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culture (tylor definition)

"that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.

feature

an immovable structure or layer, pit, or post in the ground having archaeological significance • Fieldwork can yield artifacts, ecofacts, features, sites, and settlements. • The basic type of field survey involves systematic walking of the site for the purposes of obtaining artifacts or locating features. • Features are immovable structures, layers, pits, and posts in the ground. • Features are typically studied in the field since they are fixed in the ground. • They are useful for understanding the distribution and organization of human activities at a site. • Some features result from the accumulation of garbage and debris, rather than being intentionally created. • Burials and human bones are a special category of feature often found at archaeological sites.

Jomon Japan

archaeological culture of late pleistocene and early holocene japan; primarility associated with groups of hunter-gatherers, but recent evidence suggests that these groups were practicing some rice cultivation Jomon - The archaeological culture of late-Pleistocene and early-Holocene Japan. cord-marking - A decorative technique in Jomon Japan and elsewhere, in which cord or string is wrapped around a paddle and pressed against an unfired clay vessel, leaving the twisted mark of the cord.

robust vs. gracile

robust - • The robust appearance may be related to strength and endurance requirements or adaptations to the cold environments where they lived. (neanderthals) gracile - skinny

the law of superposition

subsequent layers are progressively younger

context

the association and relationships between archaeological objects that are in the same place

seasonality

the changing availability of resources according to the different seasons of the year

lateralization

the division of the human brain into two halves. one side controls language; the other regulates perception and motor skills • Examination of endocasts can provide insight into the language abilities of human ancestors. • An endocast is a copy or cast of the inside of a fossil skull. • Endocasts provide evidence of brain organization. • The division in the organization of the two sides of the brain is called lateralization, which is essential for language. • Studies have shown that the pattern of lateralization in fossil endocasts goes back well into the Pleistocene and probably to australopithecines.

provenience

the place of origin for archaeological matters, including location, association, and context

evolution

the process of change over time resulting from shifting conditions of the physical and cultural environments, involving mechanisms of mutation in natural selection. human biology and culture evolved during the late Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene • Most of the evolution of life on earth is characterized by biological evolution. • Primate evolution occurred over a long period of time. • The first primates emerged about 65 m.y.a. • The apes, or Hominoidea, first appeared about 25 m.y.a. • Around 17-12 m.y.a, a new group of apes, known as dryopithecines, emerged and ranged in Africa, Asia, and Europe.

ethnography

the study of human cultures through firsthand observation

Dendrochronology

the study of the annual growth rings of trees as a dating technique to build chronologies

Cultural Resource Management (CRM)

the survey and/or excavation of archaeological and historical remained threatened by construction and development

Pleistocene

Pleistocene - • By the end of the Pleistocene, humans were major large-game hunters. • Human ancestors moved out of Africa about 2 m.y.a., at the beginning of the Pleistocene. • As hominids moved into Asia and Europe, they encountered cooler climate conditions. • Expansion out of the tropics required new skills and inventions for surviving in different environments. • The first reliable evidence of controlled use of fire, systematic hunting, and the use of wooden spears appeared during this time. • Change in stone tools appeared with the emergence of the handaxe. • The earliest Homo erectus fossil comes from Kenya and dates to 1.8 m.y.a. • Homo erectus individuals were robust, with large bones and teeth, larger bodies, and significantly larger brains than their Homo habilis ancestors. • Homo erectus had brains that were about 1,000 cc. • They had low, sloping foreheads, prominent brow ridges, and protruding faces. • Homo erectus individuals were almost fully modern in terms of movement and locomotion. • Several Homo erectus have been dated to just after 2.0 m.y.a. • These early dates suggest that Homo erectus may have spread very quickly across Asia following their initial appearance in Africa. • The earliest dates for humans in Europe are younger than 1 m.y.a. • Homo erectus was eventually replaced by Homo sapiens about 100,000 years ago. Climate and the Environment in the Pleistocene • The Pleistocene was characterized by active volcanoes and cooling temperatures. • This epoch had at least nine glacial periods. • Temperatures from the past can be determined by measuring levels of oxygen isotopes found in glacial ice on Greenland. • One consequence of reduced temperatures was the spreading of glaciers over large portions of the continents. • While today only 10% of the land surface of the earth is covered by glaciers, ice during glacial periods may have covered 30% of the surface. • In North America, ice masses extended as far south as St. Louis. • The weight of the ice forced land masses to sink. • Global sea levels were reduced by as much as 300-500 feet. • The causes of the Pleistocene climate change have been debated for years. • Some have suggested that the rise of the Himalayas and the Rocky Mountains resulted in a global disruption of weather patterns. • Variations in the earth's orbit have also been proposed as potential causes. Pleistocene Mammals • A number of modern mammals appeared during the Pleistocene, while others went extinct. • Many mammalian species were much larger than their modern equivalents. • The bones of these animals from archaeological sites give some indication of the species that were present in different parts of Europe. • Major changes in human behavior took place toward the end of the Pleistocene. • Our ancestors began to exhibit behaviors that were more than just practical activities. • In the Middle Pleistocene, burial of the dead, cannibalism, and nurturing of the weak and elderly took place. • By the end of the Pleistocene, Homo sapiens had created art, invented many new tools, made tailored clothing, started counting, and expanded to almost all parts of the world. • The earliest fully modern humans have been found in East and South Africa. • The earliest known example is from southwest Ethiopia and dates to almost 200,000 years ago. • Beginning around 50,000 years ago, fully modern humans replaced Neanderthals in western Asia and then in Europe. • Around 40,000 years ago, modern humans spread into Australia and New Guinea. • Perhaps 15,000 years ago, humans entered the Americas. • Studies have shown that the pattern of lateralization in fossil endocasts goes back well into the Pleistocene and probably to australopithecines. • Mammoths were formidable prey for late Pleistocene hunters in Europe, being fifty percent larger than modern African elephants.• During the colder intervals of the Pleistocene, when global sea levels were much lower, the floor of the strait became dry land. Pleistocene Extinction • By the end of the Pleistocene, about 35 species of land mammals, nearly half the total number, became extinct in North America. • Many of the animals were large carnivores and herbivores that had been around for over two million years. • A similar, though not as complete, pattern of extinction in large mammals occurred in Europe and Asia. • Two explanations for the extinctions have been proposed. • One explanation is that humans caused the extinctions by overhunting. • Similar climatic changes during earlier interglacials did not result in the extinction of many species. • The widespread appearance of Clovis hunters around 11,000 years ago coincides closely with the demise of several extinct species. • Another explanation is that climate change caused the extinctions. • Certain extinct species were never found at kill sites. • Other nonmammalian species went extinct at the end of the Pleistocene, such as 45% of bird species in North America. • Evidence of increasing aridity at the end of the Pleistocene argues against the role of human hunters as the sole factor in the extinctions.

