Archaeology Midterm

non-probabilistic sampling

-A non-statistical sampling strategy concentrates on sampling areas on the basis of intuition, historical documentation, or long field experience in the area. -It is the acquisition of sample data based on informal criteria or personal judgment. -It does not allow evaluation of how representative the sample is with respect to the data population. -also known as judgmental sampling -problems: Highly subjective, biased, relative, and unrepresentative

simple random sampling

-A probabilistic sampling technique in which each sample unit has a statistically equal chance for selection. -The areas to be sampled are chosen using a table of random numbers. -random choosing of sample units -This sampling method is independent, meaning that the selection of a particular unit does not affect the chances of selection of another

stratified random sampling

-A probabilistic sampling technique used to cluster and isolate sample units when regular spacing is inappropriate for cultural reasons. -The region or site is divided into natural zones or strata, such as cultivated land and forest, and units are then chosen by a random-number procedure to give each zone a number of squares proportional to its area, thus overcoming the inherent bias in simple random sampling. -In stratified sampling, the population is divided into classes and simple random samples are drawn from each class. -It aims to provide a representative sample of all the areas in a sample universe, while still retaining a "random element" -This technique works through the division of the sample universe into "strata", or different classifications of the landscape

stratified systematic unaligned

-A probabilistic sampling technique which combines elements of simple random sampling, stratified random sampling, and systematic sampling -- in an effort to reduce sampling bias. -The sample universe is divided into strata, and units are placed within these zones in relation to the predominance of this zone in the sample universe. -Units are then set within these strata at regular intervals, but not in alignment.

systematic sampling

-A probabilistic sampling technique which uses a grid of equally spaced sample units, for example, selecting every other square. -It is a refinement of random sampling in which one unit is chosen, then others at regular intervals from the first. -The sample incorporates randomness and determinacy by specifying that the random selection of a case example has to occur within a certain group of cases. -Works by using equally spaced sampling units set in a predetermined grid -This method also makes no distinction between different zones within the sample universe.

remote sensing

-Acoustic Method -Electromagnetism -Earth Resistance -Magnetic Survey -Geochemical Analysis

Feminist Critique

-Advocates for recognizing our own biases and situated positions when interpreting archaeological evidence -such as androcentrism (male bias); e.g. "man the toolmaker, the hunter, etc."

systematic surveys

-Aerial Survey -Surface Survey (Ground Reconnaissance and Surface Collections) -Remote Sensing, Survey and Mapping (Topography, Remote Sensing, or Geophysical Sensing Devices) -Subsurface Techniques (Excavations)

probabilistic sampling

-An archaeological sampling method based on formal statistical criteria in selecting sample units to be investigated. -It is designed to draw reliable general conclusions about a site or region, based on small sample areas, and allows evaluation of how representative the sample is with respect to the data population. -Four types of sampling strategies are recognized: 1) simple random sampling; 2) stratified random sampling; 3) systematic sampling; 4) stratified systematic sampling.

before research

-Carry out preliminary research -Coordinate permission or access to lands, including obtaining necessary research permits -Talk to the local (stakeholder) community -Prepare laboratory processing and artifact storage space

magnetic survey

-Detects variations in the earth's magnetic field, which occur in the presence of minerals like oxides -Useful with detecting hearths, kilns, pits and ditches

earth resistance

-Electrical current is run through the ground -Different readings depending on the water-saturation of different types of sediments as well as disturbances in the soil

Phases of Research Design

-Formulation of a research strategy -Collecting and Recording of Evidence -Processing and Analysis -Publication

unsystematic surveys

-Informal Reconnaissance -Documentary Sources -Oral Sources Other non-academic excavation

in situ

-Latin for "in place" -In the normal or natural or original position or place -- describing an artifact encountered during excavation or survey."

electromagnetism

-Like Acoustic, sends signals through survey area - radar -Reflects changes in soil - sediments, ditches, walls.

Deep time

-Mythological Time, including Biblical Time tied to Judeo-Christian origins (Gregorian Calendar) -Geological Time (Lyell, Uniformitarianism) -Evolutionary Time and Processes (Darwin) -Three Age System

aerial survey

-Oblique view favours the use of shadow and perspective to outline differences in topography -Bird's eye view (or vertical view) reflects a more accurate picture of the ground -aerial mapping with drones

Synchronic

-Pertaining to phenomena at one point in time, occurring simultaneously or at the same time; referring to a single period of time. -This approach is not primarily concerned with change and often refers to the correlation of events or surfaces of stratigraphic units.

Processualism

-Processual archaeology represented a radical break from the then-dominant culture, the historical and antiquarian approaches to archaeology. -Archaeology as a science -Focus on culture process -expressly theoretical approach

geochemical analysis

-Random or systematic soil samples -Detects elements/minerals that are indicative of human occupation, such as phosphorus, magnesium, organic matter, pH values and calcium They are also naturally occurring, but vary in amounts and presence

Diachronic

-Referring to two or more reference points in time, especially as they pertain to phenomena as they occur or change over a period of time; a chronological perspective. -The term refers to actions or things, as in the study of artifacts in a region as they change across sequential periods.

