APUSH - By the People - Chpt 23

Franklin Roosevelt

A month after the United States entered the war, ___ told Congress, "It will not be sufficient for us...to produce a slightly superior supply of munitions to that of Germany, Japan, and Italy." The president said the United States needed to provide "crushing superiority of equipment in any theater of the world war." ___ insisted that the United States produce 60,000 airplanes in 1942 and 125,000 more in 1943, plus 120,000 tanks, 55,000 antiaircraft guns, and 16 million tons of merchant shipping. Few thought it could he done, but the goals were met. (708) 1

Joseph Stalin

America's wartime ally, Soviet dictator ___, understood the key role the United States would play in *World War 11*. Even though the Soviet Union supplied far more soldiers (and suffered almost 20 times as many battlefield deaths), ___ said, "The most important things in this war are machines ...The United States...is a country of machines." It was an accurate analysis.

Dunkirk Winston Churchill

Only Great Britain stood against Germany. As the German forces rushed toward Paris, they attempted to cut off a retreat by French and British armies. But 338,000 British, French, and allied troops were evacuated from the beaches of _(1)_, leaving nearly all equipment behind. In a radio broadcast, the new British Prime Minister _(2)_ promised, "We shall go on to the end," but he added, Britain would hold out "until in God's good time, the new world, with all its power and might, shall step forth to the rescue and the liberation of the old." It was a rescue that _(2)_ and *Roosevelt* tried hard to assure over the next 18 months. (693) 4

Karl Donitz

Despite the successes, winning the war in 1942 was far from a sure thing. Germany and Japan both had very strong hands German submarine commander ___ began sinking coastal shipping vessels in January 1942. New York and other coastal cities refused to turn their lights off, and the submarines used the bright city lights to target shipping. In 3 months, the Germans sunk 216 ships, half of them tankers with essential oil for Britain. Burned out ships littered the American beaches. (699) 1

John DeWitt

Initially, Japanese Issei and Nisei in America were allowed to move to the Midwest or the East. The rest of the country, like Hawaii, was not covered by the internment order. Some 15,000 people voluntarily moved before General ___ ordered an end to such moves in late March. After that, people of Japanese ancestry were ordered to report to "assembly centers," including the Santa Anita racetrack in Southern California and the Tanforan Racetrack in San Bruno near San Francisco. (706) 2

Revenue Act

Initially, the administration wanted to raise taxes to pay most of the war's cost immediately, but in the end, taxes covered about 45 percent, while loans covered the rest. Nevertheless, taxes increased significantly during the war. The ___ of 1942 raised $7 billion in new taxes. In 1939, only 4 million of the richest Americans paid income tax. The 1942 law brought 13 million new tax payers into the system. The government also began payroll tax withholding in 1943, requiring employers to deduct taxes and pay them directly to the government before issuing paychecks. The rapid increases in wages and job opportunities, coupled with continued appeals to Patriotism, limited objections to the new and much higher levels of taxation. (709) 5

Guadalcanal

Japan controlled the whole of the western Pacific. In August 1942, U.S. forces invaded the tactically important island of ___ in the Solomon Islands and renamed its airfield *Henderson Field*. A counter invasion from Japan came close to success. The reporter *John Hersey*, staying with the troops on the island, told readers: The uniforms, the bravado, the air of wearing a knife in the teeth-these were just camouflage. The truth was all over their faces. These were just American boys. They did not want that valley or any part of its jungle. They were ex-grocery clerks, ex-highway laborers, ex-bank clerks, ex-schoolboys....They had joined the Marines to see the world, or to get away from a guilt, or most likely to escape the draft, not knowingly to kill or be killed. But there they were. With navy support, the Marines on ___ held their position. The Japanese forces were beaten back until, in February 1943, in a move they seldom made during the war, the Japanese abandoned ___. (699) 3

Takijiro Onishi

Japanese Admiral ___ warned that a direct attack on U.S. soil would make the Americans "insanely mad." He said that while Japan would have the advantage in a short war, in a longer war, the U.S. industrial capacity and it large supply of oil—the fuel of modern war—meant that Japan would have a very hard time of it. But Japan's leaders were confident of a quick victory. When Japan did attack on December 7, the location was a greater surprise than the fact of the attack itself. But Japan's attack on Hawaii solidified American public Opinion. Even the staunchest opponents of preparedness, including *Charles Lindbergh*, now supported going to war. (697) 3

Rosie the Riveter

Just before the attack on *Pearl Harbor*, 12 million women in the United States held jobs—a dramatic increase from the depths of the Depression. Middle-class white women tended to be teachers, nurses, social workers, or secretaries. In the course of the war, more than 6 million more women entered the workforce. Some 2 million women went to work in previously all-male defense plants where they sometimes made up half of the workforce. Women also constituted a quarter of the workers in the converted auto industry that was producing tanks and trucks. On the West Coast, 500,000 women worked in the aircraft industry and 225,000 in shipbuilding. They made more money than most women had ever made. They took on hard jobs that before the war people thought only men could handle or from which tradition, law, and all-male unions had excluded them. But even during wartime, women were often relegated to the lower rungs of the industrial order while men took on the highest-skilled, highest-paying jobs. Drilling rivets was high-skill and high-pay work, and in spite of the "___" name and public relations posters, far more women worked in routine production jobs. (702) 3

Arsenal of Democracy Lend Lease

Just before the election, polls showed that a majority of prospective voters preferred *Willkie* unless war was coming, in which case they wanted *Roosevelt's* steady hand. On Election Day, they chose the steady hand, and *FDR* won a third term. Only a month after the election, *Roosevelt* received an urgent message from *Churchill* spelling out just how desperate things were for Britain and making clear that the moment approaches when we shall no longer be able to pay cash for shipping and other supplies." In a *fireside chat* just after Christmas in 1940, Roosevelt said, "If Great Britain goes down...aIl the Americas, would be living at the point of a gun." The only alternative, he told his radio audience, "We must be the great _(1)_." A Week later, *FDR* proposed _(2)_ legislation which would "loan" war materials to the British for the duration of the war. The president insisted, "We cannot, and we will not, tell them that they must surrender, merely because of present inability to pay for the weapons which we know they must have." (695) 4

Thomas Dewey

Just days before the war in Europe ended, on April 12, 1945, *Franklin D. Roosevelt* died. *Roosevelt* had led the United States longer than any president ever had or ever would. And suddenly, he was gone. In the last year of his life, *Roosevelt's* health was terrible. His blood pressure was dangerously high, his hands shook, and he found it hard to stand even with his leg braces. Few of those closest to him were surprised when he died on a short vacation at Warm Springs, Georgia. Nevertheless, the news was devastating. Months earlier, in November 1944, *Roosevelt* had been elected to a fourth term in office. Unlike the third term, he made it clear early on that he wanted to see the war through to the end. His Republican Opponent was the reformist young governor of New York State, ___, but more Americans wanted continuity in a time of war. *Roosevelt* defeated Dewey by a comfortable margin, winning 53 percent of the popular vote and 432 electoral votes to ___'s 99. (714) 3

Pearl Harbor

On the morning of December 7, 1941, 350 Japanese airplanes attacked the sleeping port of ___, Hawaii, where much of the Pacific fleet was anchored and where planes were lined up in close formation (to protect them against sabotage on the ground). In a few short hours, 2,500 soldiers and sailors were killed, 150 U.S. airplane destroyed, and five battleships as well as many others vessels were sunk. It was a devastating loss. (692) 1

Normandy

One young soldier, Elliott Johnson, remembered, "On the morning of June 6, we took off. I can remember the morning. Who could sleep?...I was on an LST, a landing ship tank." An armada of 6,483 vessels of all sorts of descriptions made the brief seasickness-inducing trip across the English Channel to land on several beaches in ___, code named Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, and Sword, under intense German shelling and rifle fire. Units of the U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne divisions parachuted behind the German lines to break communications between the Germans on the beach and their commanders. In the confusion of the invasion most Allied troops were also cut of from their commanders and had to make their own decisions. (713) 4

