for the Justice Department, which is headed by the Attorney General--, who are appointed by the president and then must be approved by the Senate. Examples of specific Cabinet include the Departments of State, Treasury, and Defense.

Federal Register (how we see)

The full text of the Federal Register is on the US Government's official website, and is accessible to all Americans. It states there that "The Federal Register informs citizens of their rights and obligations and provides access to a wide range of Federal benefits and opportunities for funding", and is beneficial to be read by all Americans. Essentially, everyone working in government, or concerned with civic and government affairs, uses it.

Clemency

The general term for the President's power to grant forgiveness for a crime in a whole or in part. Pardons and reprieves are two types of clemency.

Pardon (definiton)

The granting of a release from the punishment or legal consequences of a crime; legal forgiveness for a crime from an authorized executive.

Executive Office of the President (EOP) (definiton)

The group of agencies that work most closely with the President. The agencies are made up of many advisors and aides. These individuals help the President carry out the duties of the presidency and manage his day-to-day work.

Gridlock (definition)

The inability of the government to act because rival parties control different parts of the government (divided government).

Legislative Veto (how we see)

The legislative veto was developed to reorganize governmental agencies and was first authorized by the Legislative Appropriations Act in 1932. While the scope of the doctrine was greatly limited, Congress wished to provide a method of retaining power over delegated authority, and used the legislative veto as a method of allowing the Executive Branch to respond flexibly to events under "intelligible principles" while allowing Congress to overturn Presidential actions that they did not approve of. It was declared unconstitutional, however, in the Supreme Court case INS v. Chadha as it violated the separation of powers doctrine principle, and has not been in legal use since then.

Chief of State (definition)

The person who serves as the symbolic leader of the country and represents the nation. Can include presidents, monarchs, emperors, etc.

Reprieve (definition)

The presidential power to postpone the execution of a sentence imposed by a court of law; usually done for humanitarian reasons or to await new evidence.

Kitchen Cabinet (how we see)

The term "Kitchen Cabinet" essentially refers to any group of trusted friends and associates, particularly in reference to a President's closest unofficial advisers, and has been seen during multiple US Presidencies, even after Jackson's. Ted Roosevelt's variant was called the "tennis cabinet" because this group of friends, diplomats and informal advisors would accompany the president and play tennis regularly on the lawn outside the White House. Even Ronald Reagan had a kitchen cabinet, and it was filled with allies and friends from California who advised him during his terms. This group of ten to twelve businessmen were all strong proponents of the free enterprise system.

Bully Pulpit (how we see)

The term comes from President Ted Roosevelt's reference to the White House as a "bully pulpit", meaning that he could use it as a platform to promote his agenda. The president uses his "bully pulpit" as a means of communicating with the American people through the media coverage of presidential events, and like how presidents make televised speeches to gain public support for a policy initiative.

Expressed Power (importance)

Their purpose is to limit the national government by defining what it can do. To ease fears that a strong national government would abuse its power, it was argued by the Founders that one way the Constitution could create a limited government was to clearly state its powers. By listing specific powers and using carefully constructed language, the Founders established a government that would be narrow in scope. Any powers not expressly given to the national government would then be reserved for the states, ensuring that the states' powers would be protected.

Executive Office of the President (EOP) (importance)

Their purpose is to provide staff assistance for the President and to help coordinate the executive bureaucracy. The EOP, overseen by the White House Chief of Staff, has traditionally been home to many of the President's closest advisers.

Emergency Power (importance)

Their purpose is to temporarily enhance executive power during unexpected crises that are moving too fast for Congress to respond. Many actions are measured and sensible, but others seem like the stuff of authoritarian regimes: giving the president the power to take over domestic communications, seize Americans' bank accounts, and deploy U.S. troops to any foreign country. Given how broad these powers are, it is critical to have adequate safeguards in place to prevent abuse.

Pocket Veto (importance)

These are especially significant because unlike regular vetoes, pocket vetoes are not subject to the Congressional veto override process, meaning Congress does not have the opportunity to override the veto, even with a two-thirds majority vote. The only way for Congress to circumvent the pocket veto is to reintroduce the legislation as a new bill, pass it through both chambers, and present it to the President again for signature.

Kitchen Cabinet (importance)

These are important because members of "Kitchen Cabinets" don't necessarily have professional ties to the President, but rather intimate ones. The first known usage of a Kitchen Cabinet was during the infamous Andrew Jackson's presidency, when all but one of his Cabinet members resigned, and so he was left to turn to a group of unofficial advisers. His opponents labeled them his "Kitchen Cabinet" because of their "back door" access to the President.

Statutory Power (importance)

These are significant because it deals with authority not directly granted by the Constitution. A statutory power is one that is issued through Congress rather than the document of the "Supreme Law of the Land". However, it is also important to mention that Congress can terminate an emergency declaration with a joint resolution enacted into law.

Chief of Staff (importance)

They are ultimately an all-purpose adviser on everything from politics to policy, guiding and counseling a president on some of the toughest decisions, helping to navigate major domestic and international crises and acting as both a sounding board and counselor. They control the president's calendar, limit access to the president, manage the staff, and help the president in all aspects of domestic and foreign policy.

National Security Council (NSC) (information)

This Council is quite significant because it is the President's principal forum for considering national security and foreign policy matters with their senior advisors and cabinet officials. They are the link between the President, and their key foreign and military advisers. It was created to integrate domestic, foreign, and military policies related to national security, and to facilitate cooperation among the military services and other government departments and agencies in matters of national security.

Line-Item Veto (importance)

This concept is important because it is very politically controversial as many scholars believe the line-item veto would give presidents too much power over government spending compared with the power of Congress. And, while it was in practice for one year, the Supreme Court ultimately declared the line-item veto unconstitutional, asserting that it violated the constitutional separation of powers. It was stuck down by the Supreme Court in 1998, and is not currently allowed to be exercised by a US president.

National Security Council (NSC) (how we see)

This council was initially formed during Truman's presidency, and is still very active today. Since its inception, it has played a key role in most major events in U.S. foreign policy, including the Korean War and the War on Terror. It is led by the President, and other members include the Vice President; Secretary of State, Treasury, and Defense; as well as many other high ranking officials involved in matters dealing with national security.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) (how we see)

This federal office was initially created in 1921, and had become an extension of the Bureau of the Budget. Currently it consists of a handful of political appointees and hundreds of skilled professionals, performing both managerial and budgeting functions.

Patronage (importance)

This is a very significant term because this sort of act breeds corruption. Instead of making appointments, contracts, or favors meant to benefit the public, they only benefit the parties involved. This sort of principle removes the integrity of any sort of merit-based government, especially with the making appointments.

Signing Statement (importance)

This is not legally significant, nor binding. It has no official value, neither is it enforceable. It merely displays to the government and the public what the president's intentions are regarding a law that has been passed.

Office of Management and Budget (OMB) (importance)

This office helps to set and maintain the federal budget; controlling and determining the amount of money the Federal Government can spend and allocate to certain areas.

Legislative Veto (importance)

This term is important to be aware of because it was a stratagem that increased the power of Congress. The effect of a legislative veto was to give Congress control over certain executive decisions. It was a feature of dozens of statutes enacted by the United States federal government for approximately fifty years, until it was held unconstitutional by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1983.

Patronage (how we see)

This unfortunately happens all the time in politics. A recent example is during the 2008 presidential election, both Obama and Hillary Clinton were in the running for the Democratic nomination. However, Obama made a deal with Clinton where if she dropped out, he would make her his Secretary of State. And that is what ended up happening.

Divided Government

When different branches of the federal government are controlled by different political parties.