Applied Ethics
Stewardship vd Dominion
"God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth" (Gen. 1:26). But what does "dominion" really mean? It is traditionally interpreted as "to subdue" or "to rule over." When taken to an extreme, it can include oppression and exploitation. Environmental stewardship refers to responsible use and protection of the natural environment through conservation and sustainable practices. Aldo Leopold (1887-1949) championed environmental stewardship based on a land ethic "dealing with man's relation to land and to the animals and plants which grow upon it." Dominion on the other hand suggests absolute power.
Mill's Utility Quote
'Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure.'
Clausewitz on War
'Diplomacy by other means'
For Mill, the key to emphasize is that society is nothing but a collection of individuals.
'Men, however, in a state of society, are still men; their actions and passions are obedient to the laws of individual human nature. Men are not, when brought together, converted into another kind of substance with different properties.' Mill thinks that what makes one person happy should end up making society happy. The only exception to this is when Mill notes that individuals must never infringe upon the rights of others.
Utilitarian Ethics: Bentham
'Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do...' Everyone's pain and everyone's pleasure are of equal importance. An Introduction to the Principles and Morals of Legislation.
Machiavelli
'One of the fastest ways to cause a population to hate a foreign power was to cause civilians harm.' It is in our interest to protect the civilians of oppositions in war, to prevent as much as possible feelings of resentment among them. By granting basic protections to civilians, the point of the war as a political issue could, in theory, be settled with a smaller loss of life and property.
Imperatives
'Shoulds'
Arne Naess Principles of Deep Ecology
1. The well-being and flourishing of human and nonhuman life on Earth have value in themselves (synonyms: inherent worth, intrinsic value, inherent value). These values are independent of the usefulness of the nonhuman world for human purposes. 2. Richness and diversity of life forms contribute to the realization of these values and are also values in themselves. 3. Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs. 4. Present human interference with the nonhuman world is excessive, and the situation is rapidly worsening. 5. The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease of the human population. The flourishing of nonhuman life requires such a decrease. 6. Policies must therefore be changed. The changes in policies affect basic economic, technological, and ideological structures. The resulting state of affairs will be deeply different from the present. 7. The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality (dwelling in situations of inherent worth) rather than adhering to an increasingly higher standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the difference between big and great. 8. Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to participate in the attempt to implement the necessary changes. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R2gZ6FRhc3w&list=PL07088E360592341F
Anti-institutionalism
A by-product of both of those beliefs that rails against the social institution (against 'The Man,' if you will) - churches, governments, etc. - that don't abide by those naturalistic principles.
Hospice
A facility that cares for individuals in the last days of their lives, especially those who attend to the comfort of the individual during his or her last days. Typically terminally ill.
Peace
A freedom from violence, although it can also be used to describe healthy conflict resolution on social, personal, and psychological scales.
Palliative Care
A kind of care for people who have serious illnesses. It is different from care to cure your illness, called curative treatment. Palliative care focuses on improving your quality of life-not just in your body, but also in your mind and spirit. Sometimes palliative care is combined with curative treatment.
Mercy Death
A less painful death directly caused by a caregiver instead of a perceived more painful demise. Euthanasia made without the knowledge of the patient or by someone outside of the medical profession.
Living Wills
A living will defines the end of life treatment a person desires. It includes specific instructions, ranging from trying everything to orders to only use CPR or even a request for first responders and medical professionals to not attempt resuscitation. Those documents are designed for situations when the patient may not be able to give guidance, such as if he or she is unconscious.
Dying With Dignity
A movement that focuses on giving terminally ill patients options for when and how to die.
Environmentalism
A movement toward protecting the natural environment against hazards and pollutants,
Reciprocity
A mutual relationship between doctors and patients to develop the best treatment options. This relationship encourages a cooperative attitude while letting the patient maintain control over their fate and letting the doctors do their job.
Vegetative State
A patient with a prolonged state of unconsciousness and lack of response to external stimuli
Hedonist
A person who focuses their life on maximizing pleasure. pleasure is the primary or most important intrinsic good.
Naturalism
A philosophy that denies that there is really anything outside our empirical world that can be known or really is even worth knowing. Against objective good and against institutionalism.
Sanctity of Life
A principle of implied protection regarding aspects of sentient life which are said to be holy, sacred, or otherwise of such value that they are not to be violated.
Dignity
A respect of a person's self-worth
The Just War Tradition
A set of mutually agreed rules of combat.
Relative Poverty
A standard which is defined in terms of the society in which an individual lives and which therefore differs between countries and over time.
Republic
A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.
Categorical Imperative
A statement about what a person needs to do because it is a rational moral obligation. Kant says it's not because that will necessarily bring about a certain aim. It's related instead to what is morally rational for a person to do, something that can be applied to everyone as a universal moral law.
Hypothetical Imperatives
A statement about what a person would need to do to achieve a desired aim.
W.D. Ross and Prima Facie Duties
A way to organise duties to avoid conflicting duties. Prima Facie means 'At First Glance'. Moral actions that are required unless trumped by a greater obligation. He organised them into; Fidelity duties - keeping promises Reparation - making up for wrongdoing Gratitude - returning a favor Non-maleficence - avoiding injuring others Justice - fair distribution of happiness Beneficence - improving conditions of others Self-improvement - making yourself better. Rather than strict rules, prima facie are moral guidelines ranked intuitively for each distinct scenario. Basically, if you have an actual duty, you must do it. If you have a prima facie duty, you should do it unless you have a better reason not to. And that's how you philosophy your way out of contradictory duties.