Iwo Jima

After a long navy bombardment, Marines landed on the beach at ___ on February 19 and sank into the volcanic sand. In spite of the bombardment, the Japanese forces on the island were still strong, and fierce hand-to-hand combat followed the landing. The Japanese refused to surrender, and many died at the hands of new U.S. flamethrowers that literally incinerated them. Associated Press photographer *Joe Rosenthal* took his famous photo of the Marines raising the flag on Mount Suribachi on February 23, but the fighting went on for another month. Of the 21,000 Japanese defending the island, over 20,000 died in combat. (717) 5

Bataan Death March

After surrendering, the American and Filipino troops from Bataan were forced to march 66 miles to a railroad junction where they were transported to prison camps. The march came to be known as the _(1)_. The Japanese captors, overwhelmed by the numbers, had been taught to hate American devils. If a prisoner fell, he was kicked, and if he did not move, killed with a bayonet. If prisoners, desperately thirsty in the hot sun, moved off the line to get water, they were shot. The surviving defenders of Bataan and Corregidor spent more than 3 years as Japanese prisoners. By the middle of 1942, Japan controlled the western Pacific from the far north to Australia, which remained in British hands. (698) 4

Luftwaffe Blitz

After the defeat of France, *Hermann Goering*, *Nazi* air chief, announced, "The Fuhrer has ordered me to crush Britain with my _((1)_," and he tried hard. Bombers attacked British coastal fortifications, airfields, and then in September 1940, began the terror bombing of London. The "_(2)_," as the British called it, eventually killed thousands of residents of Britain's capital-6,000 in October alone. *Edward Morrow*, the voice of the *Columbia Broadcasting System* (CBS) based in London, gave Americans nightly reports that "London is burning." The small British Air Force fought back. *Churchill* begged *Roosevelt* for more help. *Roosevelt* set about finding ways to provide it. (693) 5

Karl Donitz

Allied troops kept moving east and *Red Army* troops moved west. While armies marched, the bombing of Germany continued, including a controversial joint U.S.-British bombing of the city of Dresden, Germany, in February 1945 in which the resulting firestorm killed perhaps 25,000 people. The Russians were soon within miles of *Berlin* itself. U.S. troops finally crossed the Rhine River in March and the Elbe River in April while the Russian Army attacked *Berlin*. On April 30, in a Berlin bunker 55 feet underground, with Russian troops directly above, *Hitler* shot himself. A week later, Admiral ___, who had replaced him, ordered all German units to cease operation. The war in Europe was over. (714) 2

Conscientiously Opposed

*Joseph Bullock* was among the 43,000 conscientious objectors who in the words of *Selective Service* regulations "by reason of religious training and belief, is ___ to participation in war in any form." The largest number of ___, some 25,000 served as noncombatants in the military, providing first aid to troops under extraordinarily dangerous conditions or behind-the-lines logistical support. Those who for religious reasons could not support the war effort in any form were allowed to work in civilian public service. *Bullock* and the 12,000 *CPS* men worked on forestry projects planting trees and building roads, or staffing mental hospitals. They received no pay, had to cover their own expenses, and did not receive veteran benefits at the end of the war. A final group of some 6,000 refused out of conscience to have anything to do with the *Selective Service System*, and these men were sent to federal prison. Some of them, like *David Dellinger*, became lifelong antiwar activists. In some areas, ___ were treated with respect; in others, they met deep hostility. *Harry Van Dyck* remembered being told, "You ******* ___ should all be shot." After the war, *Bullock* was told that he could not teach Sunday School because his wartime service made him an inappropriate role model for Christian children. (701) 1

Tuskegee Airmen

*Lloyd Kilmer* began life on a dairy farm but was working as a bellhop at a hotel in Rochester, Minnesota, when he heard the news of *Pearl Harbor*. Six months later, *Kilmer* enlisted in the *Army Air Corps* and flew combat missions over Europe until he was shot down in June 1944. U.S. troops liberated his prisoner of war camp in April 1945. Growing up in the immigrant neighborhood of East Boston, Massachusetts, during the Depression, *Al Fossett* ascribed his success on the high school track team to pretending that he was running after something to eat. When war came, he was stationed in British India where he served as a gunner on planes that flew supplies from India to beleaguered Chinese forces. *Woodrow Crockett* was born in Texarkana, Arkansas, and joined the army as a private in 1940. In 1942, he was assigned to the ___, an African-American unit that achieved considerable distinction in *World War II*. He flew 149 combat missions during the U.S. invasion of Italy and received the Distinguished *Flying Cross*. (699) 5

War Manpower Commission

*Martha Settle* grew up in Norristown, Pennsylvania. As an African-American, she experienced racism within the ___. She applied, and was selected by *Mary Bethune*, for one of the few officer slots allowed to African-American WACs. *Margaret Ray* grew up in Indiana and was recruited into a small elite unit of *WASPs* within the *Army Air Force* that handled domestic military flying so men could be freed up to fly overseas. "Here I was, this farm girl," *Ray* remembered, "and it was so exciting." *Mary Roberts* became a nurse with the army. She commanded a field operating room for troops during the landings in Casablanca, North Africa, in 1943 and on Anzio beach in Italy in 1944. (702) 2

Henry Stimson Frank Knox

*Roosevelt* argued with the isolationists in Congress, ignored his ambassador in London as someone who "has been an *appeaser* and always will be an *appeaser*, and thought *Lindbergh* was a *Nazi*. He promoted military officers who supported his efforts and sidelined others. In 1940, *FDR* replaced isolationist Secretary of *War Woodring* with longtime internationalist Republican _(1)_, who had been secretary of war in *Taft's* administration and secretary of state for President *Hoover*. *Roosevelt* also added _(2)_, another Republican internationalist, as secretary of the navy. (694) 2

Greater East Asia Co Prosperity Sphere

A new generation of younger Japanese leaders, especially the war minister Hideki Tojo, wanted to ensure national glory and signed a formal alliance with *Nazi* Germany and fascist Italy. Nazi puppet governments in France and Holland gave Japan badly needed access to rice, rubber, and most important, oil from Dutch and French colonies in Asia. Japan launched the ___ to free Asia rues from the colonial powers and to consolidate Japanese control. When Japan landed troops in French Indochina in July 1940, the United States finally cut off metal and aviation gasoline shipments, but not oil, which they saw as the last bargaining chip. As 1941 began, Japan sent a new ambassador to the United States, *Kichisaburo Nomura*. *Nomura* and U.S. Secretary of State *Cordell Hull* sought a way to reduce hostilities but failed. By midsummer, hard liners in Japan had won the support of Emperor *Hirohito*. (697) 1

Korematsu v. United States

A second set of cases known as ___ then began to move through the courts. In late 1944, -after the presidential election and as ___ was about to he decided, the *War Department* declared that the original "military necessity" was now over and that those of Japanese ancestry were free to return to their homes. When the court announced its decision, it again sidestepped the specific issue, but as *Hugo Black* wrote in the majority decision, "All legal restrictions which curtail the civil rights of a single racial group are immediately suspect." As those who had lived in the camps returned to the West Coast, they found that their homes and businesses were long gone and that they had been excluded from the prosperity of wartime America. While the losses of those interned were estimated at $400-million, Congress provided $37 million in reparations in 1948. Only decades later, Congress voted $20,000 for each surviving internee, and in 1998, President *Bill Clinton* awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. (707) 2

Jews

As Americans moved across Germany, they discovered the full reality of the *Nazi* death camps. Russian units liberated the first camps early in 1945, and then in April, U.S. forces liberated *Buchenwald* with 20,000 prisoners. U.S. soldiers described the horror of the smell and seeing the bodies stacked up in piles. Just before the army arrived, prisoners seized control of *Buchenwald*, thinking, correctly, that the *Nazi* guards might well try to kill all of them to hide the evidence of what had been going on. U.S. forces later liberated *Dora-Mittelbau*, *Flossenburg*, *Dachau*, and *Mauthausen* camps, while British and Soviet forces liberated others. In many of the camps, the liberating armies found prisoners on the brink of starvation and weakened by disease. They also found piles of corpses, human bones, cremation ovens, and ample other evidence of the horrors that had actually taken place. The *Nazis* had systematically killed 6 million ___ and another 6 million people—gypsies, homosexuals, people with disabilities, and others they considered inferior humans. (714) 1

