Art History Chapters 21-24
What are the three meanings of the word "classic" as used by scholars to describe art and literature during the reign of Louis XIV?
Classic is a synonym for the highest achievement, which is the style of Louis XIV and which is same as the High Renaissance in Italy. It is also the imitation of the forms and the subject matter of the Classical antiquity. Lastly, it suggests the qualities and balance and restraint shared by ancient art and the Renaissance. "The last two meanings describe what could more accurately be called Classicism" (Janson's History of Art, p. 739). This style reflects the Italian Baroque art even though it is sometimes called the Baroque Classicism.
Define the sublime. How does Edmund Burke's idea of the sublime have a profound impact on art during the Enlightenment period? Use specific examples to illustrate your answer.
Edmund Burke's definition of sublime is beauty embodying qualities of smoothness, delicacy and grace. All of these aspects produce feelings of joy, pleasure, and love. Also, sublime is associated with obscurity, darkness, power and anything that generates feelings of fright, terror, or being overwhelmed with awe. Sublime is the strongest emotion which the mind is capable of feeling. The sublime is not just a style but is an attribute to the art. Edmund Burke published a book called A Philosophical Inquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful. His study was directed toward psychology rather than the study of aesthetics, but it had its impact on the world of art which was very important to the new style.
How did Claude Lorrain's work elevate the genre of landscape painting?
He combined both landscapes and seascapes in his paintings. Lorrain explored the surrounding countryside and the campagan of Rome, and his drawings made on the site reveal his power of observation. He is also the first artist to have painted oil studies outdoors. His sketches were made on raw materials. He did not aim for topographic accuracy, but he evoked the poetic essence of the countryside. His works are filled with echoes of antiquity. Also, many of his paintings are visual narratives drawn from ancient texts and epic tales of poetry. "Often, as in this painting, the compositions have the hazy, luminous atmosphere of early morning or late evening" (Janson's History of Art, p. 744). He succeeded in elevating the landscape genre that had traditionally been accorded with low status; also he portrayed artistic theory, which had ranked the common nature at the bottom of the hierarchy of painting genres with landscapes above still life. He also encouraged sophisticated patrons progressively away from showing daily life scenes.
What was Bernini's influence on 17th century French sculptors?
His sculptures evolved into an official royal style in the same way as architecture through the influence of Rome, and he also had the impact of Bernini's visit to the royal court in 1665. When he was in Paris, Bernini carved a bust of Louis XIV. He also commissioned exquisite statues of the king. He was influential in the work of Antoine Coysevox. He was also influential on Le Brun.
How does Rococo ceiling decorations work to integrate both sculpture and painting? How is this indicative of other decorative trends in Rococo art? How does this approach compare to that of the Baroque? Use specific examples to illustrate your answer..
In the use of a skillful blend of the late German, French, and Italian ideas, the ceiling paintings used the favorite color scheme of the mid-eighteenth century the use of colors which are (white, gold, and pastel shades) (781). The ceiling also used architectural influences such as in the structural importance's of columns, pilasters, and architraves had on the paintings. The abundant uses of play on curves and countercurves and the weightless grace in the stucco lightness set the ceiling style far from that of the Roman Baroque. In Central European Rococo, the churches and palaces required the use of architecture and they also achieved the effect of overwhelming light decoration through the use of white, gold and pastel colors (781). The use of airy sensibility which was new was also skilled in the Baroque illusionism of the previous century and was able to adapt this technique to the Rococo architecture (781). The tissue-like ceiling gives off an illusionistic openings which were both painted and in sculpted form. The decorative trends of the Rococo art are seen in the beauty of the colors, the facial gestures, and the way the horses are portrayed in Figure 22.22. In figure 22.19, it shows the use of both sculpture and paintings. The detail of the sculpture forms around the base of the dome gives off enormous detail that helps bring out the ceiling painting. The Rococo approach compared to the Baroque is that the Rococo uses more detail and emotion whereas the Baroque, as seen in figure 19.11, shows nudity and more erotica imagery. The Rococo shows the use of more calm and less violent scenes in the ceilings.
In what ways do Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Eugène Delacroix seemingly represent the opposing forces of early nineteenth-century French painting? What specific works by these artists exemplify their attitudes and artistic philosophies?