Animal Rights Arguments
According to Aristotle, there is a natural hierarchy of living beings. Aquinas believes that if a being cannot direct its own actions then others must do so; these sorts of beings are merely instruments. Instruments exist for the sake of people that use them, not for their own sake. Autonomy is a necessary property to be the kind of being whose interests are to count direclty in the moral assessment of actions (Kant, 1983, 1956) The important part of his conception for the moral status of animals is his reliance on the notion of willing. While both animals and human beings have desires that can compel them to action, only human beings are capable of standing back from their desires and choosing which course of action to take. This ability is manifested by our wills. Since animals lack this ability, they lack a will, and therefore are not autonomous. Descartes believed that all of animal behavior could be explained in purely mechanistic terms, and that no reference to conscious episodes was required for such an explanation. Contractualist Theories of morality construe morality to be the set of rules that rational individuals would choose under certain specified conditions to govern their behavior in society. Kant argues: Our duties towards animals are merely indirect duties towards humanity. Animal nature has analogies to human nature, and by doing our duties to animals in respect of manifestations of human nature, we indirectly do our duty to humanity.... We can judge the heart of a man by his treatment of animals ' Carruthers writes: Such acts [as torturing a cat for fun] are wrong because they are cruel. They betray an indifference to suffering that may manifest itself...with that person's dealings with other rational agents. So although the action may not infringe any rights...it remains wrong independently of its effect on any animal lover (Carruthers, 1992: 153-54). The Argument from Marginal Cases is an argument that attempts to demonstrate that if animals do not have direct moral status, then neither do such human beings as infants, the senile, the severely cognitively disabled, and other such "marginal cases" of humanity.
Two Types of Euthanasia
Active - when someone takes an action to end a person's life to alleviate their suffering. Passive - withholding treatment to hasten death
Where is Euthanasia Legal?
Albania - 1999 Netherlands Belgium Luxembourg Columbia 2010 However, the reality is much more complicated, with passive euthanasia and assisted suicide being legal (or at least tacitly permitted) in several European countries.
Last Resort
All other peaceful or less violent means to resolve conflict have been exhausted.
Indications of Poverty
Although the amount of money a person lives on each day is a major indicator of poverty, there are also many other characteristics of a nation in poverty, including high birth rates, high death rates, high infant mortality rate and age structure. Age structure, which is the distribution of the population based on age categories. Due to high birth rates and low survivorship, poor countries often have a skewed distribution. Poverty stricken countries have high population growth rates. A large proportion of the population being at reproductive age and leads to an increase in overall birth rates, increasing it further.
Utilitarian Ethics: Epicurus; Letter to Menoecus
An early form of utilitarianism. Epicurus defined pleasure as the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. He was an early hedonist, a person who focuses their life on maximizing pleasure. Epicurus was interested in more than short term self-interest. For Epicurus, the consequences of our actions do matter and other people matter too.
Right to die
An emerging philosophical question is if people have the right to live then surely, they have the right to die.
Mill on Society's Biggest Problem
An important thing to keep in mind here is that no one has the right to force another to act 'correctly,' except in cases of avoiding harm. Mill actually calls this society's biggest problem, noting that it can be tyrannical and describing it as 'the feeling in each person's mind that everybody should be required to act as he, and those with whom he sympathizes, would like them to act.'
Unconventional Weapons
An unconventional weapon is 'any weapon that is not immediately thought of as a weapon', or a weapon that is chemical, biological, or nuclear in nature. For many, unconventional weapons are a deterrent or a way to level the playing field when faced with better equipped opponents. However, unconventional weapons ignore the rules of war, indiscriminately killing civilians. Sometimes the civilian deaths are accidental, but quite often they are indeed the objective.
Right to security from harm
Article 5 of the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights: ''No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment.'' It's not just physical harm that you have the right to be free of; it's also harm to your psyche or status as a human. How could this actually be used to support euthanasia, abortion, suicide rights?
Slippery Slope or Domino Effect
Asks for a prohibition or curtailment on something based on a cascading series of undesired results
Six cardinal values of ethics.
Autonomy is the respect of a person's individual rational sense of self. Beneficence is focusing an action on the well-being of others. Justice implies fair treatment. Non-maleficence is the restraint from doing harm. Dignity is a respect of a person's self-worth. And finally, there's sanctity of life, the belief that human life must always be held as sacred.
Why to Relieve Poverty
Avoiding poverty, avoids crime? A famine may wipe out the next harvest, leading many to fear for the food supply. Crucial investments in infrastructure that may have helped prevent the famine have been ignored due to lack of funding.
Arbitrary
Based on random choice or personal whim, rather than any reason or system.
Moral Calculus
Bentham's idea that one can 'calculate' the morality of an action in terms of its utility.
Basic Needs
Clean water, adequate food, shelter, health, and education. When a person does not have these basic needs due to economic constraints, they are considered to be living in poverty.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
Created by the United Nations in 1948 to firmly define the ideas of human rights and fundamental freedoms. The Declaration contains 30 articles that are considered to be the basic rights that cannot be denied to any human being in the world. Although this is not a legally binding international treaty, and therefore cannot be strictly enforced, the Declaration formed the basis of modern ideas about human rights, and parts of it have been included into nearly every international treaty written since 1948, including the International Bill of Human Rights. A Treaty is however legally binding
Resource Allocation
Deciding when and how to divide resources amongst patients. Most people agree that resources should be fairly distributed, but sometimes that means giving more to those in need.
Deterrence
Deterrence is the use of threat to discourage people from taking a certain action. Applied in two different ways. In criminal justice, deterrence is the use of punishment to discourage crime. The other form of deterrence is the national policy in which extreme military threats are used in order to prevent a military attack.
Pioneers of Civil Disobedience
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr - Civil Rights protests of the 1960s Mahatma Gandhi - the Indian independence movement
Ecocentric vs Anthropological Ethical Views
E The idea of inherent worth states that all living things have intrinsic value, and we are morally obligated to respect that value. Our moral duty to nature is based in its inherent worth, not in the specific benefit to us as a species. It's all one big system, and we're just one small part. Life-centered ethics argues a moral duty to nature for nature's own sake A The belief that humans have greater intrinsic value than nature Or The belief that only humans have intrinsic value. The preservation of human life is always moral. For human-centered philosophers, preserving and protecting the environment is a moral action because it ultimately is in the best interest of humanity.
Moral Questions on Economic Equality & Inequality
Economic inequality - access to differing amounts of financial resources determines where one falls in the inequality spectrum. American capitalist system encourages economic inequality through the fallacy of the 'American Dream'. 'Earning' inequality is fine? Schools provide the ultimate stepping stone towards everything else. Economic inequality helps to make sure that people are motivated to be as productive as possible. Progressive tax rates - tax rates that increase as a person makes more money.
Elisabeth Kubler-Ross
Encouraged a more holistic approach to treating dying patients by meeting their psychological needs as well as physical ones.