A Randolph

As it became clear that the march might be a powerful and embarrassing event, many people within the administration began to panic. They challenged ___'s patriotism—How could he do such a thing with war imminent? What will they think in Berlin? ___'s response was, "Oh, perhaps no more than they already think of America's racial policy." Friends within the administration tried to persuade ___ to postpone the march, but he persisted. The only grounds on which the march could be called off, he said, would be a government order "with teeth in it" that would truly protect the economic rights of African-Americans in the new industries. ___ won. (704) 2

Selective Service System

As the war began, young men quickly found themselves in uniform. Sixteen million men had registered for the draft when the war began, more soon after, and others volunteered in anticipation of an expanding draft. The draft was administered by the ___ through 6,443 local draft boards that decided who was eligible for various deferments—for married men, for those with children, for those in crucial war work—that were granted less and less often. (699) 4

Wendell Willkie

As war raged in Europe, the November 1940 presidential election loomed. *Roosevelt* broke precedent going back to *George Washington* and sought a third term. The Democrats, after some grumbling, mostly by supporters of Vice President *John Garner*, nominated *Roosevelt*. The Republicans, wanting to avoid having an isolationist candidate, nominated a corporate attorney and utility company executive, ___, an ardent opponent of the *New Deal* who did not disagree with *Roosevelt* greatly on foreign policy, though he did denounce the *destroyers-for-bases* deal as "the most arbitrary and dictatorial action ever taken by any president." (695) 2

Blitzkrieg

At the beginning of 1940, *Hitler* hinted at peace initiatives, then in April invaded Denmark and Norway and quickly defeated both. On Mar 10, Germany unleashed its ___ (lightning war) on Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg, bombing Rotterdam into rubble and sending in airborne and ground troops. All three countries surrendered. (693) 2

WAAC WAVES WASPS SPARS

Early in the war there was some talk of conscripting women, if not for the military then for wartime industrial work. In the end, however, the United States, unlike Great Britain or the Soviet Union, left it up to individual women to decide whether they wanted to serve. Each of the branches of the military enlisted women in special, noncombat units that freed men for combat: the U.S. Army established the *Women's Auxiliary Army Corps*, or _(1)_; the *U.S. Navy* created the Women Accepted for Voluntary Emergency Service*, or _(2)_; the *Army Air Corps* set up the *Women's Auxiliary Service Pilots*, or _(3)_; the *Coast Guard* launched the *Women's Reserve of the Coast Guard*, nicknamed the _(4)_; and the Marines organized an unnamed women's branch. Some 350,000 women (compared with over 15 million men) served in uniform during *World War II*. *Claudine "Scottie" Scott* remembered her freshman year at the University of Kansas in the fall of 1940 as "a fun and exciting time," but by the following year, the world had become a much more serious place. *Scott* volunteered for the WAVES and was assigned to the Joint Chiefs of Staff to deliver the "log of fighting going on all over the world" to the White House every day. She was at the White House and saw President *Roosevelt* on the day of the allied invasion of Europe in 1944, but her focus was on the fate of her boyfriend who was part of the invading force. He was wounded but returned home, and they were married in the Veterans Hospital in Richmond, Virginia. (702) 1

Battle of the Coral Sea Zero Airplane Hellcat

Even though the primary American focus was on Europe, U.S. and British forces won a partial victory in the Pacific in the _(1)_ in May 1942 when they stopped a Japanese advance to Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea. Then in June 1942, the Japanese attacked U.S. forces on *Midway Island*. But U.S. intelligence officers broke the Japanese code and knew that the attack was coming. In addition, U.S. pilots were learning new maneuvers that allowed direct attacks on Japanese ships. The Japanese forte that was supposed to take the island lost four of its six aircraft carriers and all of its planes and pilots. U.S. forces also captured a Japanese _(2)_, then the most modern in the war, and used it to build the U.S. Navy's new _(3)_ plane, which could out-maneuver the _(1)_. The _(3)_ began arriving in the Pacific in 1943. (698) 6

Henry Woodring Charles Lindbergh

Every step that *Roosevelt* took brought hostility from neutrality advocates. Senior officers within the U.S. military worried that sending arms to Britain would undermine U.S. defenses. Secretary of War _(1)_ was committed to a "*fortress America*" strategy, arming this country and ignoring the rest of the world. No one opposed *Roosevelt's* support for Britain more than _(2)_, a hero from his 1910s flight across the Atlantic. In October 1939, _(2)_ said, "An ocean is a formidable barrier, even for modern aircraft." The U.S. ambassador in London, *Joseph Kennedy*, predicted that Britain would quickly fall. (693) 6

Dwight Eisenhower

Everyone agreed that the Americans would lead the invasion of Western Europe. *Roosevelt* passed over several other army officers and appointed General ___ to lead the attack. Born in Texas and raised in Abilene, Kansas, ___, better known as *Ike* to everyone, had spent his entire career in the peace-time army. He had been promoted to the rank of colonel months before the United States entered the war in 1941. *Ike* had a unique ability to get people to work together and do so with good cheer, skills that would be needed in the utmost to coordinate the American, British, and French forces involved in the invasion of Europe. (713) 2

Tule Lake

For most of the internees, the next 3 years were a time of enforced idleness while the rest of the country worked harder than ever. Some young men volunteered to join the all-Japanese units fighting in Europe and served with distinction while their families waited for them in the camps. Other young men, offended at being asked to foreswear allegiance to an emperor they had never cared about, refused any form of service and were held as virtual prisoners at ___, California.

Great Depression

For people of the United States, the attack of December 7, 1941, changed everything. Before the war ended in 1945, 16 million Americans served in the armed forces, and 405,399 died in combat. All Americans had their lives changed by the war. At the beginning of the war, half of white Americans and 90 percent of black Americans lived in poverty. The war provided a job for everyone, and wartime jobs vastly expanded the size of the nation's middle class. Americans moved around a lot during the war. The military brought rural and urban Americans together in units that faced the same fears and hopes. Far less often, it brought people of different races together since the military of *World War II* remained segregated not only by race but also by gender. As the war progressed, the ___ became a distant memory. New prosperity and new knowledge, but also the terrible losses of a major war and new fear about distant parts of the world became central to people's lives. (697) 4

Manzanar

Forced out of their homes and into the temporary relocation centers, some 100,000 Issei and Nisei were then moved a second time to 10 relocation camps scattered through sparsely inhabited regions of the West. The first to open was at ___ on a dried up lake bed between the coastal mountains and the higher Sierra Nevada range. In this desert location, summer temperatures were often above 100 degrees while the winter was freezing. Each family had a 20 by 20 foot uninsulated cabin. (706) 4

Seabees

From bombers based on *Midway* and on *Henderson Field* on *Guadalcanal*, from aircraft carriers, and in battles on sweltering beaches, U.S. troops kept moving. They attacked Tarawa and Makin islands in the Gilbert Islands in November 1943 and then turned them into bases for further movement. In the first 6 months of 1944, U.S. Marines took Kwajalein, Eniwetok, Truk, and Saipan. On Saipan, more than a thousand Japanese civilians and soldiers jumped to their deaths from rocky cliffs rather than surrender. In air battles during June, U.S. forces, flying new and much better planes, virtually decimated the Japanese Air Force. U.S. submarines cut off the shipment of oil from Indonesia to Japan. U.S. commanders did not stage a landing on an island until navy ships had bombarded an island for some time while planes dropped bomb after bomb. Once an island was secure, the ___ (the navy term for uniformed construction workers) moved in and with amazing speed built airfields, shelters, and bases. (717) 1