Portable Art

Portable Art • The decoration of artifacts and other objects occurred throughout the Upper Paleolithic, beginning about 35,000 years ago. • Prior to the appearance of modern humans in Europe, there is little evidence of the impractical modification of equipment. • Beginning 35,000 years ago, bone became a common material for human use, modification, and decoration. • Many examples of Upper Paleolithic art were found. • Perhaps the most spectacular portable objects are the "Venus figurines." • Probably 80% of the prehistoric art known today comes from the last stage of the Upper Paleolithic. • Portable art was more common in larger settlements than small ones.

ecofacts

any of the remains of plants, animals, sediments, or other unmodified materials that result from human activity • Fieldwork can yield artifacts, ecofacts, features, sites, and settlements. • Ecofacts are usually brought to the site by its occupants. • They are used to reconstruct the environment of the site and the range of resources that people used. • The study of plant remains can provide information about past environments. • Analysis of animal remains can yield information about what animals were eaten and how meat was obtained.

Holocene

- modern genera of animals • climate warming following the last ice age • continents drying out, polar areas contract • plant communities shifting with the climate - epoch we live in - Cenozoic era

Clovis

an archaeological culture during the paleoindian period in north america

In situ (primary context)

an object found where it was originally located in antiquity, not redeposited

stratigraphy

• Vertical excavations take the form of pits or trenches placed across a site. • The stratigraphy, or layers, reveals how the site was formed and how materials accumulated. • The bottom layer is typically the oldest. • Evaluation of a stratigraphic sequence involves distinguishing between natural and human activities. • Assessment of the layers allows for the interpretation of the history of the deposits.

Beringia

Beringia • The discoverers of North America walked from Asia across the Bering Strait. • Siberia and Alaska are separated by less than 65 miles at their closest point. • During the colder intervals of the Pleistocene, when global sea levels were much lower, the floor of the strait became dry land. • A major question to be resolved is when the first inhabitants of the New World came from Asia. • By 8,000 B.C., human groups had occupied most of the New World from Alaska to the southern tip of South America. • Occupation in eastern Siberia dates to around 14,000 years ago. • Although still debated, Beringia was probably dry land between 60,000 and 13,000 years ago. • The initial emigrants were few in number, because they left little evidence of their presence. • Sites from the early period are quite rare, and the dates are usually debated. • Monte Verde in Chile dates to at least 13,000 years ago and contains remains of extinct elephants and other animals, along with stone tools. • The archaeological remains in North America from the beginning of the Holocene are generally known as Paleoindian. • Paleoindian spearpoints date to between 11,000 and 9,000 years ago. • The best-known points from this period are called Clovis, after the original excavation spot in eastern New Mexico. • Folsom points are found only in the Great Plains.

Faunal analysis

Faunal analysis identifies the kinds of animal remains (bones, shells, antler) found at a site. From this information, archaeologists can tell the environment around the site, what the people ate, and where and sometimes how they obtained their food. From the kinds of animals found, and sometimes from the age or size of the animals, they can decide during what seasons a site was occupied. For example, by looking at the pattern of tooth eruption in young deer, archaeologists can tell during what season a deer was killed. Deer are usually born in April. If a deer has the tooth eruption sequence typical of a 7-8 month old animal, then it was killed sometime around October or November. The sizes of fish bones provide an indication of the size and age of the fish and can suggest what methods might have been used for taking the fish, such as netting, spearing, or using fishhooks.

Kennewick Man

Kennewick Man • Kennewick man was one of the earliest human skeletons in the New World. • The individual was found in 1996 on the Columbia River, near the town of Kennewick, Washington. • Kennewick man was dated to 7,500 B.C. • The specimen led to a lengthy legal battle about whether the specimen should be made available for research or if it should be returned to Native American groups. • His body had been intentionally placed in a grave.

Geologic time frames ◦the Pliocene

Pliocene - • Hadar is one of the most productive areas of research for human origins. • Located in Ethiopia, this geologically active zone has exposed numerous layers from the Pliocene that contain some of the earliest human fossils yet discovered. • Donald Johanson and Maurice Taieb began a search for early hominin fossils in 1972. - beginning about 5.5 mya - geological epoch in which a variety of hominins, or humanlike creatures, appeared - when varieties of human fossil species appear - primary mechanism driving the biological changes in humans was natural selection - the first artifacts, sharpened edges of stone date to the end of the Plioscene

Acheulean handaxe

The Acheulean Handaxe • The handaxe was the signature tool of Homo erectus. • The tool is an all-purpose piece of equipment that was used for cutting, sawing, digging, bashing, and boring large holes, among other things. • The handaxe is a more complex tool than it first appears to be. • The handaxe is symmetrical in outline, reflecting purpose, skill, and foresight in manufacture. • The symmetry and consistency of the relationship between length and width of the handaxes are striking. • Handaxes and associated tools are referred to as Acheulean artifacts, after the original find location at St. Acheul in France. • A hard stone-on-stone method, or hard hammer technique, was used to make more irregular tools. • A soft hammer technique was used to make more regular handaxes. • Acheulean assemblages include both handaxes and a variety of other tools, both heavy-duty pieces and smaller ones.

Radiopotassium (Potassium- Argon) Dating

an absolute dating technique based on the prinicple of decay of the radioactive isotope of potassium, 40K, also called potassium-argon dating Radiopotassium dating, or potassium-argon dating, is very important for determining the age of the earliest human remains. • Dating from Olduvai Gorge, which used this technique, revealed dates that were a million years older than previously believed. • Newly formed volcanic rock or ash deposits can be dated. • Potassium-argon dating has a half-life of 1.3 billion years.

midden

an accumulated pile of trash and waste materials near a dwelling or in other areas of an archaeological site • Others have suggested that the people of the Middle and Late Stone Age were behaviorally similar. • Examination of shell middens suggests that people were living by the same rules for the use of space in both the Middle and Late Stone Age. • Evidence from the remains of plant foods leads to a similar conclusion. shell midden - A mound of shells accumulated from human collection, consumption, and disposal; a dump of shells from oysters, clams, mussels, or other species found along coasts and rivers, usually dating to the Holocene.