Ingres was interested in Neoclassicism into the nineteenth century but his work was incorporated in Romanticism. Delacroix bought painterly Romanticism to the front in the 1820's which resulted in contemporaries starting to incorporate Romanticism which previously was reserved for literature, music, and art. During the 1820's "landscape was never as apocalyptic as its British counterpart nor as pantheistic as in Germany and America" (Janson's History of Art p.840). But they were more serene and poetic. Also, Ingres used Orientalism which reflects the culture of the Muslim's world, along with the cultures of North Africa and the Near East. Orientalism reflects the European imperialism and sense of superiority that viewed the non-Christian Arab culture as different and exotic but also immoral, violent, and barbaric. This idea of Orientalism gave Ingres the idea to paint a nude woman who was not a Greek goddess which resembled Venus in the position of the body is in Figure 24.13. The artist treats the Romantic subject in a Neoclassical way. Delacroix was a great Romantic painter who was the first to use the term "Romantic" which had been applied to visual arts. Delacroix, in figure 24.22, shows a sea of paint and color that covers the entire surface which dissolves Neoclassicism planarity and space. (847) "This technique began to free paint from what is was supposed to represent and established a platform for a new artistic style just over the horizon, Impressionism" (Janson's History of Art p. 847).
How does Vouet's The Toilet of Venus (21.3) differ from similar semi-nude female scenes created by earlier Italian and Dutch artists?
It depicts the subject, which is popular in Venice; it also shows nobility, which was treated by Titian and Veronese and also by Rubens. The central figures recall Correggio's, but it also lacks the work of frank eroticism. Vouet has imbued Venus with elegant sensuousness, which was unique to the French. This piece shows swirling circles, near-nudity interest in the fabric, and it shows bright colors, which help suggest the erotic appeal continued into the eighteenth century. This helped provide Rococo style in painting. Vouet helped teach the next generation of artists.
How do the exteriors of the East front of the Louvre courtyard (21.11) and Versailles (21.12-13) signal the victory of French Classicism over Italian Baroque?
It is a signal of the French victory of Classicism over the Italian Baroque in the royal style. It proclaimed France as the new Rome, both politically and culturally, linking Louis XIV to the glory of the Caesars. The revitalization of the antique both in its conception and its details was Perrault's main contribution. It also shows characteristics of French Classicism in the architecture because it paired columns.
How does the arrangement of the overall composition in Poussin's The Death of Germanicus (21.4) show Classical influence?
It was framed by two groups of Germanicus, which became the focus of the composition that is based on antique scenes that show the death of Meleager. The architecture helps set the stage for the figures, which are horizontally shown in a rectangular space. The curtain in the rear restricts the action that helps show the shallow space, helps heighten the drama, and creates a more intimate environment. "Its composition, setting, and heroic historical subject, are typical of Poussin's classicism and his concept of the Grand Manner" (Janson's History of Art p. 742).
How is French "Baroque classicism" both related to, yet different from, Italian Baroque art? Use specific examples to illustrate your answer.
Italian Baroque would usually show biblical scenes in a modern day setting. In figure 19.2, the viewer can see tenebrism and also portraiture. Also, in Italian Baroque, there were ceiling paintings. In figure 19.31, the theatricality and the style is different than that of the French Baroque. Classicism is a style which is associated with art of England and France. Classicism is the use of vocabulary, columns, capitals, and pediments in architecture and in the styles of paintings which suggested authority, order, and enduring traditions by evoking the imperial grandeur of Rome. (Janson's History of Art p. 738) Also, classicism became the hallmark of the seventeenth century of French art. (p. 738) Classical principles dominated architecture in hospitals, churches, and country houses. Classic is a synonym for the highest achievement, which is the style of Louis XIV and is same as the High Renaissance in Italy. It is also the imitation of the forms and the subject matter of the Classical antiquity. Lastly, it suggests the qualities, balance, and restraint shared by ancient art and the Renaissance. "The last two meanings describe what could more accurately be called Classicism" (Janson's History of Art, p. 739). This style reflects the Italian Baroque art even though it is sometimes called the Baroque Classicism. Figure 21.4 is an example of classicism. It is also seen in figure 21.2 which shows influence of Caravaggio is seen through the paintings use of light and dark.
How does the work of Jacques-Louis David epitomize Neoclassicism?
