ARCHITECTURE
What is a buttress? Where can we find one in this unit's slides?
A buttress is a supporting arm or post, usually to brace a wall, arch, or vault (typically seen in Gothic Cathedrals). Example: Chartres Cathedral in France
What is a caryatid? Where can we find them?
A caryatid is a stone carving of a draped female figure, used as a pillar to support the entablature of a Greek or Greek-style building. An example is the porch of the maidens on the Erechtheion.
What is a pediment and a frieze?
A pediment is an architectural element found particularly in classical, neoclassical and baroque architecture, and its derivatives, consisting of a gable, usually of a triangular shape, placed above the horizontal structure of the entablature, typically supported by columns. In architecture the frieze is the wide central section part of an entablature and may be plain in the Ionic or Doric order, or decorated with bas-reliefs.
What is a basic definition of architecture?
Architecture is the art of building - an act of constructing a shelter for human activity or a stage for human action.
How is the Chrysler Building a good example of the Art Deco style?
Art Deco could describe everything from the style of a corporate office tower (such as the Chrysler Building), to the decorative pattern on furniture, murals, and tilework. The style incorporated chevron, sunburst, fountain, and arc motifs, endless varieties of geometric patterns, and, in later instances especially, cubic and machine-like forms. It was generally more rectilinear than the swirling floral and vegetal patterns common in the earlier Art Nouveau (above left), and was quite distinct from the forms and details of classical Beaux-Arts architecture and ornament, which was prominent in the early twentieth century. At the Chrysler Building, the distinctive elements of Art Deco include the horizontal black-and-white stripes between floors, the geometric decoration concentrated at each of the setbacks, the streamlined eagle heads and radiator caps with wings (referencing the hallmark Chrysler car ornaments) jutting out from the corners, and, above all, the great crown with its seven layers of crescent setbacks inset with triangular windows. Brightly lit at night, the crown is still one of the most distinctive elements on the New York City skyline. Although the ground-level experience is often described as lackluster, the building's contribution to the skyline is its true achievement. It made the Chrysler Building a symbol of urban modernity, of New York's business dynamism, and of the vibrant nightlife of the world's newest metropolis.
What was the function of the Ziggurat at Ur? How was it constructed?
As the Ziggurat supported the temple of the patron god of the city of Ur, it is likely that it was the place where the citizens of Ur would bring agricultural surplus and where they would go to receive their regular food allotments. In antiquity, to visit the ziggurat at Ur was to seek both spiritual and physical nourishment. It's a massive rectangular pyramidal structure, oriented to true North, 210 by 150 feet, constructed with three levels of terraces, standing originally between 70 and 100 feet high. Three monumental staircases led up to a gate at the first terrace level. Next, a single staircase rose to a second terrace which supported a platform on which a temple and the final and highest terrace stood. The core of the ziggurat is made of mud brick covered with baked bricks laid with bitumen, a naturally occurring tar. Each of the baked bricks measured about 11.5 x 11.5 x 2.75 inches and weighed as much as 33 pounds. The lower portion of the ziggurat, which supported the first terrace, would have used some 720,000 baked bricks. The resources needed to build the Ziggurat at Ur are staggering.
Know these basic parts of a temple: cella or naos, pronaos, anta, colonnade or peristyle
Cella/naos: the central room of the temple. It had no windows, and it was where the cult statue would have been located. Pronaos: the front porch of the temple, which included the antae outside the pronaos entrance. Anta: the posts or pillars on either side of a doorway or entrance of a Greek temple - the slightly projecting piers which terminate the walls of the naos. Colonnade/peristyle: a series of columns upon which sat an entablature (the upper portion of the temple, which included the architrave, frieze, and cornice). If a colonnade lines the front of a temple, screening the entrance, it is known as a portico. If the colonnade enclosed a court, it was called a peristyle. A colonnade could be one or more columns deep.