Lucy

• One of the most complete early human skeletons ever discovered was found at Hadar in 1974. • Johanson initially spotted a small arm bone while on a survey walk. • After 2 weeks of searching, his team found almost 100 pieces, representing about 40% of a complete skeleton. • "Lucy" was just under 4 feet tall and had a small brain. She lived more than 2.9 m.y.a. • Remains of "the first family" were also found at Hadar. • Over 200 bones from at least five adults and two children were found together. • The individuals apparently died as a group, possibly in a flash flood. • The remains indicate that our ancestor lived in groups. • Evidence indicates that they walked bipedally. • Later fieldwork at Hadar revealed information about australopithecine behavior. • An unearthed skull confirmed the upright posture of Lucy's kind. • Significant sexual dimorphism suggested that australopithecines were polygynous

blade tools

• Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe reinforce the idea that humans had become creative creatures by the Upper Paleolithic. • Stone blades were being manufactured along with tools made from bone, wood, ivory, and antlers. • Other tools were being made as well, such as bows and arrows, needles, harpoons, and nets. • Spearthrowers enabled hunters to throw their darts with greater force and accuracy. • Several categories of carved artifacts were being manufactured. • This period is characterized by a variety of innovations that developed over the last 40,000 years of the Pleistocene. • Anatomically modern humans arrived in Europe. • Tools became more sophisticated with the extensive use of stone blades and the widespread manufacture of a variety of objects from bone, antler, ivory, and wood. • New equipment such as the spearthrower and the bow and arrow emerged. • The Upper Paleolithic also saw the geographic expansion of people into virtually all of the earth's diverse environments.

Ethnographic Analogy

inferring the use or meaning of an ancient site or artifact based on observations and accounts of its use by living people.

Paleolithic Period

The Paleolithic Period • Just as geologists divide up the history of the earth, archaeologists break up the prehistory of human society into smaller, more manageable units. • The scheme focuses on changes to artifacts and material culture. • The Paleolithic is characterized by tools of flaked flint. • The Paleolithic is subdivided into several periods. • The Basal Paleolithic includes Oldowan tools dating from around 2.5 m.y.a. • The Lower Paleolithic includes the Acheulean assemblages, generally associated with Homo erectus, and extends from 1.8 to about 200,000 years ago. • The Middle Paleolithic is associated with the Neanderthals and other forms of early Homo sapiens. • The Upper Paleolithic began about 40,000 years ago. • Several important technological trends occurred during the Paleolithic. • The controlled use of fire, the hunting of large game, the production of definite living structures, the intentional burial of the dead, and the first art appeared during this period. • Increasing specialization of tools also occurred.

Four-field approach

The four field and integrative approach to the study of the human condition central to the Department of Anthropology. Classes include: cultural linguistic archaeology biological

bioturbation

activities of plants and animals in the earth, causing disturbance of archaeological matters

Human arrival in the Americas

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cultigens

a cultivated plant

Paleolithic Periods - Basal

• The Basal Paleolithic includes Oldowan tools dating from around 2.5 m.y.a.

BC/AD vs. Before Present

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Calibration of Carbon-14 curve

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memes

Self-replicating ideas passed from person to person analogous to genes. transmitted cultural knowledge. pass from generation to generation

Venus figurines

• Perhaps the most spectacular portable objects are the "Venus figurines." upper paleolithic art of women with exaggerated characteristics

Absolute vs. Relative Dating Techniques

Absolute dating - a method of assigning archaeological dates in calendar years so that an age in actual number of years is known or can be estimated Relative dating - a technique used to ESTIMATE the antiquity of archaeological materials, generally based on association with materials of known age or simply to say that one item is younger or older than the other

Vedbaek

-scattered bands of hunters come together at this site seasonally -Island in Denmark Temperature began to rise --evidence of settlements -marine life and forest life -cemetery with 22 burials

Isotopic Analysis of diet

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Physical Analysis of Human Burials

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preservation

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Sannai Maruyama

50,000 BP - 12,000 BPLarge, Jomon-era village in Japan with a watch tower and residential buildings Located in Aomori providence in Northern Japan; lasted from 5900-4300 BC; pit dwelling people; stone circles associated with burials; found several pieces of lacquerware; complex processes of making lacquerware suggested they were craft specialists

East African Rift

A geologic depression of southwest Asia and eastern Africa extending from the Jordan River valley to Mozambique. The region is marked by a series of faults caused by volcanic action.

pit house

A prehistoric semisubterranean dwelling in which the lower parts of the walls were the earthen sides of a shallow pit; the top part of the walls often consisted of a framework of poles intertwined with small twigs, covered with mud.cultural resource management - The survey and/or excavation of archaeological and historical remains threatened by construction and development.

seriation

A relative dating technique in which artifacts or features are organized into a sequence according to changes over time in their attributes or frequency of appearance. The technique shows how these items have changed over time and it is a way to establish chronology. Archaeological material, such as assemblages of pottery or the grave goods deposited with burials, are arranged into chronological order. The types that comprise the assemblages to be ordered in this way must be from the same archaeological tradition, and from a single region or locality. Once the variations in a particular object have been classified by typology, it can often be shown that they fall into a developmental series, sometimes in a single line, sometimes in branching lines more as in a family tree. The order produced is theoretically chronological, but will need archaeological assessment. Outside evidence, such as dating of two or more stages in the development, may be needed to determine which is the first and which the last member of the series. There are several types of seriation: frequency seriation, contextual seriation, evolutionary seriation, and similarity / stylistic seriation -- based on different changes. A seriation technique, called sequence dating, based on shared typological features, enabled Sir Flinders Petrie to establish the temporal order of a large number of Egyptian graves.