Jacques-Louis David's images were so revolutionary because they simplified a complex period and a complicated term that encompassed more than just his style. The dramatic moment about to happen in figure 23.27 is a hallmark of the Neoclassicism paintings which allowed him to create a style called tableau vivant. This painting shows various actions of dedication before one sacrifice before putting their state before family. Figure 23.27 also shows the viewer relentless planarity because David aligns the figures and architecture which is parallel to the picture plane and it shows geometry on the floors and walls. David, in his paintings, sharpens the edges and heightens the drama through the harsh light that casts shadows in a way that Caravaggio is seen in the texture in the marble floor. Also, in this in this painting, it shows a horrific scene that may frighten the viewers and send a chill down their backs because it shows a Neoclassicism piece with the tension of that a bloodbath that may soon come. David's Neoclassicism was very powerful, not just in history paintings, but also in portraiture as well. (816)
Discuss the varied ways in which French, English, German, and American nineteenth-century artists expressed Romantic attitudes through their landscape paintings. In your opinion, what accounts for these differences?
John Constable, a British artist, used landscape which gradually became a major vehicle in this era's search for truth. This was not a surprise considering the importance of nature in Romantic ideology, which is the need to bond with it and express the essence as a personal experience His paintings are packed with emotion but are also both scientific and subjective. He makes the viewer not just see the blue sky but also the pushing out of the darker clouds and a layer of moisture that glistens. The vibrant flecks of paint and color show atmospheric sparkle. He shows the sky as "symphony of subjectivity" which presents a range of emotions as he fills his paintings with detailed antidotes. He also shows that there is no perfect world without ideal beauty or Classical Arcadia, instead it is a particular site that is heartfelt specificity. This is one of the new emotions that is experienced in the Romantic era. He uses the paintings to gain attention. Joseph Mallord William Turner, who was English artist, was inspired to reveal history in paintings, and he invested views in rich overlay of historical references which had metaphorical themes. His paintings were designed to put human activity and civilization into a cosmic scene, "in which they appear insignificant compared to the relentless, uncontrollable power of sublime universal forces" (Janson's History of Art p. 829). Turner's goal is the Romantic notion that makes the viewer feel nature's occurrences and not to simply reproduce a landscape. The atmospheric haze is insignificant to the figures. His paintings are direct experiences of nature becoming stronger. (830) Casper David Friedrich, who is a German artist, focused his paintings on the insignificance of human and animal life in how they face all powerful cosmos. His concern was the passage from the physical station of earth to its spiritual being of eternity. The landscapes that he painted were virtually pantheistic. This was a German phenomenon because he invested time into the detailed realistic scenes that had metaphysical characteristics and gave his landscape paintings a sensation of divine presence. (831) His landscape drawings became more symbolic because of the groupings with different cyclical themes, such as the times of day or even the four seasons. As seen in figure 24.8, his landscapes incorporated religion. Also in his paintings, the eighteenth century German nationalism and the political manifestation of the Romanticism are seen. Thomas Cole, who is a painter from America, based his landscapes off of the Hudson River School. His views were sublime on how he portrayed the wild and nature. He often painted storms which were pummeling the forests. These storms were seen through the dark clouds and blacking of the earth and how light bounced off of the trees. "By the 1830s, Cole's paint handling became tighter and his pictures less formulaic and more specific, embracing a Romantic truth to nature that we saw in Constable" (Janson's History of Art p. 833). This can be seen in The Oxbow which is a political painting. Since Thomas Cole went to the Hudson River School were most painters depicted God as manifested in the American land which different from the other countries. He also used landscape paintings to comment on the economic and social issues that were taking place in the nation at this time. He used landscapes as a vehicle to display themes that showed historical importance. His paintings were metaphors for social and political issues. His paintings heated debate about progress that was consuming the country. In my opinion, the things that account for the differences between these artists are that each country had their own style in which painters had more freewill in regard to what types of styles they wanted to paint. Also, I believe it mostly depended on what type of paintings their society or country wanted the artist to paint.
How did the architectural designs of Palladio impact Inigo Jones, as well England in general?
Jones was interested in architecture and pastiche of medieval and Renaissance forms English gothic cathedral. He is responsible for introducing Palladio's Renaissance Classicism to England even though the style took root only in the early decades of the eighteenth century when the building boom resulted in the trend that was called Palladian Revival. (p.754)
How are the qualities and values of Neoclassical painting similar to or different from those of the Baroque period (in France and England)? Describe the values of each and use specific examples to illustrate your answer.