Bioethics
Ethics applied to scientific advances in biology and medicine
Ethics of Justice vs Ethics of Care
Ethics of Justice is focused on the decisions people make when coming up with rational solutions to abstract moral problems. Universal moral laws that can be applied across the board. Ethics of Care is focused on how to respond to the needs of others in complicated real-life scenarios. Noddings points out that experience in the private sphere - the world of home and family - is filled with ethical dilemmas and challenges. The ways we respond to these scenarios can provide a lot of insight into the field of ethics. Put forward by Feminist thinkers, like Gilligan and Noddings. ather than focusing on individuals as independent from one another, the ethics of care thinks of human beings as quite interdependent. We care for one another, and others care for us.
Real Life Euthanasia Debates
Euthanasia row over decision to end life support for French quadraplegic Vincent Lambert
Beneficence
Focusing an action on the well-being of others
Tropical forests
Forests that span both sides of the Equator.
Dame Cicely Saunders
Founder of the Modern Hospice Movement
Right to Liberty
Freedom of choice and to expect certain freedoms. Yes, you have a right to expect your rights. Article 1: ''All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.'' Article 2: ''Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this declaration, without distinction of any kind.''
Individualism and Mill
Freedom of choice, or strict individualism, is, after all, the most important part of Mill's philosophy. Seek your own happiness and do not prevent others from doing so.
Divine Command Theory
God as the Source of Moral Laws It proposes that an action's status as morally good is equivalent to whether it is commanded by God.
Ethics of Reproductive Cloning
Good: Couple that has fertility problems Couples that know they have a high risk of passing on a genetic disease Couple has lost a child due to accident or sudden illness. Cloning this child could replace that lost family member for them. Bad: 'playing God' Still a relatively new technology, especially for human purposes. We don't really know what will happen to these individuals later in life, and there are likely biological issues that occur. Not very efficient.
Geneva Conventions
Guidance on how to treat medics, prisoners of war and chaplains, as well as advisories to leave civilians alone.
Why to avoid Directly Interceding? (A hand out)
Harlem in New York City- increase services and provide a hand up, not a hand out. The most successful attempts to combat global poverty are similar to local anti-poverty programs in that they feature ways to develop the local economy.
'One very simple principle'
Harm Principle The sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number, is self-protection. That the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral, is not a sufficient warrant. He cannot rightfully be compelled to do or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because it will make him happier, because, in the opinion of others, to do so would be wise, or even right. These are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or reasoning with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil in case he do otherwise.
The Jus Ad Bellum
Having just cause, being a last resort, being declared by a proper authority, possessing right intention, having a reasonable chance of success, and the end being proportional to the means used. Not wholly intrinsic or consequentialist.
Right to Political Participation
Here in the USA, we interpret that to mean that everyone has the right to have a voice in the government. That's been our policy for quite some time. That's also why we're a democratic republic, so that any person can participate in American politics. But on an international scale, this could mean different things. After all, there are still monarchies in the world and other forms of government less open to total participation.
Criticisms of Just War Theory
How would the normative ethicist theories we have studied respond to this?
Human Values in Environmental Ethics
Human Values The things that are important to individuals that they then use to evaluate actions or events. Unique to individuals.
Mill on Humanity
Humanity, says Mill, is not 'a machine to be built after a model, and set to do exactly the work prescribed for it, but a tree, which requires to grow and develop itself on all sides, according to the tendency of the inward forces which make it a living thing.' This requires individual freedom to put one's self in situations where one can prosper. We will naturally gravitate towards prospering in groups because human beings like each other's company - we desire unity with others because it makes us happy.
Abortion and Personhood
Humans develop their personhood gradually, their individuality impacted by experiences in the womb, and with the outside world after born. It's more a question of moral value. If human life only has moral value because we create it, then abortions are a matter of choice. However, to many religious people, life is sacred and a gift from God. Even the possibility that an abortion may be the ending of a human person is enough reason to prohibit it. Others argue that where there is doubt, a mother's own rights are paramount. They would also point out that this is especially important in a world where poverty still exists, and pregnancy can lead to a mother's death.
Why Animals have Direct Moral Status
If a being is sentient then it has direct moral status. (Most) animals are sentient Therefore (most) animals have direct moral status. "Sentience" refers to the capacity to experience episodes of positively or negatively valenced awareness. Examples of positively valenced episodes of awareness are pleasure, joy, elation, and contentment. Examples of negatively valenced episodes of awareness are pain, suffering, depression, and anxiety.
The Argument From Marginal Cases
If we are justified in denying direct moral status to animals then we are justified in denying direct moral status to the marginal cases. We are not justified in denying direct moral status to the marginal cases. Therefore we are not justified denying direct moral status to animals.
Capital Punishment
If you do something bad enough, you can be punished by losing your life. Mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi, the oldest code of laws in existence, and is described in detail throughout the Bible. Roman and Crucifixion. Medieval Europeans and Draw and Quarter. After Enlightenment Period the idea of minimizing suffering for the condemned was emphasized. This led to hanging, electric chair and lethal injection etc. Saudi Arabia allows beheadings and firing squad. A way to deter crime through public display. Wrongly convicted? Is the increased cost of maintaining a case through decades of appeals is worth the vindication that comes from ending the life of the condemned? Changed in the West from a spectacle to a sanitary affair, although it still includes some level of showmanship elsewhere.
Killing in Defense of the Innocence
In 2012, a Texas father killed a man who he caught in the actual act of raping his very young daughter. After reviewing evidence, Texas courts chose not to press charges. Their reasoning, as reported by The New York Times, centered on the belief that the father was authorized to use deadly force to protect his daughter. However, what if he had killed him the next day, or even an hour later? By whom and how should this line be drawn? Taking the life of someone who threatens the life of an innocent who cannot protect themselves Moral Foundations Theory, which outlines six universally accepted foundations of morality, a basic principle of morality is nurture and protection of the innocent. Known as the care versus harm foundation. Links to the Doctrine of Double Effect, as put forward by Thomas Aquinas. Against Killing in the defense of the innocent allows one person to arbitrarily decide the guilt or innocence of another. It also allows for interpretation of the word 'defense.' 'Violence only breeds violence' and the Domino Effect.
Euthanasia vs Assisted Suicide
In assisted suicide the patient is in complete control of the process that leads to death because he/she is the person who performs the act of suicide. The other person simply helps (for example, providing the means for carrying out the action).