Douglas MacArthur

General ___, who had left *Corregidor* under cover of darkness in early 1942, waded ashore facing carefully located cameras on October 20, 1944, and announced, "People of the Philippines, I have returned....The hour of your redemption is here." In spite of ___'s heroics, the Japanese were able to reinforce *Luzon*, the main island of the Philippines, and major battles during the first 3 months of 1945 took place before the United States secured control of its former colony. *Manila*, the city that young service men had considered a paradise in 1941, was now a city of rubble. (717) 3

Iwo Jima

In some of the fiercest fighting of the war, U.S. Marines seized ___ island in February and March 1945, moving ever closer to Japan itself. The attacks on ___ and those on some of the earlier islands were aided by *Navajo* code talkers who relayed messages in the *Navajo* language—a code the Japanese were never able to break. ___ was tiny, only 4.5 miles by 2.5 miles, but U.S. control of its airfield and radar meant that U.S. bombers going to Japan had a much shorter flight. (717) 4

Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters A Randolph Walter White

In 1940 the _(1)_, perhaps the most powerful black-led organization in the United States, asked the government to avoid discrimination in the expanding armed forces. After _(2)_, long-time president of the _(1)_, and _(3)_, the executive secretary of the *National Association for the Advancement of Colored People* (NAACP), met with President *Roosevelt* later that year, they believed they had a friend in the federal government, especially given *Eleanor Roosevelt's* commitment to civil rights. (703) 2

Sharecroppers

In 1940, African-Americans and Latinos continued to be excluded from the new prosperity. Three out of four African-Americans still lived in the rural South the majority still ___. Most Latinos lived in poverty in the urban or rural Southwest. Even those who had moved from farms to small towns or cities saw themselves passed over as wartime production picked up. (703) 1

Ben Steele Douglas MacArthur

In April and May of 1942, after holding out for months against impossible odds, the last U.S. troops on the islands of Bataan and Corregidor in the Philippines surrendered. _(1)_, a young rancher from Montana who had volunteered for service, remembered that during the 99-day defense of Bataan, the Americans constantly faced starvation. After news spread that the commander in the Philippines, General _(2)_, had left for Australia, _(1)_ and the others knew that "Only two things can happen to us now, we're going to be dead or we're going to be prisoners of war." (698) 3

Atlantic Charter

In August, *Roosevelt* and *Churchill* met in Newfoundland, planned ways to work together, and issued the ___ that included a somewhat vague commitment to national self-determination for other countries, nonaggression, and "the establishment of a wider and permanent system of general security"—planting the seeds of what became the *United Nations*. Meanwhile, patrolling U.S. Navy ships ran into conflict with German submarines. In October 1941, a *U-boat* attacked the U.S. destroyer *Kearny*, killing 11 sailors, the first U.S. casualties of the war. *Roosevelt* said, "America has been attacked." Later that month, a submarine sank the *USS Reuben James*, killing 115 sailors. War did not seem far off. (696) 3

Battle of the Bulge

In December, *Hitler* ordered one last desperate *Blitzkrieg* and eight German divisions roared out of the Ardennes forest to surround American troops in a bulge in the Allied line near the village of Bastogne, Belgium. When the Germans called on the surrounded American forces to surrender, their commander, General Anthony *C. McAuliffe*, responded with one word, "Nuts!." When the German officer who received the message didn't understand it, a translator explained that it meant "Go to Hell!" With the help of tanks ordered north from Paris, the Allied forces defeated the Germans in the so-called the ___, and U.S. forces began moving into Germany. (713) 7

Casablanca Stalingrad

In January 1943, *Roosevelt* went to _(1)_ in North Africa to meet with *Churchill*, becoming the first president since *Wilson* to travel outside of the Western Hemisphere and the first since *Lincoln* to visit U.S. troops in the field. They agreed on several things: that they would continue to bomb Germany; that after North Africa, they would invade Italy, not the coast of France; and that while the United States would continue to supply Britain and Russia, a third of new forces and supplies would go to the Pacific. At a press conference at the end of the meeting, *FDR* also said that the Allies would accept only unconditional surrender from Germany, Italy, and Japan; there would be no intermediate peace negotiations. Then, in February 1943, the Russian Army and the Russian winter defeated the Nazi troops at _(2)_, and the tide of war began to change. The Russian Army—known as the *Red Army*, which had been retreating and defending, went on the offensive. The *German Wehrmacht*—the military machine that had been undefeated in Europe since 1939—started retreating. (710) 3

Leyte Island

In June 1944, the United States began a campaign to retake the Philippine Islands. In October, the American and Japanese navies engaged in one of the largest sea battles in history, involving 282 ships and over 200,000 sailors off of ___. The U.S. fleet was victorious in spite of the continuing strengths of the Japanese Navy and the use of suicide *kamikaze* planes, basically planes that were used as bombs. (717) 2

Cairo Teheran

In November 1943, President *Roosevelt* left the United States for a second time, flying to _(1)_, Egypt, for a third meeting with Prime Minister *Churchill* and then on to _(2)_, Iran, for his first meeting with *Stalin*, which *Churchill* and the nominal Chinese leader *Chiang Kai-shek* also attended. *FDR* was intrigued to meet *Stalin* in person. At _(1)_, *FDR* also tried to persuade *Churchill* that Britain must renounce its colonies in India, Burma, Malaya, and Hong Kong and promise them independence after the war as the United States was doing with the Philippine Islands. *Churchill* was a great wartime leader in Britain, but he. was equally a lifelong British imperialist, and he was not about to be persuaded. (712) 2

Hideki Tojo

In October, ___ replaced the moderate (Fumimaro Konoye* as Prime Minister of Japan. The new government was determined to go to war. The United States had broken the secret Japanese code and knew that war was coming. But they did not know where—perhaps an attack on American bases in the Philippines or on the British colonies in Asia, both of which were warned to prepare for attack. In fact, the Japanese military sent a huge fleet 4,000 miles across the Pacific to attack the United States itself at *Pearl Harbor*. (697) 2

Issei Nisei

In an era when many Americans sacrificed much, including their lives, other Americans, especially Japanese Americans, saw their most basic freedoms undermined by wartime hysteria. The immigration legislation of 1924 had prohibited immigration from Japan. As a result, the Japanese population in the mainland United States comprised some 12,000 people of Japanese descent, split between some 40,000 _(1)_, or first -generation immigrants who had arrived before 1924 and were by law "aliens ineligible for citizenship," and twice as many younger _(2)_, or American -born Japanese who were American citizens. A majority of the _(1)_ were over the age of 50 by 1941, while many _(2)_ were under 18 and largely quite Americanized. The small Japanese _(1)_ and _(2)_ community had remained relatively isolated, Most supported themselves by small truck farms or nurseries providing fruits, vegetables, and garden supplies all along the Pacific coast. (705) 1

Winston Churchill

In late 1942, the Russians insisted that it was time for their western allies to open a second front and attack Germany and German-occupied France directly to take the pressure off of Russia. But ___, remembering the terrible British losses of World War I, would not agree. Instead, Britain and America kept bombing Germany, and allied troops landed at Oran, Algeria, in November 1942 to attack German forces in North Africa, a huge diversion as far as *Stalin* was concerned, but it was the beginning of some victories that lifted spirits among the Allies. (710) 2

Great Depression

In spite of restrictions on wage increases, more Americans were employed and earned more money than ever before in their lives or the nation's history during *World War II*. Wartime rationing limited some goods. People needed ration stamps to purchase their monthly allotment of meat, coffee, tires, and gasoline, and new cars were simply not available. Housing was very hard to find, thus, many lived in cramped quarters, while extended families often moved in together. Nevertheless, Americans who could remember the ___ found themselves with previously undreamed-of opportunity *Laura Briggs*, a young farm woman from Idaho, remembered, "We and most other farmers went from a tarpaper shack to a new frame house with indoor plumbing... [and] a hot water heater....It was just so modern we couldn't stand it." A shipyard worker in Portsmouth, Virginia, said, "I felt like something had come down from heaven. I went from forty cents an hour to... two seventy-five an hour.... [The war completely turned my life around." By December 1944, *Macy's* department stores reported the highest volume of sales in their history. (709) 2