Neoclassicism is the logic and morality in the paintings and is the return to line and smooth, crisp colors. Neoclassicism rejected the Rococo delicate, light, erotic, and sensual. Neoclassicism was heavily influenced by the Italian Renaissance. Neoclassicism is the new classicism which considered various actions of deeds of both the ancient Greek and Roman. Not all Neoclassicism are works labeled with historical antiquity, they are also genre scenes or major events that look or feel classical. Neoclassicism was the importance of logic and morality of the Enlightenment. Neoclassicism rejected the pastel colors and the bold painterly of the Rococo and instead returned to hard lines and cool paints of the Italian Renaissance and the French Classicism. An example is figure23.3 because it shows a building overgrown with vegetation which shows the sublime. French Baroque is classicism which is described in three different ways: the highest achievement is the style of Louis XIV and is equal to the high Renaissance in Italy; the second is by imitating forms and subject matter of the Classical antiquity; the third is the qualities from ancient art and the Renaissance, such as balance and restraint. Classical principles dominated architecture in hospitals, churches, and country houses. Classic is a synonym for the highest achievement, which is the style of Louis XIV and is the same as the High Renaissance in Italy. It is also the imitation of the forms and the subject matter of the Classical antiquity. Lastly, it suggests the qualities, balance, and restraint shared by ancient art and the Renaissance. An example would be figure 21.2 because it shows tenebrism which was influenced by Caravaggio. Both paintings are similar in how they both painted about genre paintings and they both show major events.
Compare and contrast the art of the Enlightenment (Neoclassicism) and art of the Romantic period. How do the specific values and mindset of each time period affect the art created? Use specific examples to illustrate your answer.
Neoclassicism is the logic and morality in the paintings and is the return to line and smooth, crisp colors. Neoclassicism rejected the Rococo idea and use of delicate, light, erotic, and sensual. Neoclassicism was influence by the Italian Renaissance. Neoclassicism is the new classicism which illustrations considered various actions of deeds of both the ancient Greek and Roman. Not all Neoclassicism are works labeled with historical antiquity, they are genre scenes or major events that look or feel classical. Neoclassicism was the importance of logic and morality of the Enlightenment. Neoclassicism rejected the use pastel colors and the bold painterly of the Rococo instead Neoclassicism returned to hard lines and cool paints handling of the Italian Renaissance and the French Classicism. An example is figure23.3 this painting shows decay of the structure due to the vegetation on the structure. Romanticism shows emotion, intuition, and more of an attitude because it showed Individualism. Individualism is where the individual could lead himself to the distant past and make the artist make exotic scenes and horrific aspects related to the human behavior and all forces of nature. Individualism stirred up the nationalistic spirit since citizens were swept together and not out of allegiance from the king. Because of this, Romanticism was not just a style but also an attitude. Individualism also rendered an emblem of God's presence and filled them with powerful emotion and personal experiences. Romanticism also connects art to nature. It is different from the Rococo in the importance of individuality. An example would be figure 24.23 which shows romantic beauty of landscapes. Another painting that shows Romanticism is figure 24.2 because it shows the ideal beauty and the use of bright colors and shows a loving family. Both of these styles are similar in that they both painted landscapes, they both showed history paintings, and they were both influenced by the Italian Renaissance. They knew centuries of art had different styles on what could be shown in paintings and how they were influenced by what was happing in their society and that each country had different aspects. The Neoclassicism showed fighting in their paintings and was more chaotic in the artwork whereas the Romanticism was more about the love and compassion that one had for others and their paintings also showed emotion in the artwork.
Artists began to explore new subjects and treat old themes in a new way during the Rococo. Describe this trend, using specific examples to illustrate your answer.
Rococo in France was a shift in taste among the aristocrats which helped reassert the power and favored stylist motifs that were drawn from nature and domestic art and used to decorate the homes. Rococo implies natural quality and sense of ornamentation. Rococo was first seen as irregular pebbles, stones, and shells which were used to decorate Italian gardens. Rococo started the period of independent intense creativity and intellectual activity (761). Rococo spread geographically and this influenced the styles and trends of how Rococo was portrayed. Fragonard epitomized the sensuality of the Rococo and the works are marked by the extraordinary virtuosity in the use of color. Fragonard paintings range from erotic fantasies to intimate studies and pastoral landscapes and other subjects that provided a distraction to the wealthy patrons (769) . Interior design was crucial to the French décor. Interior design established new standards of design that artists were expected to follow, and artisans lost most of their own independence. Designers collaborated with architects who also became involved in interior design. The sculptors created architectural ornamentation and the painters and architects helped to raise the decorative arts to the level of the fine arts. This established a tradition. Interior design was seen in the furniture by how the color was shown and in the décor of the style which was ornamentation associated with Rococo. (p. 772) The way the Rococo décor breaks up the ceiling recalls the Gothic Heiligenkreuz. The telling of the reevaluation of the Gothic architecture became reality. Zimmerman's design of the building which exuded light and elegance represented the high points of the Rococo in central Europe (780). An example of an artist that used the Rococo style is Jean-Antoine Watteau, A Pilgrimage to Cythera. Also, another painter that uses Rococo style is Giovanni Battista Tiepolo who used this style on the ceiling fresco in Wurzburg.