Know the differences between the three orders of columns: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian
DORIC: The oldest, simplest, and most massive of the three Greek orders is the Doric, which was applied to temples beginning in the 7th century B.C. As shown in Figure 2, columns are placed close together and are often without bases. Their shafts are sculpted with concave curves called flutes. The capitals are plain with a rounded section at the bottom, known as the echinus, and a square at the top, called the abacus. The entablature has a distinctive frieze decorated with vertical channels, or triglyphs. In between the triglyphs are spaces, called metopes, which were commonly sculpted with figures and ornamentation. The frieze is separated from the architrave by a narrow band called the regula. Together, these elements formed a rectangular structure surrounded by a double row of columns that conveyed a bold unity. The Doric order reached its pinnacle of perfection in the Parthenon. ----------------------- IONIC: The next order to be developed by the Greeks was the Ionic (see Figure 3). It is called Ionic because it developed in the Ionian islands in the 6th century B.C. Roman historian Vitruvius compared this delicate order to a female form, in contrast to the stockier "male" Doric order. The Ionic was used for smaller buildings and interiors. It's easy to recognize because of the two scrolls, called volutes, on its capital. The volutes may have been based on nautilus shells or animal horns. Between the volutes is a curved section that is often carved with oval decorations known as egg and dart. Above the capital, the entablature is narrower than the Doric, with a frieze containing a continuous band of sculpture. One of the earliest and most striking examples of the Ionic order is the tiny Temple to Athena Nike at the entrance to the Athens Acropolis. It was designed and built by Callicrates from about 448-421 B.C. ----------------------- CORINTHIAN: The third order is the Corinthian, which wasn't used much by the Greeks. It is named after the city of Corinth, where sculptor Callimachus supposedly invented it by at the end of the 5th century B.C. after he spotted a goblet surrounded by leaves. As shown in Figure 4, the Corinthian is similar to the Ionic order in its base, column, and entablature, but its capital is far more ornate, carved with two tiers of curly acanthus leaves. The oldest known Corinthian column stands inside the 5th-century temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae.
What is unique about the De Stijl style seen in the Schroder House?
De Stijl: Proponents of De Stijl advocated pure abstraction and universality by a reduction to the essentials of form and color; they simplified visual compositions to vertical and horizontal, using only black, white and primary colors. ----------------------- Schroder House: Inside there is no static accumulation of rooms, but a dynamic, changeable open zone. The facades are a collage of planes and lines whose components are purposely detached from, and seem to glide past, one another. This enabled the provision of several balconies. Like Rietveld's Red and Blue Chair, each component has its own form, position and colour. Colours were chosen as to strengthen the plasticity of the facades; surfaces in white and shades of grey, black window and doorframes, and a number of linear elements in primary colours. There is little distinction between interior and exterior space. The rectilinear lines and planes flow from outside to inside, with the same colour palette and surfaces. Even the windows are hinged so that they can only open 90 degrees to the wall, preserving strict design standards about intersecting planes, and further blurring the delineation of inside and out.
We saw Bernini as a sculptor in the first section (David). In this unit, he is an architect who redesigns the piazza in front of St. Peter's in Rome after the Protestant Reformation. How does his design symbolize the feelings of the Church during this period?
Designed and built by Bernini between 1656 and 1667, during the pontificate of Alexander VII (1655-1667), the square is made up of two different areas. The first has a trapezoid shape, marked off by two straight closed and convergent arms on each side of the church square. The second area is elliptical and is surrounded by the two hemicycles of a four-row colonnade, because, as Bernini said, "considering that Saint Peter's is almost the matrix of all the churches, its portico had to give an open-armed, maternal welcome to all Catholics, confirming their faith; to heretics, reconciling them with the Church; and to the infidels, enlightening them about the true faith." Bernini had in fact designed a three-armed portico, but after Alexander VII's death, construction of the portico was halted, and the third arm was never built. It would have enclosed the whole building and separated the ellipse from the "Borgo" quarter, thus creating a "surprise effect" for the pilgrim who suddenly found himself in the square. This effect was somewhat achieved by the buildings surrounding the square, the so-called "Spina di Borgo", which naturally "closed in" the square. In 1950, Via della Conciliazione, a new, wide street leading to the Vatican Basilica, was opened. It amplifies the majestic view of Saint Peter's dome, but it also profoundly modified Bernini's original plan. The measurements of the square are impressive: it is 320 m deep, its diameter is 240 m and it is surrounded by 284 columns, set out in rows of four, and 88 pilasters. Around the year 1670, Bernini's pupils built 140 statues of saints, 3.20 m high along the balustrade above the columns. On either side of the obelisk, which was moved to the middle of the square by Domenico Fontana in 1585, are two great fountains built by Bernini (1675) and Maderno (1614). Below, at the foot of the staircase in front of the basilica, the statues of Saint Peter and Saint Paul seem to welcome visitors. Of great interest is the Royal Staircase, which links the square to the Vatican Palaces. It was built between 1662 and 1666, and although it actually measures 60 metres, perspective devices, such as the progressive narrowing of the width and a reduced distance between the columns towards the top, make it look much longer.