World War II

In spite of riots and discrimination, and they were very real, ___ also gave African-Americans, Latinos, and American Indians new opportunities. Because of the wartime labor shortages and federal enforcement efforts, many who had previously been excluded got jobs in industries previously closed to them. Others became more politically active, and more would do so once the war ended. (704) 6

Destroyers for Bases

In the fall of 1940, *FDR* concluded a "___" deal, which circumvented congressional restrictions on selling ships to Britain by "trading" obsolete ships to Britain in exchange for 99-year leases on a string of British Navy bases. He pressured the navy to declare ships obsolete and defended the deal as a way to strengthen America's defenses. However, he also worried that he had exceeded his constitutional authority, and his opponents worried even more. (695) 1

Pearl Harbor

In the immediate aftermath of the ___ attack, there was little overt hostility toward Japanese Americans. The usually conservative Los Angeles Times editorialized that the Japanese were "good Americans, born and educated as such.' Speaking of the *Nisei*, General *John DeWitt*, head of the U.S. Army on the West Coast said, "An American citizen, after all is an American citizen, In addition, U S Attorney General *Francis Biddle* wrote that he was determined to avoid mass Internment and the persecution of aliens that had characterized the First World War" All would quickly change their minds. (705) 2

Draft

In the middle of the campaign, *Roosevelt* asked Congress to institute a military ___ so the country could have a trained army ready in case of war. Many opposed the ___, but when a reporter told *Willkie* that, "if you want to win the election you will come out against the proposed ___," *Willkie* responded, "I would rather not win the election than do that." The ___ became law on September 16 and, with *Wilikie's* stance and the appointment of *Stimson* and *Knox* to the cabinet, the issue of isolationism was neutralized until late in the campaign. (695) 3

Four Freedoms

In the same speech, *Roosevelt* also described larger purposes for American action which was, he said, to secure ___: The first is freedom of speech and expression.... The second is freedom of every person to worship God in his own way.... The third is freedom from want.... The fourth is freedom from fear.... (695) 5

ABC 1 George Marshall

In the spring of 1941, a secret conversation in Washington between British and American officials (known by the code name _(1)_ or American-British Conversation Number 1) resulted in an agreement that, in the event of a two-front war, which everyone hoped to avoid, the United States would focus first on joining Britain to defeat Germany. As U.S. Army Chief _(2)_ explained, "Collapse in the Atlantic would be fatal; collapse in the Far East would be serious but not fatal." (698) 1

midocean

In the summer of 1942, German forces were besieging the Soviet Union while their planes bombed Britain. The German submarine fleet shifted from the U.S. coast to Atlantic convoys, hitting them especially hard in ___ where little help was possible. In July 1942, a convoy of 34 Allied ships headed for the Russian ports of Murmansk and Archangel was attacked in the Norwegian Sea, and 23 of the 34 ships were sunk. German Admiral *Donitz* was confident—and the Americans, British, and Russians fearful—that the Allied forces simply could not continue in the face of such losses. (699) 2

Fortress Europe George Patton

In the summer of 1943, American and British units began the attack on what was known as "_(1)_"—the Nazi-controlled territory at the heart of the continent. On July 10, 1943, U.S., Canadian, and British forces, having sent coded messages that lured the Germans and Italians into defensive positions on the northern part of the Sicily, instead landed on the south coast of the island. U.S. forces under General _(2)_ made rapid progress across the island taking Palermo on the north coast on July 22. The effort was bolstered by welcoming crowds who helped them and shouted "Down with *Mussolini*." Italy's King *Victor Emmanuel III* dismissed *Mussolini* and had him arrested, but German units in Italy continued to fight. Allied forces continued a long, slow, and bitter battle up the Italian peninsula, attacking Salerno in September 1943, sustaining a long battle around Monte Cassino, making a fresh landing on the beaches at Anzio out-side of Rome in January 1944, and finally taking control of Rome itself in June 1944. (710) 4

Zoot Suiters

Latinos also faced exclusion and violence. The most obvious symbol of Mexican American resistance to white culture were gangs known as *pachucos*, or ___, for the exaggerated clothing— a long suit coat with baggy pants that came in at the ankles—that symbolized their defiance of social norms. During wartime frugality when most people were channeling money and resources toward the war effort, the ___ also seemed an unpatriotic extravagance. In June 1943, white servicemen in various boot camps in the Los Angeles area took out much of their own frustration by attacking the nearby Latino population, especially the ___. Police, for the most part, looked the other way. The ___ riots spread elsewhere until *FDR* intervened to stop the violence, mostly because he had been courting Mexico as a wartime ally. (704) 5

Great Depression

Most of those who served were white males like *Kilmer* and *Fossett*. The ___ shaped their childhood, and they liked the food and security of the army even when they were frightened. Only a minority were enthusiastic about serving while most were willing to do a job they believed needed to be done. In the process, they met a greater diversity of people than any previous generation of Americans and saw more of the world and its people. (699) 6

Franklin Roosevelt

National leaders worried about a combination of prosperity and complacency. One Pentagon officer said that Americans "have never been bombed....They have little appreciation of the horrors of war." In December 1943, ___ told his cabinet that he sometimes thought, "One of the best things that could happen, would be to have a few German bombs fall here to wake us up." But other than isolated and utterly unsuccessful enemy efforts to fire on the Oregon coast and New York's Long Island, the continental United States was never bombed or shot at, which was a dramatically different experience from that of Britain or Russia or, of course, Italy, Germany, and Japan. Letters home from those doing the fighting were censored, and even if they had not been, many soldiers did not want to discuss the horrors of war. (709) 3

Tydings Amendment

Not everyone served in the military. The *Selective Service* allowed local draft boards considerable discretion. Throughout most of the South, draft boards, which were nearly all white, showed a deep aversion to putting black men in uniform and giving them guns, with the result that they had to dip much deeper into the pool of white men, offering whites few deferments. Congress allowed young men to complete college so that, as one draft board member reported, "fathers in their middle thirties were being inducted from their stores, garages, and other businesses," while they saw younger single men sitting in classrooms. A November 1942 law, the ___, exempted agricultural workers from the draft. Men in key war industries and some who would not fight for religious reasons were also sometimes exempted. (700) 1

Executive Order 8802 Fair Employment Practices Committee

On June 25, 1941, Roosevelt signed _(1)_ "to provide for the full and equitable participation of all workers in defense industries, without discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin." The order created the _(2)_ (later. Commission) to enforce the policy. It was the order "with teeth in it." The march was called off. Some called _(1)_ an economic *Emancipation Proclamation*. _(1)_ was enforced unevenly but sufficiently enough to make a real difference. *Sybil Lewis* was a maid in Oklahoma being paid $3.50 a week before the war. She was hired at *Lockheed Aircraft* in Los Angeles at $48 per week. She was paired with a white woman from Arkansas, and though they certainly had their differences, *Lewis* remembered that they learned, "to relate to each other in ways that we never experienced before." Not all encounters were as positive. (704) 3

Maginot Line Philippe Petain Vichy France

On May 14, 1,800 German tanks crossed the border into France, overran the _(1)_, which turned out to be useless, and turned toward Paris. Italy joined Germany, declaring war on France on June 10. On June 22, 1940, France surrendered. For the next several. years, Germany directly governed northern France, including Paris, while a puppet government, led by the aging French *World War I* hero, Marshall _(2)_, governed the southern part of France known as _(3)_ . By the summer of 1940, *Hitler* was the master of Europe. (693) 3