archaeology

Archaeology is the study of the human past, combining the themes of time and change. Change • Change can occur through both biological and cultural processes. • Most of the evolution of life on earth is characterized by biological evolution. • Culture is a means of human adaptation based upon experience, learning, and the use of tools. • Our first several million years of existence were dominated by biological change. • The transmission of cultural traits occurs more rapidly than biological ones. • The last one hundred thousand years or so are marked primarily by cultural changes. • This is the story of archaeology - the search for evidence of our cultural development through time. • The prehistoric record of our ancestors is characterized by both biological evolution and cultural developments. Interpretation of Archaeological Information • The science of archaeology lies in bridging the gap between the information recovered through excavation and the questions being sought. • Information recovered from the ground does not directly say very much about the past. • Analysis may provide some basic information. • However, the questions sought are often much larger. • The questions that archaeologists seek to ask are highly varied. • Some may be very specific. • Some may be much more general. • Some questions and ideas come from the knowledge of living peoples, derived through ethnographies. • Explaining human behavior in the past and its changes through time is a major goal of archaeology. • Archaeological theories and ideas are attempts to explain what took place in the past. • What makes archaeology a science is its rigorous testing or evaluation of answers to questions being asked. • Archaeologists ask questions about past societies that involve concepts of technology, economy, organization, and ideology. • Technology is the manner in which people convert natural resources into products they need or want. • Economy is a broad topic that involves how people obtain foods, materials, and goods to sustain their lives. • Organization refers to the roles and relationships in society on a variety of levels. • Ideology refers to the means by which people structure their ideas about the universe, their place in that universe, and their relationships with one another.

Atapuerca

Atapuerca • Located in northern Spain, Atapuerca contains artifacts from the Lower, Middle, and Upper Paleolithic. • The area is comprised of limestone hills. • Major excavations began to expose rich deposits in the 1990s. • The two most interesting layers for the Paleolithic are known as Sima de los Huesos and Gran Dolina. • Sima de los Huesos is a crevice deep in a cave. • The "pit" lies 175 feet below ground and 1,500 feet from the nearest entrance to the cave. • Excavations have produced the largest set of human remains ever recovered from the Paleolithic. • Parts of at least 32 individuals have been found. • They have been designated as Homo heidelbergensis. • The individuals were intentionally put into the pit. • Some of the deposits at Gran Dolina date to 900,000 years ago. • Bones from at least four Homo erectus individuals have been found. • Indications of cannibalism were found among the Homo erectus remains. • Several hundred stone tools have been found.

Upper Paleolithic cultural periods ◦Aurignacean, Gravettian, Solutrean, Magdalenian

Aurignacean - - bone became a common material for human use, modification and decoration - "Venus figurines" - small figures of women with exaggerated characteristics - carved bone and antler figurines of both humans and animals began to appear in the archaeological record Gravettian - Duration: 28-21 ky ago. Stone tools: "Marked especially by numerous small, narrow, parallel-edged, often pointed, steeply backed blades. In western Europe later Gravettian people made characteristic tanged or stemmed points, while their central and eastern European contemporaries produced shouldered (or highly asymmetric stemmed) forms" (Klein 1999: 526-7). Bone tools included "'awls,' 'punches,' and other presumably domestic implements" (527). Social: Shell exchange up to 1,000 km; flint exchange (50-100 km common); possible women shaman (e.g. Dolní Věstonice). Art: The early Gravettian seems to continue on from the end of the Aurignacian, though it begins to display "good animal profiles, with a sinuous neck/back, often an elongated head, an oval eye, and twisted perspective, but with the extremities rarely depicted" (Bahn and Vertut 1997: 69). Whereas Aurignacian artisans produced very detailed animal paintings in Chauvet, the Gravettians seem to be much less skilled in their contributions there, or at least unconcerned with the same level of detail. Yanik Le Guillou (2005) observes that several crude engravings cannot easily "be integrated into the cave's homogenous Aurignacian universe" (105), and are probably Gravettian in origin. Venus figurines are often attributed to the Gravettian, but considering the somewhat haphazard excavation techniques employed when many of these figures were recovered, it's difficult to say that with absolute certainty. Again, parietal art was thought to have been confined to daylight zones. Notable sites: Cosquer; Cougnac; Cussac; Chauvet Pont-d'Arc; Les Fieux, Gargas; Isturitz and Oxocelhaya; Pech-Merle; Valhonneur. Solutrean - Symbols and Notation • Some of the decorated objects from the Upper Paleolithic share motifs that often occur together, suggesting that specific concepts were being depicted. • A bone knife from a French site has various markings that convey images of spring and fall. • Some artifacts have markings which suggest some sort of tally was being kept. • Another bone object from France has markings that appear to record the phases of the moon. Magdalenian - last stage of the upper paleolithic - most prehistoric art comes from this stage - objects with a short life were decorated in a cursory fashion, whereas more important pieces with a longer life expectancy were heavily ornamented -spearthrowers were decorated elaboratley with carved animals - engraved bone was common, body adornments, necklaces, bracelets

Dolni Vestonice

Dolni Vestonice • Near the town of Dolni Vestonice, in the south-central part of the Czech Republic, enormous bones of extinct woolly mammoths were uncovered. • Many artifacts date to about 25,000 years ago. • Mammoths were the primary game in the eastern parts of Europe. • At one site, the remains of 800-900 mammoths have been uncovered. • Mammoths were formidable prey for late Pleistocene hunters in Europe, being fifty percent larger than modern African elephants. • Dolni Vestonice contains dwelling structures, mammoth bones, and many intriguing artifacts. • The bones of at least 100 mammoths were piled up in an area of 40 by 140 feet. • Stone tools and butchered bones suggest this was where animals were butchered. • Stones, earth, wooden posts, and mammoth bones were used in the construction of structures at the site. • One structure was a large oval measuring 30 by 50 feet. • Several roofed huts were found in the area with mammoth bones being used for a roof. • Various artifacts were found at Dolni Vestonice. • Fired clay figurines from 15,000 years ago are the earliest in the world. • Ornaments, necklaces, and headbands were made from bone, ivory, and shell. • Carved ivory heads were found. • Burials covered with red ochre were found.