Invasive Surveys and Excavations

-Test Pits (Shovel Testing) -Undertaken to gain a preliminary idea of what's beneath the ground -Testing done usually in a grid system, at regular intervals -Soil screened, floated and examined; any artefacts analysed for their distribution -Done when remote sensing is unavailable or restrictive

radiocarbon

-The occurrence of natural radioactive carbon in the atmosphere allows archaeologists the ability to date organic materials as old as 50,000 years. -The technique is based on measuring the loss of radiocarbon (carbon-14) that begins disintegration at death at a known rate. -Radiocarbon dating measures the decay of carbon-14 in organic remains, giving archaeologists absolute dates

law of superposition

-The principle that states that in any pile of sedimentary rocks that have not been disturbed by folding or overturning, the strata on the bottom will have been deposited first. -This is the principle that the sequence of observable strata, from bottom to top, reflects the order of deposition, from earliest to latest. -Older beds or strata are overlain and buried by progressively younger beds or strata.

provenience

-The source, origin, or location of an artifact or feature and the recording of same. -It is the position of an archaeological find in time and space, recorded three-dimensionally. -The horizontal reference system is usually some form of grid tied to a reference datum; the vertical dimension is reference to a vertical datum. -ex. the three-dimensional position of an archaeological find in time and space and recorded from a known datum point at an archaeological site.

Stratigraphy

-The study and interpretation of the stratification of rocks, sediments, soils, or cultural debris, based on the principle that the lowest layer is the oldest and the uppermost in the youngest -- a major tool in establishing a relative dating sequence. -Dateable artifacts found within layers, and layers or structures which are themselves dateable, can be used to date parts of stratigraphic sequences.

Topographic Survey

-Use of the TDS (Total Data Station) -Height -Distance -Global Positioning System (GPS) -Combines database with mapping tools -Also incorporates the ability to carry out statistical analysis of site and artifact distribution -Holds information on atiributes of sites

acoustic method

-Works through echo-location -Useful for locating caves, cavities, cracks -Useful for underwater survey and marine archaeology -Part of an emerging field of archaeo-acoustics studying the reach and perception of sound at ancient sites

remote sensing

-allows subsurface testing without physical disturbance. -look into the ground and see features lying beneath it -can help to reconstruct regional landscapes and to identify archaeological contexts before digging to minimize site destruction

How does the work of today's professional archaeologist differ from that of the antiquarian?

-archaeologist: a person who studies human history and prehistory through the excavation of sites and the analysis of artifacts and other physical remains. -antiquarian: amateur interested in ancient artifacts who studies or collects objects of antiquity. The term also refers to amateurs who dig up artifacts unscientifically. Antiquarianism is the study of the ancient past and its customs and the relics of the ancient past. -Difference: an archaeologist is generally affiliated with artifacts, or the things which human left behind, whereas, an antiquarian is concerned with his own private collection and study of history.

Three age system

-by C.J. Thomsen/ useful for chronology -Stone age (paleolithic "old stone" and neolithic "new stone") -Bronze age -Iron age

Deduction v. Induction

-deduction: A process of reasoning which goes from the general to the specific, or, from lucky guess to a provable fact. It involves generating hypotheses and then testing them with data. -induction: proceeds from the specific to the general so that the conclusions contain more information than the premises do.

Ethnocentrism

-evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions originating in the standards and customs of one's own culture. -The belief that one's own ethnic group is superior to all others.

Explanation v. Description

-explanation: The end product of scientific research. In archaeology, explanation describes what happened in the past, and when, where, how, and why it happened. -description:

Social Darwinism

-misapplication of evolution that is used to explain cultural difference. -It is informed by an ethnocentric perspective that views all societies through a lens of teleological progress and defined stages of humankind: Savagery, Barbarism and Civilization

sampling strategies

-non-probabilistic -probabilistic

Three stages of humankind

-savagery (primitive hunting) -barbarism (simple farming) -civilization (highest form of society)

Ground Reconnaissance

A collective name for a variety of methods for identifying archaeological sites, including consultation of documentary sources, place-name evidence, local folklore and legend, but primarily the visual inspection from groundwork of a potential site.

uniformitarianism

A fundamental philosophy of geologic science, the principle that the earth was formed by the same natural geological processes that are still going on today.

cultural ecology

A term describing the dynamic relationship between human society and its environment, in which culture is viewed as the primary adaptive mechanism in the relationship.

aerial reconnaissance

An important survey technique for locating and defining archaeological sites from the air

contemporary archaeology

Composed of multidisciplinary research (including ethnography, linguistics, history, geography, biology, etc.) that uses multiple lines of evidence and is dedicated to scientific and humanistic investigations into the breadth of human experience throughout time and continuing to the present, refining and expanding the limits of our knowledge.

sample universe

The area to be studied, and its boundaries

variables

The characteristic(s) of the population that we wish to study

Assemblage (or Population)

The collection of artifacts, features, and sites that form the field of study, the totality of archaeological evidence in an area, and about which we want to say something

sample

The outcome of one sampling strategy, which consists of a set of units and the values associated to them

Speculative phases

The period in history of archaeology in the New World between 1400-1840, characterized by unsystematic and speculative interpretations about the past.

Hypothesis testing

The process of examining how well various hypotheses explain the actual data, eliminating those that are invalid, and identifying those that best fit the observed phenomena.

Inference

This is the drawing of conclusions on the assemblage/population from information from the sample

sampling strategy

an attempt to attain a valid generalization from a representative sample

surface survey

remote sensing

Evolution

the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.