Boeing Aircraft

Other Americans found themselves in new jobs they had never before imagined. *Charles Briscoe's* family left the *Dust Bowl* for California where he learned sheet metal work. In 1940, he took a job at ___ in Wichita, Kansas, building the super-secret 8-29 long range bomber. *Briscoe* remembered, "We knew the B-017s and B-24s didn't have the range to get to Japan. We had to have the B-29 to win the war and get the men home from over there," At 14, *Ed Powers* was too young for the military, but he joined his father—who was too old to serve—in patrolling their hometown to be cure that everyone was honoring the blackout to avoid a German bombing. (701) 1

Liberty ship

Perhaps the best example of American industrial productivity was the ___, the workhorse of the merchant marine that kept Britain, Russia And later U.S. forces in the Pacific supplied throughout the war. The ___s were all built to the same standard: 440 feet long with a cargo hold that could contain 330 freight cars, 410 tanks, or 3.4 million C-rations. When the first ___, the *Patrick Henry*, was christened on December 30. 1941, just after the *Pearl Harbor* attack, it had taken 355 days -- just shy of a year—to build. Six months later. in June 1942, it took 105 days to build a ___, and in November 1942, working around the clock, workers built the *Robert E. Peary* in less than 5 days. One engineer called the ___ the "Model T of the seas," and President *Roosevelt* called them ugly ducklings, but they did the job. (708) 4

America First Committee

Republican leaders in Congress opposed any intervention, and they had a lot of public support. In July 1940, students at Yale University, supported by Midwestern business leaders, formed the ___. Most ___ supporters saw the new war as an extension of the last one, simply an intra-European battle for power and colonies. Some sympathized with the *Nazis* or hated Jews. Most distrusted *Roosevelt*. (694) 1

Lend-Lease

Roosevelt's "*four freedoms*" were very popular. ___ was much less popular. Isolationists like Montana Senator *Burton Wheeler* said that the plan "will plough under every fourth American boy." Newspapers like the *Chicago Tribune*, the *New York Daily News*, and the *Washington Times-Herald* all editorialized against the plan. Nevertheless, the Congress that had passed so many neutrality acts in the 1930s approved the ___ Act by a 60 to 31 vote in the Senate and a 317 to 71 vote in the House. Britain would get the aid that *Churchill* wanted. (695) 6

War Production Board

Several factors led to the extraordinary U.S. output in the machinery of war in 1942 and 1943. Compared to the rest of the world, the United States was a manufacturing giant even in the 1930, and the United States had huge supplies of iron ore, coal, and oil. In 1937, the United States produced 4.8 million automobiles while Germany produced 331,000 and Japan only 26,000. Moreover at that point in 1937, perhaps half of all U.S. manufacturing plants were idle and a very large part of the U.S. labor force was out of work. It would not take long, once the country put itself on a war footing, for the unemployed to go to work, the plants to start up, and those already in operation to shift from peace-time to war-focused production. The ___, the government agency charged with ensuring that the country produced the war materials needed, quickly prohibited the manufacture of automobiles for private use and limited other civilian manufacturing after the nation went to war. On February 10, 1942, auto workers in Detroit held a little ceremony for the last cars coming down the line then began rebuilding the machinery to make tanks and trucks. Aircraft plants, especially the giant *Boeing* and *Lockheed* plants on the West Coast, and *Ford's Willow Run* air-craft plant near Detroit started to turn out planes. Shipyards went to three shifts. (708) 2

War Department A Randolph

The rapidly expanding war industries were less friendly. When the president of *North American Aviation* announced, "We will not employ Negroes," he spoke for many whites in management and on the shop floors of the companies. Then in late 1940, the _(1)_ announced its policy "not to intermingle colored and white enlisted personnel in the same regimental organization." _(2)_ felt betrayed, and he meant to do something about it. (703) 3

Japanese internment

Some of the Japanese community challenged the process of internment. *Gordon Hirabayashi* remembered hearing of the order to report to the camps and thinking, "I was confronted with a dilemma: Do I stay out of trouble and succumb to the status of second-class citizen, or do I continue to live like other Americans and thus disobey the law?" He disobeyed the law and challenged it in court. In its first ruling on the legality of internment, the U.S. Supreme Court threw out *Hirabayashi's* challenge and he served time in a prison camp. Although Justice *Frank Murphy* supported the court's unanimous opinion in the cases he used the occasion to write that the___ was the first time in history that the federal government had "sustained a substantial restriction on the personal liberty of citizens of the United States based upon the accident of race or ancestry", while noting the parallels with what Nazi Germany was doing to Jews. (707) 1

Felix Frankfurter

Sometimes complacency had a high cost. When two inmates escaped from *Auschwitz* and brought stories of the *Holocaust* to the United States, many simply refused to believe that such things were possible. In the summer of 1943, given detailed reports of the *Nazi* death camps, Supreme Court Justice ___ simply responded, "I am unable to believe you." It was simply too horrible to contemplate. The degree to which traditional anti-Semitism played a role in some people's responses to the news about *Nazi* death camps, the degree to which people such as ___ simply could not believe what they were hearing, and the extent to which other urgencies of the war led people to focus elsewhere has been debated ever since the war. For whatever reason—or probably many reasons—few Americans took the stories of the emerging *Holocaust* seriously until the end of the war demonstrated their awful truth. (709) 4

Operation Overlord

The *Red Army*, *Stalin* assured everyone, would not pull back from the lands it was seizing from Germany. _(1)_ was set for May 1, 1944. In the meantime, U.S. and British planes kept bombing Germany and Germany-occupied France-6,000 bombing runs during 1 week alone in February 1944—to make it difficult for German forces to prepare for an invasion that they knew was coming. Although *Roosevelt* had become convinced as early as 1942 that the *Nazis* were killing Jews, the planes did not bomb the *Nazi* death camps or the rail lines to *Auschwitz*. U.S. planners simply could not bring themselves to believe that anything like the scale of the *Holocaust* was happening in spite of the fact that by 1944 they had clear evidence of the reality. Questions remain about why, with so many bombs being dropped, some better effort was not made to stop the trains going to those camps. (713) 1

Harry Truman

The November 1944 election had brought one important change, however. In 1940, *Roosevelt* had turned to his trusted confident, Agriculture Secretary *Henry Wallace*, to serve as vice president. By 1944, though, many in the Democratic Party, worried that *Roosevelt* might not live out the next term, thought *Wallace* was too liberal, and convinced *Roosevelt* and the nominating convention to find another candidate. The compromise candidate was Missouri Senator ___. ___ had served in the army in *World War I*, tried unsuccessfully to open a clothing store in Kansas City, and then worked his way up in the Democratic political machine of his home town. He was elected to the Senate in 1934 and strongly supported the *New Deal*. In his second Senate term, he led a committee looking into war profiteering. He had been vice president for less than 3 months, had seldom met with *FDR*, and did not know many of the highest-level government secrets, including the development of the atomic bomb, when, on the afternoon of April 12, 1945, he stood in the White House cabinet room and took the oath of office as president of the United States. It would be ___, not *Roosevelt* who would lead the nation in the final months of the war and the crucial years after it. (714) 4

Albert Speer

The United States also had an attitude toward manufacturing that greatly helped its success. German armaments minister ___ told *Hitler* that he was worried because it was the Americans, not the Germans, who "knew how to act with organizationally simple methods and therefore achieved great results" while Germany was stuck with an "outmoded, tradition-bound, and arthritic organizational system." At the beginning of the war, Germany made 425 different kinds of aircraft, 151 kinds of trucks, and 150 different motorcycles all to exacting precision standards. The Americans made far fewer models, accepted lower standards, and got things done--a high-volume output that far surpassed allies or enemies. (708) 3