Morality of Human Testing
In ethical terms, nearly all healthcare professionals agree that human life is the end-all-be-all, that sacred line that you just never cross. However, experimenting on humans is necessary. Say you want to use a new medicine, a new surgical procedure, or a new mental health program. If it's never been done before, you really don't know what to expect, so it would be unethical to just start using it on patients. There are a few guidelines here to ensure that human testing is possible, while still being ethical. Of all of these rules, the most important is that the subject must be fully aware of all risks and must give unmistakable, conscious consent.
Greater Good
In order for something to happen in the name of Greater Good, it is often considered to be imperative, that something rather unpleasant and often quite lethal will happen as a stepping stone.
Catholic Church and the Doctrine of Double Effect
In the modern moral world, the doctrine of double effect is still used by the Catholic Church, provided that an action meets four very specific criteria: The action must be morally good. You must not desire the negative consequence, and if you can produce a good result without any negative consequence, then you should. The good effect must be as immediate as the negative effect. The good effect has to be good enough to make up for the negative effect. If all four of these criteria are met, then the negative outcome was permissible, and you're not morally responsible for it.
Radical Individualism
In which the patient has complete and absolute control over their bodies. This idea led to ideas like informed consent, which requires doctors to discuss treatments with their patients and get the patient's permission
War Criminals
Individuals who broke the laws of war, namely through cruelty towards civilians or excess violence towards combatants. Germany and Japan, war criminals were tried as part of the Nuremburg and Tokyo War Trials.
Poverty and Extreme Poverty
Internationally, the poverty line is considered living on around $2 a day. Although this definition might seem shocking due to the low amount of money, it gets worse. There are people who are considered to live in extreme poverty and who survive on less than $1.25 a day. As of 2010, there were nearly 1.4 billion people worldwide that were classified as living in extreme poverty. This means that nearly one out of every five people on Earth is living in extreme poverty and not having their basic needs met.
Doctrine of Double Effect
It can be permissible to cause harm if the harm is a side effect of an action whose main intent was meant to bring about good. This side effect is also called a 'double effect.' Great. Actions have consequences, but as it turns out, we may only be responsible for the main ones. The doctrine of double effect is usually credited to the 13th-century Catholic priest Thomas Aquinas, who claimed that it was permissible to kill someone in your own self-defense, but only if you did not mean to kill that person. Since the main intention was good, the side effect is excusable. But, according to Aquinas, this is only true as long as the total outcome is positive. In Aquinas' example, a negative total outcome could mean using more force than is necessary to defend yourself.
The Deprivation Argument
It is morally wrong to deprive the embryo of its future.
Pacifism Quotes
Jesus taught that the right response to aggression is love, not hate. "Do not take revenge on someone who wrongs you. If someone strikes you on the right cheek, turn to him the other also." Matthew 5:39 "Love your enemies, and pray for those who persecute you." Matthew 5:44 "Blessed are the peacemakers" Matthew 5:9 "Peace I leave with you, my peace I give you." John 14v27 When Jesus was arrested, he would not let his disciples use violence to prevent his arrest: "Then the men stepped forward, seized Jesus and arrested him. With that, one of Jesus' companions reached for his sword, drew it out and struck the servant of the high priest, cutting off his ear. 'Put your sword back in its place,' Jesus said to him, 'for all who live by the sword will die by the sword.' Enough of this, stop it!" Luke 22:49-51
Kant on Consequences
Kant's approach was focused more on the motivation behind a person's actions rather than on consequences.
The Principles Of Jus In Bello
Legitimate targets in war, whilst the principle of proportionality, the principle of responsibility (which demands an examination of where responsibility lies in war)
Famous Pacifists
Mahatma Gandhi (1869 - 1948) - Indian nationalist and politician. Gandhi advocated ahimsa - non-violent protest for Indian self-determination and independence. Bertrand Russell. (1872 - 1970) British pacifist who campaigned against conscription. He was sent to jail for six months for speaking against America's entry into the First World War in 1917. Russell did support the war against Nazi Germany, but after WWII he joined the campaign for nuclear disarmament. Leo Tolstoy (1828 - 1910) Russian writer of ' War and Peace' and moral philosopher. After fighting in Crimean war, he became a pacifist, basing his pacifist beliefs on Christ's Sermon on the Mount.
Suicide vs Assisted Death
Many people prefer the term assisted death to the term assisted suicide because they feel that the word 'suicide' has connotations that do not reflect the reality of a situation. They argue that suicide is when someone who is not terminally ill kills themselves, whereas assisted death occurs when a terminally ill patient seeks help in hastening death.
Mill and Feminism
Mill's 1869 text The Subjection of Women advocated for thorough gender equality, a radical notion in the nineteenth century and, unfortunately, to some of our contemporaries today.
Duty
Moral Obligation to Act. Actual duties are not optional. Prima Facie Duties
Legality of Forms of Euthanasia
Most forms of voluntary, passive and some instance of non voluntary, passive euthanasia are legal.
When it's okay to end a life and to what extent life should be prolonged.
Most people support the use of technology to keep someone alive who is in a vegetative state, a prolonged state of unconsciousness and lack of response to external stimuli. However, the line is often drawn at brain death, irreversible loss of brain function. These are all very important questions to ask. Not cheerful ones, but important.
Death Midwife
Non-medical, holistic companions who guide and support the dying in order to facilitate a gentle and tranquil death.
Authorization of a competent authority
Often enough to convince people of the just status of a war.
Utilitarian Ethics: Mill
On Liberty
Euthanasia Arguments
On one hand, people who believe that euthanasia should be illegal point out that it's a slippery slope from euthanasia to murder. For example, if Lou helps Trina die, how can the police know for sure that she wanted to die and not that he just wanted to kill her for his inheritance? Another point against physician-assisted suicide is the argument that doctors have a moral obligation to help people heal and to do no harm, which is part of the Hippocratic Oath that doctors take when they become doctors. People who are against euthanasia point out that physician-assisted suicide goes against the Hippocratic Oath.
Logging
One of the causes of deforestation in any type of forest is logging, which is used to harvest the natural resources of the forest. Forests are often cleared because those in charge of the woodland want to use the area for a different purpose, such as agriculture, cattle ranching or mining. Dams that are constructed for hydroelectric power plants are another reason for deforestation.