What elements of a mosque can be seen at Hagia Sophia? What is the history of this structure?
Elements: When the structure became a mosque, minarets were built around the perimeter of the building complex, Christian mosaic icons were covered with whitewash, and exterior buttresses were added for structural support. History: First cathedral, then a mosque, now a museum. The first church structure was destroyed during riots in 404; the second church, built and dedicated in 415 by Emperor Theodosius II, burned down during the Nika revolt of 532, which caused vast destruction and death throughout the city. Immediately after the riots, Emperor Justinian I (r. 527-65) ordered the church rebuilt. The new building was inaugurated on December 27, 537. Architects Anthemios of Tralles and Isidoros of Miletos most likely were influenced by the mathematical theories of Archimedes (ca. 287-212 B.C.).
The Freedom Tower incorporates quite a bit of meaning and symbolism into the design of this building. Discuss some.
Libeskind's vision was a romantic one, packed with symbolism. The building height (1776 feet) represented the year America became an independent nation. When viewed from New York Harbor, the tall, slightly tilted spire echoed the raised torch of the iconic Statue of Liberty. Libeskind wrote that the glass tower would restore the "spiritual peak to the city." The height of the redesigned Freedom Tower also references the lost Twin Towers. At 1,362 feet, the proposed new building rises the same height as Tower Two. A parapet elevates Freedom Tower to the same height as Tower One. An enormous spire centered at the top achieves the symbolic height of 1,776 feet. This is compromise — the symbolic height that Libeskind wanted combined with a more traditional symmetry, centering the spire atop the building. The huge spire is David Childs' one concession made to Libeskind's original vision for the skyscraper at One World Trade Center. Libeskind wanted the building height to rise 1,776 feet, because the number represents the year of America's independence.
Know some of the common architectural materials and example of their use.
Masonry: any material consisting of stone, brick, or concrete. Cement: any powdered material that, when wetted, binds with stone or other hard material. Concrete: a mixture of water, cement, and stone that hardens on drying. Concrete can be formed into curving shapes and, in modern construction, is usually reinforced with steel. Iron and Glass: glass held in iron framework, as used widely in 19th-century rail stations, shopping malls, and other commercial structures. Steel: the modern metal (iron with a low carbon content) of great strength and malleability widely used in modern construction. Steel-reinforced Concrete: concrete strengthened by steel rods or mesh. Invented in the mid-19th century, reinforced concrete is the most widely used material of modern construction.
Know these basic parts of a church: nave, transept, apse, aisle, narthex, ambulatory
Nave: the primary area of public observance of the Mass. It is immediately inside the front doors. Transept/crossing: a transverse part of any building, which lies across the main body of the edifice. In churches, a transept is an area set crosswise to the nave in a cruciform ("cross-shaped") building within the Romanesque and Gothic Christian church architectural traditions. Each half of a transept is known as a semitransept. Apse: the end of the building opposite the main entry. Often circular, but it can be angular or flat. In medieval traditions, it was the east of the building. Aisle: a pair of walkways that are parallel to the primary public spaces in churches, e.g. nave, choir, and transept. The aisles are separated from the public areas by pillars supporting the upper walls, called an arcade. Narthex: the entrance or lobby area, located at the west end of the nave. Ambulatory: a specific name for the curved aisle around the choir.