Dryopithecus

Dryopithecine - the genertic term for the Miocene fossil ancestor of both the living apes and modern humans, found in Africa, Asia and Europe Dryopithecus is defined as a fossil anthropoid ape that was found in the middle Miocene to early Pliocene epochs ages. It also describes an Old World hominoids genus. This group of apes are extinct and their fossils are about 20 million years old and have been found in Asia, Europe and Africa. (n.) Extinct genus of generalized hominoids that lived in Europe and Africa during the Miocene Epoch and whose members are characterized by small molars and incisors

Hadar

Hadar • Until 1970, there was relatively little evidence for the earliest human ancestors. • The human characteristics of upright posture, large brain size, and tool use were thought to have evolved simultaneously. • Hadar is one of the most productive areas of research for human origins. • Located in Ethiopia, this geologically active zone has exposed numerous layers from the Pliocene that contain some of the earliest human fossils yet discovered. • Donald Johanson and Maurice Taieb began a search for early hominin fossils in 1972. • One of the most complete early human skeletons ever discovered was found at Hadar in 1974. • Johanson initially spotted a small arm bone while on a survey walk. • After 2 weeks of searching, his team found almost 100 pieces, representing about 40% of a complete skeleton. • "Lucy" was just under 4 feet tall and had a small brain. She lived more than 2.9 m.y.a. • Remains of "the first family" were also found at Hadar. • Over 200 bones from at least five adults and two children were found together. • The individuals apparently died as a group, possibly in a flash flood. • The remains indicate that our ancestor lived in groups. • Evidence indicates that they walked bipedally. • Later fieldwork at Hadar revealed information about australopithecine behavior. • An unearthed skull confirmed the upright posture of Lucy's kind. • Significant sexual dimorphism suggested that australopithecines were polygynous.

Mesolithic

Mesolithic - The period of time of hunter-gatherers in Europe, North Africa, and parts of Asia between the end of the Pleistocene and the introduction of farming; the Middle Stone Age.

Monte Verde

Monte Verde • Monte Verde is a 13,000-year-old residential site in the cool, forested region of northern Chile. • Plant remains and numerous wooden objects have been recovered, along with stone flakes and broken animal bones. • The timber and earthen foundations of 12 living structures were recovered. • Two large hearths and a number of shallow clay basins provided fireplaces for the inhabitants of the huts. • Many artifacts were found inside the structures. • Digging sticks, tool handles, spears, and a mortar or basin were present. • Several kinds of stone tools were found. • Spherical stones with an encircling groove were probably bola stones. • The arrangement of the structures over an area of roughly 220 by 400 feet suggests a well-organized community. • The site may have been occupied for a year by 20-30 people. • Occupants relied upon plants and large animals, with most of the bones coming from mastodons, llama, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. • The plant remains reveal extensive gathering of the local vegetation. • Forty-two species of edible plants were found. • Plants may have been used for medicinal purposes as well.

Olduvai Gorge

Olduvai • Olduvai Gorge, located in northern Tanzania, is one of the most famous prehistoric sites in the world. • Two million years ago, the area was a large bowl-shaped basin which trapped rainfall, forming lakes and wetlands. • Along the shores of the lakes lived many creatures whose remains fossilized when they died. • Members of the Leakey family have been working at Olduvai Gorge since 1931. • Louis Leakey found stone tools at the site. • Finally, in 1959, Mary Leakey discovered the first hominin skull, Paranthropus boisei, dating to 2 m.y.a. • At the time, this find was much older than specimens found in other parts of the world. • Olduvai Gorge received acclaim and funding, which supported more extensive investigations. • Olduvai Gorge provided the first clear documentation that crude stone tools and the bones of very early hominins occurred at the same point in geological time. • Over 70 layers with stones and/or bones have been located at the site. • The stone artifacts had strong, sharp edges and were made from raw materials from 6 miles away. • The tools are known as Oldowan tools. • Other evidence at Olduvai sheds light on other aspects of hominin behavior. • Two sites at Olduvai were places for butchering animals. • Most of the living floors were occupied during the wet season.

Out of Africa vs. Multiregional theory

Out of Africa - The theory is that modern man (homo sapiens) evolved in Africa and then migrated to all other places, replacing the inhabitants of that region. The other theory is that man started in Africa, migrated to other regions THEN evolved to homo sapiens. Multiregional theory - Under the Multiregional evolution hypothesis, the first humans to leave Africa 1.8 million years ago never divided into different species. Instead, these populations always exchanged genes with each other through recurrent gene flow.

Carbon-14 (Radiocarbon) dating

Radiocarbon Dating • Willard Libby announced the first age determinations from radioactive carbon in 1949. • The key to the procedure, known as radiocarbon dating, lies in the half-life of radioactive elements. • Carbon is the most useful element of isotopic dating. • Carbon is present in all living things and has several stable isotopes. • Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 years, which means that materials older than about 40,000 years do not contain sufficient radiocarbon to be dated using this method. • Carbon-14 is produced in the atmosphere and is incorporated into plants. • Animals eat those plants or other animals. • Carbon intake ceases when the animal or plant dies. • Thus, the amount of radiocarbon in prehistoric material is a direct function of the length of time the organism has been dead. • A variety of organic materials can be assayed by radiocarbon dating. • The actual measurement involves the burning of the material to create a pure gas of carbon dioxide. • The radioactive carbon isotopes are then counted. • New technology has resulted in a reduction in the amount of material that is measured. • There are certain problems with radiocarbon dating, some involving contamination of the sample. • After some extensive study, it was found that the amount of radioactive carbon in the atmosphere changes over time. • Radiocarbon dates for the last 10,000 years have been calibrated to account for the changes.

Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Sahelanthropus tchadensis is one of the oldest known species in the human family tree. This species lived sometime between 7 and 6 million years ago in West-Central Africa (Chad). Walking upright may have helped this species survive in diverse habitats, including forests and grasslands. Although we have only cranial material fromSahelanthropus, studies so far show this species had a combination of apelike and humanlike features. Apelike features included a small brain (even slightly smaller than a chimpanzee's), sloping face, very prominent brow ridges, and elongated skull. Humanlike features included small canine teeth, a short middle part of the face, and a spinal cord opening underneath the skull instead of towards the back as seen in non-bipedal apes. How do we know Sahelanthropus walked upright? Some of the oldest evidence of a humanlike species moving about in an upright position comes from Sahelanthropus. The large opening (foramen magnum) where the spinal cord exits out of the cranium from the brain is located further forward (on the underside of the cranium) than in apes or any other primate except humans. This feature indicates that the head of Sahelanthropus was held on an upright body, probably associated with walking on two legs.

Carrier Mills

Status of individuals shown in burials in illinois Several large, Middle Archaic settlements located in Illinois which are defined by their evidence for fishing, plant collection, hunting, repair and a cemetary).