Absolute Pacifism
Oppose all warfare, violence, and killing, without exception of any sort. Even in self-defence
Is Health Care a Right?
People who argue that health care is a right hold that failing to help someone who is sick is morally wrong. They also claim that attitudes towards the behavior of doctors and the expectation that emergency rooms should not turn people away suggests that some level of health care is considered a right by most people. Finally, they point out that believing people have a right to life contradicts the belief that health care is not a right. Those who believe health care is not a right claim that something that requires other people to act or spend money cannot truly be a right. They also argue that resources are limited, making the belief in healthcare as a right impractical.
Plato and Aristotle on Justice
Plato, justice is a condition of the soul, a virtue. Justice serves the purpose of promoting harmony and structure in the individual and, by extension, the community. Aristotle wanted a society where everyone gets what they deserve. He believed that virtuous behavior deserves reward and wrongdoing deserves punishment. According to Aristotle, the true forms of government are those in which the one, or the few, or the many, govern with a view to the common interest. He disagreed with eliminating private property and the family unit. He promoted the existing view that men were more natural leaders than women and found a way to justify the slavery of his time.
Poverty Vs Affluence
Poverty - not having the economic resources to ensure a basic standard of well-being. Affluence - having a surplus of resources to ensure a comfortable standard of life.
Poverty
Poverty is the term used to describe when a person is unable to meet their basic needs due mainly to economic constraints.
Six Aims of Punishment
Punishment: something done to a person because they have broken a law Protection: keeping the public from being harmed, threatened or injured by criminals Retribution: an aim of punishment - to get your own back: 'an eye for an eye' Deterrence: an aim of punishment - to put people off committing crimes Reform: an aim of punishment - to change someone's behaviour for the better Vindication: an aim or punishment that means offenders must be punished to show that the law must be respected and is right Reparation: an aim of punishment designed to help an offender to put something back into society
Abortion and the Right to Privacy
Regardless of the reason, the courts have found that the right of privacy includes a woman being able to terminate her pregnancy, with a few exceptions, without the interference of the government. If the woman is in a stage of pregnancy before a fetus is viable, or able to live, outside of her body, then the state may only adopt regulations regarding abortion that do not impose an 'undue burden' on her ability to obtain an abortion. However, what do we think about a law that would require a woman to obtain spousal consent before obtaining an abortion? Alternatively, if the woman is in a state of pregnancy after a fetus is viable outside of her body, then the state's interest in the fetus's life can override the woman's right to choose an abortion only if her health is not at risk. This is because the fetus is its own individual at that point as it can live outside of the woman's body on its own. Therefore, the state has an interest in protecting it because it cannot protect itself. However, in cases where the woman's life or health is at risk, then the woman's rights prevail.
Informed consent
Requires doctors to discuss treatments with their patients and get the patient's permission. But, it can also limit the ability of doctors to do their jobs.
Is Punishment, Justice?
Retributive justice punishes law-breakers because they deserve to be punished for breaking the law. We are capable of making choices and thus should be held accountable. Revenge? What Good is it? Utilitarian justice seeks to create the greatest benefit to society through punishment by deterring crime and rehabilitating criminals. Deterrence is the main focus, and secondary is rehabilitation. Is this too idealistic, without enough practical punishment. Restorative justice makes the claim that crimes should be corrected by making amends to the victims. Creates open communication about crime? The best way to make victims feel whole again? It's not firm enough? Doesn't discourage crime? No real justice for society as a whole?
Supreme Court Case Roe v. Wade
Roe v. Wade (1973) represented a controversial Supreme Court case that highlighted women's rights as well as the constitutional issue of the right to privacy. In 1969, Norma McCorvey (who adopted the pseudonym 'Roe') became pregnant and moved to Dallas, Texas, in order to seek an abortion. The state refused to grant McCorvey the right to an abortion because state law claimed that abortion was only legal if incest, rape or life-threatening harm to the woman had occurred. However, the court ruled in favor of 'Roe.' The case was immediately appealed to the United States Supreme Court under the contestation of Dallas County district attorney Henry Wade. The case of Roe v. Wade was heard in 1972, and on January 22, 1973, the Supreme Court ruled that the right to an abortion was legal under the due process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, which guarantees privacy in personal decision-making. The Court did, however, rule that the state had the right to intervene if the abortion caused harm to the mother or if the child had passed a specific pregnancy trimester threshold. The timing of the abortion was later reversed and replaced with a clause which maintained that the mother could abort until the child reached 'viability;' that is, the ability to live on its own outside of the mother's womb. Advocates for and against abortion have contested the issue for decades.
Shallow Ecology vs Deep Ecology
Shallow Ecology We should protect Earth because we can use it. Deep Ecology We should protect earth because it has intrinsic value and worth in itself. Tree is not good because it is useful to us, but because it is intrinsically valuable in itself. A river has the right to flow unpolluted, uncontaminated and undamned. We can take from nature with gratitude, not because we have a right to it.
Singer and the Principle of Equal Consideration of Interests
Singer attacks the views of those who wish to give the interests of animals less weight than the interests of human beings. He argues that if we attempt to extend such unequal consideration to the interests of animals, we will be forced to give unequal consideration to the interests of different human beings. Singer defends this principle with two arguments. The first is a version of the Argument from Marginal Cases: 1. In order to conclude that all and only human beings deserve a full and equal moral status (and therefore that no animals deserve a full and equal moral status), there must be some property P that all and only human beings have that can ground such a claim. 2. Any P that only human beings have is a property that (some) human beings lack (e.g., the marginal cases). 3. Any P that all human beings have is a property that (most) animals have as well. 4. Therefore, there is no way to defend the claim that all and only human beings deserve a full and equal moral status. The second is the Sophisticated Inegalitarian Argument: Singer argues that if we were to rely on these sorts of properties as the basis of determining moral status, then we would justify a kind of discrimination against certain human beings that is structurally analogous to such practices as racism and sexism.
Problem of Conflicting Views of War
Some countries view War as great struggles between right and wrong and thus do not uphold those criteria for 'diplomacy by another means. Similarly some do not sign contracts, and this means that they are effectively 'playing by other rules', and cannot be held legally accountable for what would be deemed morally impermissible by others abiding by such conventions.