What are the characteristics of Post-Modern Architecture and how do we see those characteristics in Dancing House?
Postmodern buildings had curved forms, decorative elements, asymmetry, bright colors, and features often borrowed from earlier periods. Colors and textures unrelated to the structure or function of the building. One aspect of postmodern architecture, which took shape by the end of the '80s is called Deconstructionism. It is influenced by the concept of deconstruction. It basically means creating a controlled chaos. The walls, roof, and the inside space of a building are shaped in a distorted manner, wherein it looks like the entire building has been crumpled or warped. The purpose is to intentionally create confusion and chaos. A classic example of deconstructionism is the Dancing House in Prague, Czech Republic. This building uses the deconstructionism style, and its shape looks like a dancing couple. This famous building is the creation of Vlado Milunić and Frank Gehry. The construction of the building was completed in 1996.
What is the difference between a temple, a shrine, a church, and a mosque?
Temple: A building containing the image or effigy of a deity. Shrine: A building that houses a sacred object or marks a sacred place. Church: A building for the congregation of Christian worshippers, who gather for prayer. Mosque: A building for the congregation of Muslim worshippers, who gather for prayer.
What is the significance of the Dome of the Rock?
The Dome of the Rock was one of the first Islamic buildings ever constructed. It was built between 685 and 691/2 by Abd al-Malik, probably the most important Umayyad caliph, as a religious focal point for his supporters, while he was fighting a civil war against Ibn Zubayr. When Abd al-Malik began construction on the Dome of the Rock, he did not have control of the Kaaba, the holiest shrine in Islam, which is located in Mecca. At the center of the Dome of the Rock sits a large rock, which is believed to be the location where Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son Ismail (Isaac in the Judeo/Christian tradition). Today, Muslims believe that the Rock commemorates the night journey of Muhammad. The Dome of the Rock also contains an inscription, 240 meters long, that includes some of the earliest surviving examples of verses from the Qur'an - in an architectural context or otherwise. The bismillah (in the name of God, the merciful and compassionate), the phrase that starts each verse of the Qu'ran, and the shahada, the Islamic confession of faith, which states that there is only one God and Muhammad is his prophet, are also included in the inscription. The inscription also refers to Mary and Christ and proclaim that Christ was not divine but a prophet. Thus the inscription also proclaims some of the core values of the newly formed religion of Islam.
Why was the Eiffel Tower built? How was it initially received?
The Eiffel Tower was built by Gustave Eiffel for the 1889 Exposition Universelle, which was to celebrate the 100th year anniversary of the French Revolution. Even before the end of its construction, the Tower was already at the heart of much debate. Enveloped in criticism from the biggest names in the world of Art and Literature, the Tower managed to stand its ground and achieve the success it deserved. Various pamphlets and articles were published throughout the year of 1886, le 14 février 1887, la protestation des Artistes. The "Protest against the Tower of Monsieur Eiffel", published in the newspaper Le Temps, is addressed to the World's Fair's director of works, Monsieur Alphand. It is signed by several big names from the world of literature and the arts : Charles Gounod, Guy de Maupassant, Alexandre Dumas junior, François Coppée, Leconte de Lisle, Sully Prudhomme, William Bouguereau, Ernest Meissonier, Victorien Sardou, Charles Garnier and others to whom posterity has been less kind. Other satirists pushed the violent diatribe even further, hurling insults like : "this truly tragic street lamp" (Léon Bloy), "this belfry skeleton" (Paul Verlaine), "this mast of iron gymnasium apparatus, incomplete, confused and deformed" (François Coppée), "this high and skinny pyramid of iron ladders, this giant ungainly skeleton upon a base that looks built to carry a colossal monument of Cyclops, but which just peters out into a ridiculous thin shape like a factory chimney" (Maupassant), "a half-built factory pipe, a carcass waiting to be fleshed out with freestone or brick, a funnel-shaped grill, a hole-riddled suppository" (Joris-Karl Huysmans). Once the Tower was finished the criticism burnt itself out in the presence of the completed masterpiece, and in the light of the enormous popular success with which it was greeted. It received two million visitors during the World's Fair of 1889.