The Cave of Lascaux

The Cave of Lascaux • The cave of Lascaux in southwestern France was discovered by chance in 1940. • The cave had been sealed for perhaps 15,000 years. • The cave contains the most important collection of Upper Paleolithic art in the world. • Cave painting is a category of Upper Paleolithic art called mural art. • Mural art is primarily found deep inside caves in France and Spain. • The cave interiors were not living areas and were only briefly visited by the artists along with other members of society. • The paintings are almost exclusively of animals. • The cave paintings themselves are rendered in outline and often colored in monochrome or polychrome. • Light and some form of scaffolding would have been needed to paint in the caves. • The cave art is typically carefully planned and skillfully executed. • The paintings at Lascaux date to around 17,000 years ago. • More than 600 paintings and 1,500 engravings are on the walls of the cave. • The cave is a narrow chamber over 100 yards long. • There are several schools of thought on the meaning of the cave paintings from the Upper Paleolithic. • An emphasis on pregnant animals has been interpreted to represent a concern with fertility. • Some scholars have argued that there was a concern over the hunting of animals for meat. • Some prehistorians have suggested that the cave paintings were "art for art's sake." • Others have suggested that the caves were primitive temples. • More than 200 painted caves have been discovered in France. • In the last decades, several major new art sites have been revealed. • The cave of Chauvet, discovered in 1995, is at least five times larger than Lascaux and dates to 36,000 years ago. • Another important cave, Cosquer, was found underwater by divers off the coast of France, near Marseilles.

Klasies River Mouth Caves

The Klasies River Mouth Caves • The caves at the mouth of the Klasies River were a place of human residence between 120,000 and 60,000 years ago. • The river empties into the Indian Ocean in South Africa. • Occupation remains were so heavy that, in one of the caves, the accumulated debris had completely buried the opening of another, lower cave. • The site offered shelter, a moderate climate, availability of marine foods, nearby fresh water, access to mammals living along the river, and stones for toolmaking. • Excavations have revealed a number of pieces of evidence of major importance for understanding Old World prehistory. • Fully modern humans appeared at the site around 100,000 years ago. • The remains suggest that cannibalism occurred. • A wide range of animal species was present. • The site also records the early use of marine foods. • Comparison of the remains of two animal species suggests that the inhabitants of Klasies River Mouth Caves were not particularly good hunters. • Eland, which can be driven into traps or falls by hunters, are represented by a catastrophic pattern of death. • Cape buffalo were more dangerous and the high proportion of young was likely the result of selective hunting. • There was a higher number of elands at the site, even though the species is less common than buffalo in the environment. • Comparing the information with a younger site at Nelson Bay Cave, which had few eland remains, suggests that later groups were better hunters. • Others have suggested that the people of the Middle and Late Stone Age were behaviorally similar. • Examination of shell middens suggests that people were living by the same rules for the use of space in both the Middle and Late Stone Age. • Evidence from the remains of plant foods leads to a similar conclusion.

Mousterian tools

The Mousterian industry is the name archaeologists have given to an ancient Middle Stone Age method of making stone tools. The Mousterian is associated with our hominid relatives the Neanderthals in Europe and both Early Modern Human and Neanderthals in Africa. Part of the Mousterian assemblage is made up of Levallois tools such as points and cores.

Zhoukoudian

Zhoukoudian • Excavation at Zhoukoudian began after the discovery of an unusual fossil tooth at an apothecary in Beijing. • For millennia, many Chinese believed that fossil bones had medicinal and curative powers. • The tooth discovered at the apothecary came from a place called Dragon Bone Hill, a large limestone ridge near the town of Zhoukoudian. • Davidson Black was convinced that they could discover an early human fossil where the tooth had been found. • By the end of 1927, two hominid teeth and a skull were found. • Work at Zhoukoudian was intense. • For 10 years, a large workforce removed over a half a million tons of material at the site. • The limestone deposits, measuring 450 feet by 125 feet high, were almost completely removed. • A great deal of evidence came from the excavations at Dragon Bone Hill. • Evidence of fire usage and over 20,000 stone tools were found. • Bones of large and small species were found at the site. • Charred hackberry fruit seeds suggest that plant foods may have formed part of the diet. • The most important finds at Zhoukoudian were the remains of early hominids, specifically Homo erectus. • A total of 6 skullcaps, 12 skull fragments, over 100 teeth, 7 thigh bones, and other bones were found. • Unfortunately, the fossils disappeared when an attempt was made to move them to the United States in 1937.

hyoid bone

a delicate bone in the neck that anchors the tongue muscles in the throat • Studies of the physical remains of early humans provide substantial information about language use by early hominids. • The discovery of a Neanderthal hyoid bone, which holds the muscles of the tongue to the throat, suggests that they could use language like us.

Half-life curve

a measure of the rate of decay in radioactive materials; half the radioactive material will disappear within the period of one half-life • Potassium-argon dating has a half-life of 1.3 billion years.

Levallois (prepared-core) Technique

a technique for manufacturing large, thin flakes or points from a carefully prepared core; first used during the lower paleolithic and remaing common during the middle paleolithic. the method wasted flint and was generally not used in areas of scarce raw materials.

Hominins

a term that refers to the human, chimp, and gorilla members of the primates, both fossil and modern forms • Evidence from the earliest hominins suggests that bipedalism was the first major adaptation. • The brain size of early hominins was small. • No tools from early hominin sites have been found.

Direct Historical Approach

learning about the past by studying sites and cultures of a known time and working backwards, applying it to older sites; working from the present into the past.

Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)

genetic material in the mitochondria of human cells that mutates at a relatively constant rate. because mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother, it provides an unaltered link to past generations • Analysis of mitochondrial DNA allows a map to be drawn of the spread of humans about 200,000 years ago. • Homo sapiens first appeared in Africa between 170,000 and 130,000 years ago. • Another kind of study examines ancient DNA, genetic material in the nucleus of cells extracted from the remains of ancient plants and animals. • The breakdown of ancient DNA molecules makes studies difficult, but not impossible.

Hunter-Gatherers

hunter-gatherer - A hunter of large wild animals and gatherer of wild plants, seafood, and small animals, as opposed to farmers and food producers.

bipedalism

being able to walk on two feet normally

Homo Sapiens

• At some point after 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens began to appear. • Homo erectus was eventually replaced by Homo sapiens about 100,000 years ago. • The Middle Paleolithic is associated with the Neanderthals and other forms of early Homo sapiens. • By the end of the Pleistocene, Homo sapiens had created art, invented many new tools, made tailored clothing, started counting, and expanded to almost all parts of the world. • Homo sapiens first appeared in Africa between 170,000 and 130,000 years ago. • Another kind of study examines ancient DNA, genetic material in the nucleus of cells extracted from the remains of ancient plants and animals. • The breakdown of ancient DNA molecules makes studies difficult, but not impossible • The earliest skeletal remains of Homo sapiens found in western Europe date to 42,000 years ago. • Australia was colonized by Homo sapiens sapiens around 40,000 years ago. • Rafts or boats of some kind were likely used. • The first emigrants somehow crossed a body of water at least 65 miles wide. • At the time of colonization, sea levels were 400 feet lower than today.