Playing God
Someone supposedly taking on the role of God for other purposes, also referred to as apotheosis. Alleged acts of playing God may include, for example, deciding who is to live or die in a situation where not everyone can be saved.
Conscientious Objectors
Someone who disagrees with the entire principle of war. This includes carrying guns, using guns, fighting, or war of any kind. Usually, conscientious objectors are influenced by unwavering religious teachings and religious beliefs.
Conditional Pacifism
Someone who generally opposes war, but may accept there are times when it is necessary, for example, when you're country is invaded and you are defending your family and country.
Selective Pacifists
Someone who will decide whether a war is morally justified or not. For example, they may refuse to fight for their country if they feel that their country is engaging in an unjust war. Selective pacifists may particularly oppose war using weapons of mass-destruction, e.g. nuclear weapons, biological weapons.
Mill and Spock
Spock tells his superior officer, Captain Kirk, that 'the needs of the many outweigh the needs of the few.'
Thomas Hobbes on The Descriptive Law
St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas recognized a distinction between human law and divine law. Natural law, according to them, is God's law made known to man through his reason. Hobbes agreed with these two men in some respects, including that natural law includes what we can observe through reason. However, he took a descriptive approach to natural law, meaning that he observed what morality appears to be in the present and past without insisting this would be the same throughout time. Augustine and Aquinas took a prescriptive approach instead, meaning that in their view, natural law involves the unchanging, fixed rules that continue throughout time. For Hobbes, the moral code can depend on the circumstances. For him, an important aspect of human life - a fundamental good - is self-preservation. Man has opted to live in a lawful society because it is a better method of self-preservation than every-man-for-himself.
Natural Capacities Argument
States that the embryo has a right to personhood because it has the genetic capacity for self-awareness.
St Thomas Aquinas on our Duty of Stewardship
Stewardship is a complete lifestyle, a life of total accountability and responsibility acknowledging God as Creator and Owner of all. Stewards as disciples of Jesus Christ see themselves as caretakers of all God's gifts. Gratitude for these gifts is expressed in prayer, worship, offering and action by eagerly sharing these gifts out of love of God and one another.
Deontology
Study of Duties In Greek, 'ology' refers to the 'study of,' while 'deon' refers to 'duty.'
Different theories of when a foetus becomes human.
The 'Catechism of the Catholic Church' states that the embryo must be treated as a person from conception and so do many others who oppose abortion... the moment of fertilisation is an entirely logical point to choose as the beginning of human life it's one of the few points that isn't arbitrary or difficult to judge, as an egg is either fertilised or not at this point the fertilised egg has begun to develop into a separate and unique human being at this point the fertilised egg contains the full genetic code of a human being not a very good argument, since so do all the cells of the body It's the beginning of a process of development and maturation that doesn't end until the individual naturally dies, or is killed but it only marks the beginning of biological life some people believe that biological life is not sufficient to give the foetus the right to life Implantation This is the moment when the fertilised egg is implanted in the womb. This happens about a week after conception. this point is easy to identify but this point is just as arbitrary as any other date 'Quickening' This is when the foetus first moves in the womb. This happens about 16 to 17 weeks after fertilisation. the idea came from a now abandoned Christian theory that this was the moment that the foetus got its soul for example St. Augustine made a distinction between embryo inanimatus, not yet endowed with a soul, and embryo animatus, endowed with a soul without "ensoulment", quickening does not seem to have any merit as the start time for human rights medically, the time of quickening is influenced by irrelevant factors, such as the number of previous pregnancies that the mother has had Aristotle's theory Aristotle suggested 40 days (males), 90 days (females) was the time. these are purely arbitrary times - and there's certainly no reason for males and females to get the right to life at different stages of development the idea itself came out of Aristotle's three-stage theory of life: vegetable, animal, rational. The vegetable stage was reached at conception, the animal at 'animation', and the rational soon after live birth. Tissue separation This is the time when tissues in the foetus separate into different types. this covers a lengthy period of time tissue type separation doesn't seem to have any obvious moral - so the choice of this as the key date is probably because the increasingly human appearance of the foetus causes us to feel increasingly protective of the foetus Brain activity Some people believe life begins at the first sign of brain activity. this is a logical point, as it marks a necessary state for many of the characteristics that some people think a 'moral person' has to possess but brain activity at this stage is no more than a precondition - it doesn't demonstrate that the foetus is actually 'conscious' Viability of the foetus Other people take the view that life begins at the stage when the foetus could survive outside the womb. this is the most common criterion used in drafting laws regulating abortion whether a foetus can survive outside the womb depends on: the state of medical science the medical facilities available at a particular location the competence or willingness of the mother (or some other care-giver) the gender of the foetus the race of the foetus there is something unsatisfactory about a being's rights being determined by its sex or race, the state of medical science, the state of medical facilities at a particular location, or the type of mother it has Birth This appears to be a clear and unambiguous date, but there is disagreement on the point at when a baby is actually born. Is it: when part of the baby is outside the mother's body? when the whole baby is outside the mother's body? or when the placenta separates from the womb and the foetus has to rely on its own resources to keep alive? Some people say that it's odd that a being's right to life should depend on whether a being is located inside or outside the womb But they miss the essential point which is that at birth the baby begins to exist independently of the mother
Historical Justification for Wars in the Past
The Civil War was about slavery and states' rights. Forays into Korea and Vietnam were to counter communism, among other issues.
Conditions of Just War Theory
The Jus Ad Bellum Having just cause, being a last resort, being declared by a proper authority, possessing right intention, having a reasonable chance of success, and the end being proportional to the means used. The Principles Of Jus In Bello legitimate targets in war, whilst the principle of proportionality concerns how much force is morally appropriate. A third principle can be added to the traditional two, namely the principle of responsibility, which demands an examination of where responsibility lies in war. Jus post bellum he principle of discrimination should be employed to avoid imposing punishment on innocents or non-combatants; the rights or traditions of the defeated deserve respect; the claims of victory should be proportional to the war's character; compensatory claims should be tempered by the principles of discrimination and proportionality; and, controversially, the need to rehabilitate or re-educate an aggressor should also be considered.