Manhattan Project Robert Oppenheimer Los Alamos

The _(1)_ began under a stadium at the University of Chicago, where the first chain reaction was achieved in December 1942. Then, under the scientific direction of physicist _(2)_ and the military oversight of General *Leslie Groves*, the work moved to the isolated town of _(3)_, New Mexico, where it was easier to keep it secret. The scientists bent all of their efforts to beating Germany in the development of "the bomb," that they now knew they could build. Ironically, part way through the war, Germany suspended further research on atomic warfare because of the cost and because *Hitler* considered atomic physics to be "Jewish physics." However, the Americans did not know that and kept going. In Oak Ridge, Tennessee, *TVA* dams provided the power for the extraction of U-235 (a form of Uranium), and at Hanford, Washington, other *New Deal* dams, the Bonneville and Grand Coulee, drove the plants that squeezed plutonium out of uranium. With those ingredients, the engineers at _(3)_ could build their bomb. (718) 1

Teheran Conference Operation Overlord

The _(1)_ included discussions of the war in China. In addition, *Stalin* kept up the pressure for the United States and Britain to invade France as quickly as possible and promised to join the war against Japan once the war in Europe was won. The conference was also a test of the personal chemistry between *Stalin* and *FDR*. Although the U.S. president was confident of his own skill in persuading people, he confessed, "I couldn't get any personal connection with *Stalin*." U.S. Ambassador to Russia *Averell Harriman* described *Stalin* as someone of "high intelligence," with a "fantastic grasp of detail" and "shrewdness." *Stalin*, *Harriman* said, was "better informed than *Roosevelt*, more realistic than *Churchill*, in some ways the most effective of the war leaders. At the same time he was, of course, a murderous tyrant." *Stalin* wanted an absolute promise that the United States and Britain would start the invasion of Germany—code named _(2)_—in the spring of 1944. And he wanted to make sure that others knew, as he had told *Josef Tito*, who was leading a Communist uprising behind German lines in Yugoslavia, "whoever occupies a territory also imposes his own social system." (712) 3

Okinawa

The battle for ___ in April to June of 1945 was equally brutal, some 70,000 Japanese troops and 100,000 ___n civilians as well as almost 8,000 Americans died there. By June 1945, with the war in Europe over and after intense fighting in the Pacific, the U.S. forces in the Pacific were close to a landing on Japan itself. But it never happened. (717) 6

D Day

The buildup in Britain in 1943 and early 1944 was huge, with 150,000 U.S. soldiers arriving every month. The British called these American troops "overpaid, oversexed, and over here," but welcomed them not only for what they were about to do for the liberation of Europe but also for the supplies of cocoa, canned meat, candy bars, tobacco, and even toilet paper that they had. Finally, with the tides right and a break predicted in the weather, *Eisenhower* decided that June 6 was the time to go—and so the day became known as ___, 1944. (713) 3

Franklin Roosevelt

The day after the *Pearl Harbor* attack, ___ addressed Congress, speaking of the attack as "a date which will live in infamy." He asked for, and was given, a declaration of war against Japan. *Hitler* and *Mussolini* then declared war on the United States. The long wait was over. With the direct attack on the United States at *Pearl Harbor*, most isolationists and antiwar voices rallied to the president and the war effort. Every citizen would be touched by the war whether by serving in the military, working in war-related industries, or using ration stamps to buy food. It had been a long wait during the 2 years in which ___ increased support for Britain, negotiated fitfully with Japan, and inched toward war. (692) 2

Office of Price Administration General Max Little Steel agreement

The huge increase in American industrial activity was not without its problems. Early in 1942, the government took several steps to control inflation and costs. The _(1)_ announced a General Maximum Price Regulation in April that made the prices of goods and services in March 1942 permanent. Known as "_(2)_," the regulation did help control costs and inflation. The *National War Labor Board* negotiated a settlement between union and management at Bethlehem, Republic, Youngstown, and Inland Steel Companies that limited wage increases to cost of living. Known as the "_(3)_" (the U.S. Steel Company was "Big Steel"), the agreement became a norm throughout American industries. Although there had been several strikes in the months just before the war, most of organized labor took a no strike pledge" for the duration of the war in return for a government policy that required industries to maintain labor contracts and union membership. (709) 1

Lend-Lease

The military preparation in 1940 and 1941 ended the *Great Depression*. Spending $7 billion on ___ efforts and an additional $13.7 billion on the expansion of the U.S. military (up from $2.2 billion in 1940) provided a huge stimulus to the economy, far larger than any stimulus tried during the *New Deal*. Nearly a million young men were drafted by early 1941, and new jobs opened everywhere, virtually ending unemploy-ment. New or redesigned federal agencies brought business leaders into the government t('manage the huge conversion to a war-oriented economy. (695) 7

Attorney General

The situation for the Japanese on the West Coast was very different. Their treatment dramatically contrasted not only the situation in Hawaii but also the way that German and Italian communities in the United States were treated. Unlike during *World War I*, the German and Italian communities were not subjected to mass discrimination during *World War 11*. There were arrests of individuals suspected of activities supporting the country's enemies, and given the strength of the Nazi movement within the United States prior to the war, there were individuals that the government had reason to watch. All noncitizens from Germany and Italy were labeled "enemy aliens" when the war began, but *FDR* ordered the ___ to cancel the designation in the fall of 1942—just before Election Day. (705) 4

Surrender

The war in the pacific was brutal. American troops came up against Japanese soldiers who would fight to the very last. The Japanese lived by a code that prohibited surrender. The Imperial Japanese Army's Field Service Code said, "Never give up a position but rather die," and there were no instructions for ___. The Japanese troops knew that the Americans would always have more food, more armaments, and more back-up, but they were confident that their loyalty and fighting spirit was enough to make up for all of that. (716) 1

Axis

Three days after the United States declared war on Japan, *Hitler* and *Mussolini* declared war on the United States. It was an odd move on their part. Germany, Italy, and Japan were allies—based on treaties they had signed with each other in 1936 and 1937—but if Germany and Italy had held back in declaring war on the United States, *FDR* would have been under great pressure to focus the war only on Japan, leaving Britain still isolated. German and Italian declarations of war allowed *FDR* to keep the focus on the Atlantic, which he believed was essential. The three nations at war with the United States—Germany, Italy, and Japan—were known as the ___ as opposed to the allied forces of the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union, joined by exiled French troops who called themselves the *Free French* and forces from China and a number of other nations that allied with them. (698) 5

D Day

Troops landing on Omaha beach on ___ had to use grappling irons to reach the of the cliffs facing them, suffering large losses. Once they of off the beaches and over the cliffs, British and U.S. troops got stuck on hedgerows, on lines of tightly planted bushes 5 to 10 feet wide that farmers in Normandy had used instead of fences and that now provided far better protection for German troops than planners had estimated. Slowly the troops broke past the initial defenses. General Omar Bradley reflected this "thin wet line of khaki that dragged itself ashore" held its ground and then started moving inland. Johnson remembered the odd scenes of battle, "Now on my way down the road I "saw, on my right, these dead German boys. On my left, going across the field, is a French peasant leading a cow, cradling its head in his arms, protecting it with his body as much as possible. He had come back to get his cow, leading it away from all the noise and death." Johnson and the rest kept moving. (713) 5

Lewis Hershey

When 40 percent of the 21-year-olds who signed up for the first draft registration in late 1940 then got married, General ___ announced that he would consider that recent marriages "might have been for the purpose of evading the draft." When the draft was expanded to include married men, most fathers were still exempted, leading one young couple to name their new child "Weatherstrip" because he kept his father out of the draft. However, as the need grew, fathers were also drafted, and by 1945, nearly a million fathers were in the service. (701) 2

Phony War

When Germany attacked Poland in September 1939, Britain and then France declared war on Germany. Europe was at war. Neither Japan nor the United States intervened. After the rapid German defeat of Poland that fall, the winter of 1939-40 was known as the "___" since there was so little fighting. Poland disappeared, split between *Nazi Germany* and the *Soviet Union*. Britain and France waited for an attack they knew would come—and the war did not stay the same. (693) 1