Australopithecus afarensis

• Australopithecus afarensis evolved from early human ancestors. • From Australopithecus afarensis evolved more robust australopithecines with large teeth and jaws for processing plant foods. A. anamensis evolved into Australopithecus afarensis, well known from Hadar, Laetoli, and elsewhere in East Africa -exhibits more humanlike teeth and unquestionably walked upright, as seen in the footprints at LAetoli and in the fossil bones themselves • Early human ancestors diversified, with some becoming more human-like. • Australopithecus afarensis evolved from early human ancestors. • From Australopithecus afarensis evolved more robust australopithecines with large teeth and jaws for processing plant foods. • Homo habilis, the first member of our own genus, emerged about 2.5 m.y.a. • Homo habilis eventually led to the emergence of modern humans. • Homo erectus evolved from Homo habilis about 1.9 m.y.a. • Homo erectus was the first human form to leave Africa. • Homo heidelbergensis evolved from Homo erectus around 600,000 years ago. • At some point after 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens began to appear. Australopithecus afarensis is one of the longest-lived and best-known early human species—paleoanthropologists have uncovered remains from more than 300 individuals! Found between 3.85 and 2.95 million years ago in Eastern Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania), this species survived for more than 900,000 years, which is over four times as long as our own species has been around. It is best known from the sites of Hadar, Ethiopia ('Lucy', AL 288-1 and the 'First Family', AL 333); Dikika, Ethiopia (Dikika 'child' skeleton); and Laetoli (fossils of this species plus the oldest documented bipedal footprint trails). Similar to chimpanzees, Au. afarensis children grew rapidly after birth and reached adulthood earlier than modern humans. This meant A. afarensis had a shorter period of growing up than modern humans have today, leaving them less time for parental guidance and socialization during childhood. Au. afarensis had both ape and human characteristics: members of this species had apelike face proportions (a flat nose, a strongly projecting lower jaw) and braincase (with a small brain, usually less than 500 cubic centimeters -- about 1/3 the size of a modern human brain), and long, strong arms with curved fingers adapted for climbing trees. They also had small canine teeth like all other early humans, and a body that stood on two legs and regularly walked upright. Their adaptations for living both in the trees and on the ground helped them survive for almost a million years as climate and environments changed.

Mural Art

• Cave painting is a category of Upper Paleolithic art called mural art. • Mural art is primarily found deep inside caves in France and Spain. • The cave interiors were not living areas and were only briefly visited by the artists along with other members of society. • The paintings are almost exclusively of animals. • The cave paintings themselves are rendered in outline and often colored in monochrome or polychrome. • Light and some form of scaffolding would have been needed to paint in the caves. • The cave art is typically carefully planned and skillfully executed

endocasts

• Examination of endocasts can provide insight into the language abilities of human ancestors. • An endocast is a copy or cast of the inside of a fossil skull. • Endocasts provide evidence of brain organization. • The division in the organization of the two sides of the brain is called lateralization, which is essential for language. • Studies have shown that the pattern of lateralization in fossil endocasts goes back well into the Pleistocene and probably to australopithecines

Homo habilis

• Homo habilis, the first member of our own genus, emerged about 2.5 m.y.a. • Homo habilis eventually led to the emergence of modern humans. • Homo erectus evolved from Homo habilis about 1.9 m.y.a. • Homo erectus was the first human form to leave Africa. • Homo heidelbergensis evolved from Homo erectus around 600,000 years ago. • At some point after 200,000 years ago, Homo sapiens began to appear. The Homo habilis man is credited with inventing stone tools to help live more comfortably, and to better protect themselves against the many carnivore (meat eating) animals of the time. Homo habilis were taller than their ancestors, the human-like primates (Lucy's people), and had larger brains. They followed food sources, and set up camp as needed. They sheltered under cliffs, whenever possible. You might think they would look for caves to spend the night, but caves quite often had dangerous occupants, just as they do today. Although this group made stone tools and weapons, these weapons were still pretty basic. Their main diet was probably fruits, roots, nuts and vegetables that they found growing wild.

Homo heidelbergensis

• Homo heidelbergensis evolved from Homo erectus around 600,000 years ago. • Sima de los Huesos is a crevice deep in a cave. • The "pit" lies 175 feet below ground and 1,500 feet from the nearest entrance to the cave. • Excavations have produced the largest set of human remains ever recovered from the Paleolithic. • Parts of at least 32 individuals have been found. • They have been designated as Homo heidelbergensis. • The individuals were intentionally put into the pit.

Oldowan tools

• Olduvai Gorge provided the first clear documentation that crude stone tools and the bones of very early hominins occurred at the same point in geological time. • Over 70 layers with stones and/or bones have been located at the site. • The stone artifacts had strong, sharp edges and were made from raw materials from 6 miles away. • The tools are known as Oldowan tools. • Early stone tools were created by striking one stone against another in a process called percussion flaking. • The flakes were used for cutting and for making other tools and the cores were used as well. • The right kinds of raw materials needed to be used to create the best tools. • The pebble tools found are called Oldowan tools. • Studies have shown that between 1.9 and 1.4 m.y.a. the tools were made by right-handed individuals, indicating changes in brain organization. • Detailed studies have revealed how some of the Oldowan tools were used. • Tools were used for cutting meat, slicing soft plant material, and scraping and sawing wood. • Evidence of woodworking suggests that wooden tools were also being made • The Basal Paleolithic includes Oldowan tools dating from around 2.5 m.y.a.

Gran Dolina

• The two most interesting layers for the Paleolithic are known as Sima de los Huesos and Gran Dolina. • Some of the deposits at Gran Dolina date to 900,000 years ago. • Bones from at least four Homo erectus individuals have been found. • Indications of cannibalism were found among the Homo erectus remains. • Several hundred stone tools have been found.