National Environmental Policy Act (or NEPA) of 1969
The U.S. environmental law that established a nation-wide policy promoting the protection of the environment. One of the ways this is accomplished is through the use of an environmental impact statement (or EIS), which is a document required for any actions that may significantly impact the environment. National Environmental Policy Act includes: the Clean Air Act in 1970 the Clean Water Act of 1972 the Endangered Species Act of 1973
Global Sustainability
The act of meeting the needs of the present human population without compromising the ecosystem services and natural resources needed for future generations to meet their needs.
Just War Thoery
The attempt to distinguish between justifiable and unjustifiable uses of organized armed forces. First put forward by St Thomas Aquinas. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LcBovmGZSPU
Personhood Argument against Abortion
The belief that an embryo is legally and morally considered a person, so abortion is paramount to infanticide.
Sanctity of life
The belief that human life must always be held as sacred.
Paternalism
The belief that the doctor knows what is in the patient's best interest. This is essentially a parent-child relationship, where the doctor can make decisions regardless of patient concerns.
Environmental Legislation
The collection of laws and regulations pertaining to air quality, water quality, the wilderness, endangered wildlife and other environmental factors. The goal of this legislation is to regulate the interaction between man and the natural world to reduce threats to the environment and increase public health. Was made to be appealing both on an anthropocentric view and an ecocentric view.
Clearcutting
The cutting down of most trees with the intention of replanting or establishing a future stand of trees.
Deforestation
The cutting down of trees from an area with no intention of establishing a future stand of trees. Sometimes used synonymously with the term clearcutting.
Double Standard and Ethical Issues
The double standard is an arbitrary use of different rules for the same situation. The decision to give more rights or freedoms to one group over another is arbitrary and therefore unethical. Holding different people to different standards raises some very serious ethical concerns. In terms of human rights, the double standard violates the fundamental belief that all people are entitled to certain rights and cannot be removed, as upheld by the UN's internationally-recognized Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The double standard also violates the ideas behind our modern legal system, such as the belief that everyone has equal protection under the law.
Proportionate Response
The force used should be proportional to the wrong that is attempted to be made right.
Goal of War
The goal of war between signatory states was not the destruction of life but the settling of a political disagreement.
What makes assisted suicide argued to be more just than 'mercy killing'?
The ideas of medical supervision and the voluntary consent of the patient are the two most important components of presenting this as ethical.
Abortion
The intentional termination of a pregnancy.
United Nations
The international peacekeeping organization. Was formed with the goal of preventing massive war or genocide ever again. Drafted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a document that defined the basic rights guaranteed to every person.
Brain Death
The irreversible loss of brain function, which is a way to officially determine that a person has died. Is it more humane to keep someone alive, knowing that they will likely never be consciously aware again, or is it better to let them pass away?
Carrying Capacity
The maximum population size of a species that an ecosystem can support indefinitely, taking into consideration the scarcity of resources.
Importance of Truth Telling, Confidentiality & Informed Consent in Medicine
The moral duty to be honest with patients about conditions, medications, procedures, and risks, and this can often be unpleasant, but it is generally necessary. Could this not conflict with the duty to not do harm? (Mental Upset) As recently as the 1960s, most physicians believed that patients would rather be lied to than told a horrible truth. However, this attitude fostered a large amount of distrust between physicians and patients, and trust is pretty important in this field. So, modern medical ethics insist on honesty and openness. There are two situations where it is considered acceptable to not be completely truthful. First, the physician may withhold some information if they truly believe that complete honesty will lead to greater harm, an ethical right called the therapeutic privilege. A fear of suicide in patients suffering from depression is an example of this. The second situation is if the patient makes a conscious, informed statement that they don't want to know the entire truth. Maybe they want a family member to make medical decisions, for cultural or personal reasons.
Confidentiality
The obligation of a physician to keep a patient's health information private. there are a few exceptions. If the patient reveals information that could put others at risk, doctors may share it. For example, say someone with a mental disorder admits that they intend to commit a violent crime. Technically, that admission was confidential since it deals with their mental health, but it also clearly suggests a threat to other people. The other exception is with major communicable and sexually transmitted diseases. In the name of public health, physicians are required to report specific conditions, like AIDS, tuberculosis, or anthrax, so that public health officials can track and prevent the spread of disease. In this exception, the greater good is seen as more important than individual liberty and rights to privacy.
Informed Consent
The obligation of physicians to fully discuss treatment options with patients and get their permission to proceed. This stems from the medical ethical principle that patients should ultimately have control over their own bodies.
Euthanasia
The painless killing of a patient suffering from an incurable and painful disease or in an irreversible coma. The practice is illegal in most countries. Also known as assisted suicide. from the Greek, meaning 'Good' or 'Easy Death'
Netherlands rules on Euthanasia
The patient must be in full control of their mental faculties when they request euthanasia. A second doctor also judges each case before the procedure is undertaken. After the death of the patient, a committee consisting of a doctor, a medical ethics expert and an expert in law review the case.
Environmental Ethics
The philosophical discipline that considers the moral and ethical relationship of human beings to the environment. What obligations do we have to the non-human world?
Autonomy
The respect of a person's individual rational sense of self.
Non-maleficence
The restraint from doing harm
Bodily Rights Argument
The rights of the embryo are trumped by the rights of the mother. This means that even if the embryo is a person, the health and free will of the mother are of greater significance.
Pacifism
The social and political dedication to use peaceful methods to resolve conflicts. Pacifism does not mean inaction.
Energy Consumption around the World
The term used to describe the consumption of the sources of energy that generate power. Generally, we see that a person living in a developed country, which has a highly developed economy, will consume more energy than a person living in a developing country that is non-industrialized and poor. If the economy of a developing country improves, the energy consumption for that country rises. This is the case in such developing countries as China. The world's least developed countries face the greatest threat from climate change as they lack the technology to cut greenhouse gas emissions and their infrastructure is too fragile to cope with extreme weather. Susheel Kumar, a senior environment official in India, said: "The language is not in line with the framework convention. It is trying to redraft the convention." He was referring to the original 1992 UN Framework Convention on Climate Change, and the subsequent Kyoto protocol, which enshrined the doctrine of "common but differentiated responsibility", by which rich and poor were seen to have different roles. The concept has been controversial, because in the past it has been taken to absolve developing countries - even competitors such as China - from the need to cut emissions, enraging conservatives in the US and elsewhere. These concerns have led some experts to encourage energy conservation in developed countries and the adoption of alternative and renewable energy in developing countries. But do the developing countries necessarily have the funds to set up such a network of alternative fuels?