What was the purpose of the Colosseum? What activities took place there (for sure)?
The amphitheater was used for entertainment for 390 years. During this time more than 400,000 people died inside the Colosseum. It's also estimated that about 1,000,000 animals died in the Colosseum as well. Several different events were held in the Colosseum including gladiator contests, mock battles and animal hunts, and dramas that were based on Classical mythology. If they held a mock sea battle they flooded the Colosseum with water.
What are the symbolic meanings of the commonly found architectural structures: The sacred mountain, the tower, the dome of heaven?
The sacred mountain: symbolic as the place where the earth and sky meet and often serve as temples or burial places. Examples: - Sumerian ziggurats (like at Ur) - Egyptian pyramids ----------------------- The tower: symbolic of power - the power to see (Chinese watch towers), to call or command (the bell towers of Christian churches and minarets of Muslim mosques), and to prevail. Examples: - Chinese watch powers - Bells on churches/minarets in mosques - Skyscrapers (like Freedom Tower) ----------------------- The dome of heaven: the dome (itself a kind of vault) symbolizes heavenly space. These are frequently seen in religious structures such as Dome of the Rock and the Roman Pantheon.
The Romans perfected the arch which lead to major advances in architecture like the Pantheon. Explain the architectural significance of the Pantheon.
The structure itself is an important example of advanced Roman engineering. Its walls are made from brick-faced concrete—an innovation widely used in Rome's major buildings and infrastructure, such as aqueducts—and are lightened with relieving arches and vaults built into the wall mass. The concrete easily allowed for spaces to be carved out of the wall's thickness—for instance, the alcoves around the rotunda's perimeter and the large apse directly across from the entrance (where Hadrian would have sat to hold court). Further, the concrete of the dome is graded into six layers with a mixture of scoria, a low-density, lightweight volcanic rock, at the top. From top to bottom, the structure of the Pantheon was fine-tuned to be structurally efficient and to allow flexibility of design.
What is the purpose of a Triumphal Arch in Ancient Rome?
The triumphal arch was used to commemorate victorious generals or significant public events such as the founding of new colonies, the construction of a road or bridge, the death of a member of the imperial family or the accession of a new emperor. This arch, built as an honorific monument, honored Titus posthumously and was a project executed by his younger brother and imperial successor, Domitian (emperor, 81-96 C.E.).
What are the characteristics of the Neoclassical style seen in Jefferson's Monticello?
The west garden façade—the view that is once again featured on the American nickel—shows Monticello's most recognized architectural features. The two-column deep extended portico contains Doric columns that support a triangular pediment that is decorated by a semicircular window. Although the short octagonal drum and shallow dome provide Monticello a sense of verticality, the wooden balustrade that circles the roofline provides a powerful sense of horizontality. From the bottom of the building to its top, Monticello is a striking example of French Neoclassical architecture in the United States.
The Parthenon features some interesting mathematical design. What are these and why are they incorporated?
They used ideal and perfect proportions and used mathematics as their basis. Greeks understood that human perception was flawed, so they needed to use mathematics to make adjustments so that the structure appeared perfect (though it wasn't). Every stone was cut to fit precisely. The columns are slightly adjusted so they are not straight, giving it a more naturalistic feel/look. The floor was tilted very slightly so that rainwater would run off. Columns on edges are slightly closer to each other than columns in the center. Created an even sense of density across the building.
What can we learn about Egyptian's belief in the afterlife through a careful study of the Pyramids at Giza? Also, what can we know about their treatment of royalty?
Thus, from the outset, the pyramid shape represented the idea of new life, emerging from a mound of earth to be bathed in the light and warmth of the sun. However, to the ancient Egyptians, the benben was more than just an image. Like the primeval mound itself, the Egyptians thought that it somehow incorporated the very power of life itself and even the force that made it possible for new life to emerge after a period of dormancy. Lots of respect towards royals, seen as having healing powers.
How does Frank Lloyd Wright incorporate the natural surrounding into his architecture (seen at Fallingwater)?
https://www.fallingwater.org/history/about-fallingwater/designing-fallingwater/