Homo erectus

• Reduced sexual dimorphism in Homo erectus suggests a more monogamous lifestyle compared to apes. • Homo erectus evolved from Homo habilis about 1.9 m.y.a. • Homo erectus was the first human form to leave Africa. • Homo heidelbergensis evolved from Homo erectus around 600,000 years ago • Change in stone tools appeared with the emergence of the handaxe. • The earliest Homo erectus fossil comes from Kenya and dates to 1.8 m.y.a. • Homo erectus individuals were robust, with large bones and teeth, larger bodies, and significantly larger brains than their Homo habilis ancestors. • Homo erectus had brains that were about 1,000 cc. • They had low, sloping foreheads, prominent brow ridges, and protruding faces. • Homo erectus individuals were almost fully modern in terms of movement and locomotion. • Several Homo erectus have been dated to just after 2.0 m.y.a. • These early dates suggest that Homo erectus may have spread very quickly across Asia following their initial appearance in Africa. • The earliest dates for humans in Europe are younger than 1 m.y.a. • Homo erectus was eventually replaced by Homo sapiens about 100,000 years ago. • Indications of cannibalism were found among the Homo erectus remains. • The reliance on meat perhaps led to changes in the family structure of Homo erectus. • A sexual division of labor may have developed, with males hunting and females gathering while caring for young. • Almost certainly, some form of proto-family emerged among Homo erectus populations, if not earlier. • As Homo erectus and australopithecines were accepted into the family tree, Neanderthals have come to be recognized as being closer to modern humans.

Sima de los Huesos

• Sima de los Huesos is a crevice deep in a cave. • The "pit" lies 175 feet below ground and 1,500 feet from the nearest entrance to the cave. • Excavations have produced the largest set of human remains ever recovered from the Paleolithic. • Parts of at least 32 individuals have been found. • They have been designated as Homo heidelbergensis. • The individuals were intentionally put into the pit.

test pits

• Test pits are often made to provide a preliminary examination of a site. • Sometimes test pits are placed in a systematic fashion and sometimes they are random. • The size and number of pits depends upon the information being sought. • Once buried sites have been located, other kinds of fieldwork can be undertaken to learn more about them. • Boring into the ground can reveal the sequence of layers and sediment samples at the site. • Small test pits can be made to provide similar information. • Soil analysis can yield important information • Chemical analysis can provide information about environmental factors at the site. • Phosphate analysis may reveal traces of human activities. • Objects in the soil can also provide important information.

Paleolithic Periods - Lower paleolithic

• The Lower Paleolithic includes the Acheulean assemblages, generally associated with Homo erectus, and extends from 1.8 to about 200,000 years ago. The End of the Lower Paleolithic • Around 2 million years ago, our ancestors began to exert influence on their environment, to change the world around them. • The move out of the tropics demanded solutions to new problems. • Fire must have been a major factor in increasing the success of the move into colder habitats. • Hunting became essential for the human way of life in colder climates. • The reliance on meat perhaps led to changes in the family structure of Homo erectus. • A sexual division of labor may have developed, with males hunting and females gathering while caring for young. • Almost certainly, some form of proto-family emerged among Homo erectuspopulations, if not earlier.

Middle paleolithic

• The Middle Paleolithic is associated with the Neanderthals and other forms of early Homo sapiens.

Neanderthals

• The Middle Paleolithic is associated with the Neanderthals and other forms of early Homo sapiens. • Beginning around 50,000 years ago, fully modern humans replaced Neanderthals in western Asia and then in Europe. The Valley of the Neanderthals • The first Neanderthal was found in 1856 in a limestone cave in the Valley of the Neander River, near Düsseldorf, Germany. • Prior to this discovery, there had been no acceptance of human forms earlier than Homo sapiens. • Gradually, more examples of these individuals came to light. • In 1913, Marcellin Boule published a study of a Neanderthal, designating them as Homo neanderthalensis, suggesting that they were somewhere between ape and human. • As Homo erectus and australopithecines were accepted into the family tree, Neanderthals have come to be recognized as being closer to modern humans. • Neanderthals are recognized by several distinctive features. • They were short and stocky with powerful physiques. • The robust appearance may be related to strength and endurance requirements or adaptations to the cold environments where they lived. • The have a relatively low cranium, prominent brow ridges, large faces, and brains larger than modern humans. • The front teeth were heavily worn, suggesting that they were used for grasping or heavy chewing. • Several cultural innovations characterize Neanderthal populations. • They are generally associated with Mousterian artifacts. • Neanderthals were large game hunters. • Intentional burial of the dead occurred. • Cannibalism appears to have occurred among Neanderthals. The Fate of the Neanderthals • Between 45,000 and 25,000 years ago, Neanderthals became extinct and were replaced by fully modern humans. • There is a debate as to whether Neanderthals were completely replaced by fully modern humans, or if they inbred and simply disappeared in the mix. • Neanderthals and humans coexisted in the Near East until about 45,000 years ago. • In Europe, modern humans did not appear until after 45,000 years ago. • The replacement of Neanderthals by humans in Europe started about 45,000 and years ago and may have occurred quickly. • The question of the fate of Neanderthals remains unsolved, with several possibilities having been suggested. • One possibility is that Neanderthals were conquered by humans, although evidence from artifacts does not appear to support that view. • Two recent discoveries of human skeletal material suggest some interbreeding of Neanderthals. • There is genetic evidence to the contrary based upon ancient DNA, which shows little genetic relationship between Neanderthals and humans.

Upper Paleolithic

• The Upper Paleolithic began about 40,000 years ago. The Upper Paleolithic • This period is characterized by a variety of innovations that developed over the last 40,000 years of the Pleistocene. • Anatomically modern humans arrived in Europe. • Tools became more sophisticated with the extensive use of stone blades and the widespread manufacture of a variety of objects from bone, antler, ivory, and wood. • New equipment such as the spearthrower and the bow and arrow emerged. • The Upper Paleolithic also saw the geographic expansion of people into virtually all of the earth's diverse environments. • The archaeological materials of this period are best known from Europe. • The Upper Paleolithic replaced the Middle Paleolithic about 40,000 years ago. • The earliest skeletal remains of Homo sapiens found in western Europe date to 42,000 years ago. • Individuals were originally called Cro-Magnon, but they were indistinguishable from fully modern humans. • Upper Paleolithic sites in Europe reinforce the idea that humans had become creative creatures by the Upper Paleolithic. • Stone blades were being manufactured along with tools made from bone, wood, ivory, and antlers. • Other tools were being made as well, such as bows and arrows, needles, harpoons, and nets. • Spearthrowers enabled hunters to throw their darts with greater force and accuracy. • Several categories of carved artifacts were being manufactured.