Suicide
The willful, intentional, and voluntary taking of one's own life. Conservative View - Suicide is immoral. Aquinas argued that God is the only one with the authority to end life. Also, suicide goes against the laws of nature. It also breaks social obligation. Liberal View - Suicide can be morally justified. David Hume, argued that suicide for the avoidance of misery is moral. Utilitarian Principle - Similar to Liberal view Suicide breaks no moral laws if a person has become a burden to self or others.
Bioethics on Animal Testing
There are many complex issues here but at its most basic, the ethical debate comes down to two opinions. First is that scientists and researchers have a moral responsibility to respect life in all living things. The other side is that researchers have a moral obligation to do whatever it takes to advance the healthcare of humans
Moral Issues in Sexuality
There are many differing opinions surrounding the morality of sex. Many hold to the traditional view that only sex between a married man and woman is moral. Many do not. The 13th century philosopher St. Thomas Aquinas is one of history's most famous defenders of traditional sexuality. He held to the natural law theory that the penis is naturally designed to impregnate a woman, and the woman's anatomy is naturally designed to accept this impregnation. Any deviation from this design, created by God, is immoral. The 18th century philosopher Immanuel Kant believed that sex is only moral when a man and a woman experience it in full devotion and respect for one another. Only marriage offers protection from the inborn selfishness of sex. Jeremy Bentham was a British philosopher and social reformer who argued the utilitarian view of sexuality. He believed any sexual act is moral if its utility, or usefulness, outweighs its negative impact. The French philosopher Marquis de Sade believed that nature has given man the greatest possible assortment of sexual freedoms. Man's law, not nature, had deemed non-traditional sex as immoral
Indirect Euthanasia
This means providing treatment (usually to reduce pain) that has the side effect of speeding the patient's death. Since the primary intention is not to kill, this is seen by some people (but not all) as morally acceptable. A justification along these lines is formally called the doctrine of double effect.
Legal Pragmatics Argument
This one is a matter of public policy rather than morality and claims that abortion should be legal because there is no difference in abortion rates before and after legalization. This theory points out that the only substantial change to accompany the legalization of abortion is a decrease in maternal deaths.
Anthropocentric Ethical View
Those that place significantly higher value on human interests at the expense of non-human things. A person with this viewpoint would be more likely to see nature and its resources as things available for man to use. Their exploitation would therefore be acceptable as long as it did not lead to negative consequences for human beings.
Ecocentric ethical view
Those that see the intrinsic value of non-human things regardless of their usefulness to man. A person with an ecocentric viewpoint would be more likely to see elements of nature such as trees, animals, and plants as having value in-and-of themselves simply because they are part of an ecological community. Therefore, these resources should not be consumed or destroyed without regarding their value within nature.
Criticism of Doctrine of Double Effect
Those who oppose it claim that actions are rarely without multiple intentions, and it would be impractical to try and assign them some sort of order. Critics also argue that there is too fine a line between an action that is foreseen but unintended and an action that is simply predictable. Overall, criticisms against the doctrine of double effect focus on the easy ability of the theory to be misused as an excuse for negative consequences. Defenders claim that the theory already assumes that the person is acting only out of good intentions, and that anyone with mixed motivations is already violating the doctrine.
Jus post bellum
Three possibilities emerge: either the army has been defeated, has been victorious, or it has agreed to a ceasefire. The principle of discrimination should be employed to avoid imposing punishment on innocents or non-combatants; the rights or traditions of the defeated deserve respect; the claims of victory should be proportional to the war's character; compensatory claims should be tempered by the principles of discrimination and proportionality; and, controversially, the need to rehabilitate or re-educate an aggressor should also be considered.
Ethics of Therapeutic Cloning
Use of Embryos. These specialized repair cells have been used to treat many diseases and disorders, but because the embryo does not survive after the cells have been extracted, many see this as taking away a human life. Cord blood stem cells are often considered to be more ethically sourced because they come from umbilical cords instead of embryos, and they may become more prevalent in therapeutic cloning in the future.
Level the Playing Field in War
Using unconventional means that often go against the rules of war in order to take away some of the advantages of the opposite force.
Voluntary, Non-Voluntary and Involuntary Euthanasia
Voluntary euthanasia occurs at the request of the person who dies. Non-voluntary euthanasia occurs when the person is unconscious or otherwise unable (for example, a very young baby or a person of extremely low intelligence) to make a meaningful choice between living and dying, and an appropriate person takes the decision on their behalf. Involuntary euthanasia occurs when the person who dies chooses life and is killed anyway. This is usually called murder, but it is possible to imagine cases where the killing would count as being for the benefit of the person who dies.
Some Environmental Ethics Debates
Water and air pollution, the depletion of natural resources, loss of biodiversity, destruction of ecosystems, and global climate change.
Physician Assisted Suicide
When a patient asks a health care provider to assist with suicide. When a doctor gives a person the means to commit suicide, but the patient is in complete control of the process that leads to death.
Stem Cell Ethics
When does a human embryo develop rights? Is a human embryo, only 3-5 days after fertilization, really a child that shouldn't be used for research? When does life actually begin?
Consequences of Deforestation
a loss of biodiversity increases greenhouse gas emissions disrupts the water cycle increases soil erosion decreases the natural beauty of an area
Judith Jarvis Thomson: A Defense of Abortion
he comes to the conclusion that it is not always the case that the fetus' right to life is stronger than the mother's right to bodily integrity. Main Argument: The right to life is not an absolute right. Therefore in some cases abortion is morally permissible. "I am arguing only that that having a right to life does not guarantee having either a right to be given the use of or the right to the continued to use of another's body - even if one needs it for life itself." Other Arguments: But, in some cases it seems like it is not morally permissible. And you don't have a right to kill the child. She assumes, for the sake of the argument, that the fetus is a person. Probably the most interesting thing about the article is it forces us to think more explicitly about what we think morality demands that we do for other people i.e. How far do our moral obligations extend. The extensive one's obligation to others the less permissible abortion becomes and conversely the less extensive one's obligations to others the more permissible abortion becomes. One way of thinking about the essay is that she is arguing there is a contradiction between these two claims: Women do not have a right to an abortion. People do not have extensive and enforceable duties to aid other. https://youtu.be/x4tplwQO7Ow