J Hoover Order 9066

When some accused Japanese Americans of spying, *FBI* Director _(1)_ said that such charges were utterly without foundation. Nevertheless, leaders of the California *Grower-Shipper Vegetable Association*, representing large-scale agriculture, did not like the competition of the small Japanese American truck farms, and one association leader declared, "We might as well be honest....It's a question of whether the white man lives on the Pacific Coast or the brown man." Respected journalists, including *Walter Lippmann* and *Westbrook Pegler*, pushed for removal. *Pegler* wrote, "The Japanese in California should be under armed guard to the last man and woman right now, and to hell with *habeas corpus* until the danger is over." And by early 1942, General DeWitt, who had first said "An American citizen is an American citizen," as saying "The Japanese race is an enemy race and.. the racial strains are undiluted."A few, very few, white voices, like the tiny Committee on American Principles and Fair Play, defended the rights of Japanese Americans. With public opinion running so strongly in favor of removal, President *Roosevelt* signed Executive _(2)_ on February 19, 1942, ordering the *War Department* to create "military areas...from which any and all persons may be excluded." The order did not specify which areas or which persons were to be excluded, but the result was that people of Japanese ancestry were ordered out of most of the three West Coast states. (706) 1

Manhattan Project Albert Einstein

While armies and navies clashed, a small team of U.S. scientists had begun work in 1942 on a top-secret venture, code-named the _(1)_. *Enrico* Fermi won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1938 and used the prize money to leave fascist Italy for New York. In March 1939, *Fermi* warned that recent research, including his own, in atomic physics pointed to the potential development of a new form of weapon. When *Fermi* went to the *U.S. Navy Department*, a receptionist announced, "There's a wop outside." The officers who received him were not much more interested. But some of the world's best known physicists, many of whom were Jewish refugees from *Nazi* Germany (11 German Jewish refugees would eventually win the Nobel Prize), were determined that the U.S. government needed to act before the *Nazis*. A group drafted a letter to President *Roosevelt*, which was signed by their most well-known and respected member, _(2)_, and delivered in the fall of 1941. After considering the letter and the report on *Nazi* research, *Roosevelt* said simply, "This requires action." And action, top-secret action, it got. (717) 7

Terror Bombing

While the *Red Army* rolled west from Russia into Poland and eventually Germany, and while American and British forces won battles in North Africa and Italy, American pilots joined their British counterparts in what became round-the-clock bombing of Germany. The British had begun bombing German military targets, first in France and then, as the planes got better, in the Ruhr Valley of Germany itself. Precision bombing in real wartime conditions was exceedingly difficult, so the British simply tried to destroy the morale of the German civilians, especially industrial workers, by bombing wherever they could—what some called ___. When the Americans joined the war, they initially found the ___ to be abhorrent, but they worked out a compromise: the British would bomb at night, bombing wherever they could, and the Americans, with more sophisticated equipment, could bomb specified targets during the day. The first U.S. bombers began their attacks in August 1942, and by January 1943, hundreds of U.S. bombers began penetrating German airspace, hitting industrial targets like the German city of Bremen. The losses of pilots and crews were staggering. Six hundred Americans were killed in the summer of 1943, 16 percent of those who flew missions. One pilot remembered his terror when being attacked by German Messerschmitt 109s: The plane shook with the chatter of our guns....As other planes were hit, we had to fly through their debris....When a plane blew up, we saw their parts all over the sky. We smashed into some of the pieces. One plane hit a body which tumbled out of a plane ahead. A crewman went out the front hatch of a plane and hit the tail assembly of his own plane. No chute. His body turned over and over like a bean bag tossed into air. And still the crews kept flying. (712) 1

Flying Tigers

While the United States focused on Europe, tensions were also building in the Pacific. The United States wanted to avoid a "two-ocean war:' and sought peace with Japan. However, a combination of stubborn—if inadequate— support for China and a lack of careful attention did not make for an effective foreign policy. The *Roosevelt* administration provided modest *Lend-Lease* support for *Chiang Kai-shek's* government and allowed individual U.S. pilots to join the ___, a volunteer air corps organized by Colonel *Claire Chennault *to fight for China, but continued to allow the metal and oil exports on which Japan depended. (696) 4

Harry Truman

While the United States geared up to serve as the "*arsenal of democracy*," *Hitler* suddenly attacked his erstwhile ally Russia in June 1941. While there was no love lost in the United States for Communist Russia, most Americans knew that if the *Nazis* defeated Russia it would mean disaster. Missouri Senator ___ said he would not mind it if both sides lost, but he also said, "I don't want to see *Hitler* victorious under any circumstances." The United States extended *Lend-Lease* aid to the Russians. (696) 1

Island Hop

While the war in Europe was over, the war in the Pacific was far from over, and U.S. troops were preparing for what they knew would be a horrific invasion of Japan itself. After the successful seizure of control of *Guadalcanal* in the Solomon Islands in February 1943, commanders made the decision to skip some Japanese-held islands, leaving their troops isolated and instead, "___" toward their main objective. U.S. forces moved slowly but surely toward Japan. The defeats of 1942 seemed further behind. American factories produced machine guns, ships, and airplanes at an extraordinary rate, far faster than Japan could match, and enough to supply forces in the Pacific even as the war in Europe remained the priority until it was won. (715) 1

Martial Law

While there were 120,000 people of Japanese ancestry living on the U.S. mainland in 1941, there were 200,000 Japanese living in Hawaii, almost half of the population of the islands. After the attack on *Pearl Harbor*, the federal government declared a state of ___ and suspended basic rights in Hawaii. Several hundred Japanese were arrested as suspected spies and saboteurs. But entire economy of Hawaii would have collapsed if the Japanese community had been interned, and there would have been no place to put them and no one to guard them. (705) 3

England

White workers went on strike at a Western Electric factory in Baltimore, Maryland, demanding segregated restrooms. In a factory in Mobile, Alabama, shipyard workers rioted over the promotion of a black welder. Riots also took place in Detroit and New York City in 1943. Twenty-five blacks and nine whites were killed in a June riot in Detroit, and six blacks were killed in another riot in New York's Harlem. As news of these clashes spread, army bases around the world also exploded as segregated white and black units clashed in ___ and in the United States. (704) 4

Java Sea

Within hours of the December 7 attack on *Pearl Harbor*, Japan also attacked U.S. bases in the Philippine Islands, the Aleutian Islands off Alaska, as well as Guam and Wake Islands in the mid-Pacific. Within days, Japanese pilots and troops were in the British colonies of Malaysia and Burma, French Indochina, the Dutch East Indies, and independent Thailand. To some, the Japanese were liberators, freeing them from the hated European and American colonial authorities. The Japanese had been preparing well and were a superb fighting force. British Hong Kong and American Guam and Wake Islands surrendered within a week. In February 1942, Singapore surrendered to the Japanese with 85,000 crack British troops now prisoners of war. American and British Navy forces lost the battle of ___ and the Dutch East Indies, and their rich oil fields fell to Japan. (698) 2

Delana Jensen

Women working in industrial plants had to develop a new fashion style that provided room for safe movement, including pants, which made movement much easier than a skirt, and short hair, which was essential around dangerous machinery. In addition, they had to develop a tough attitude in the face of catcalls and wolf whistles. ___ made 155-millimeter howitzers for the army. She was hired when the plant was still not sure whether women could handle the work, but within months, she was training men. It was exacting work and "had to be perfect...within 1/1,000th of an inch." She liked the denim coveralls and remembered, "We were living in a special time and place. There was an energy in the air and in the people. We were wanted and needed and important to the war effort." (702) 4

Lend-Lease

___ aid to Britain brought the United States close to war with Germany. German *U-boats* sank ships carrying goods to Britain at five times the rate that new ships could be built. The United States began patrolling the western Atlantic, guarding ships as far as Greenland before turning them over to the British Navy for escort to Britain. (696) 2

A Randolph

___ proposed a massive march on Washington, initially thinking that 10,000 blacks would come to Washington, DC, to demand that the government protect their economic rights. As word spread, ___ raised the number to 50,000 and then to 100,000. He insisted that this event would be an all-black march. "There are some things Negroes must do alone," he said. The march was called for July 1, 1941. (704) 1