Discuss the impact of The Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture on the course of art in France, especially during the reign of Louis XIV. Use specific examples to illustrate your answer.
The French monarchy sought to maintain strict control and for that reason, they made the Royal Academy of Painting and Sculpture. The academy was recognized in the 1660's into the formal institution. It came to be associated with Louis XIV's reign. "Yet the Ideology of academy and throne would increasingly coincide and strengthen each other in the ensuring years (Janson's History of Art p. 745). This system amid control of thoughts and actions of the nation the task of the visual arts was glorified by the king; this was the official royal style of Classicism. The royal academy codified facial expressions in a series of drawings which were published engravings. The Royal Academy documented the movement of the "eyes, eyebrows, and mouths to show passion and emotions such as fear, anger, and surprise" (Janson's History of Art p. 746). The Royal Academy assigned numerical grades to artist in categories such as drawing, expression, and proportion. Examples that show this are figure 21.9 Henri Testelin after Charles Le Brun, The Expressions, and 6th plate in Henri Testelin's Sentiments des plus habiles peintres. Also, figure 21.3 shows expression on the faces and the proportion of the figures. After the Royal Academy, the facial expressions tell the viewer what the emotion is so that the viewer can see and almost feel the emotion of the figures in the painting.
Name three important characteristics that can be found in Poussin's "ideal landscape". How can these ideals be seen in Landscape with St. John on Patmos (21.7)?
The ideal landscape is serene and balanced. It does not represent a particular locale, but it helps generalize an often beautiful place (p. 743). Poussin's ideal of landscape is opposite of the Dutch contemporaries and how they portrayed the topographical views. Poussin's work can be seen in figure 21.7, which shows the Classical landscape tradition in his work. He was considered to have invented the ideal landscape. He incorporates brilliantly lit and ancient landscapes, and his paintings show architectural ruins, which suggest the actual site and the concept of antiquity. He uses trees on both sides to balance the composition, and the ruins are shown parallel to the picture plane. The composition suggests the physical and rational arrangement of the spiritual and eternal ideal world, which was well suited to the explorers of the Baroque Classicism. Poussin's mythological-looking landscapes show a similar blend of the physical and rational mythic (p. 743).
Describe some of Sir Christopher Wren's ideas for the rebuilding of London after the Great Fire.
The plans included wide avenues and focal points, which were punctuated by church steeples that he would design for the focal point. His plan was too radical for the crown to adopt. He was named to the short lived royal commission, and many of his ideas were commissioned into the urban planning. He wanted the opportunity to rebuild and reframe the city and its skyline. His proposal was rejected by church authorities. Building these programs provided him the opportunity to create new vocabulary for the Protestant Church of England.
How is Louis XIV portrayed in Rigaud's Portrait of Louis XIV (21.10)? What messages are conveyed in this portrait?
The resemblance is intentional of the work that follows the formulaic nature of royal portraiture of the time. The portrait shows power and authority through its use of the insignias of rulership and symbols of the monarch's reign. He is draped with a velvet robe that has ermine trimmed with gold. It appears that that he is self-assured, powerful, majestic, and tall, which is an illusion by the artist (p. 749-748).
Compare and contrast Gersaint's Signboard (22.4) with Brueghel the Elder's Allegory of Sight (20.10).
The similarities between the two paintings are many. They both show multiple paintings and both are a double portrait Also, each of the paintings show a side that shows rich and they both also show rooms where there might be more items. Also, they both show many paintings that were done by other artists. They show splendors of the world. Jan Brueghel's still-life is an innovation of art collecting that is unique to the Flanders. It helps provide view into the depth and variety of European art collections which developed in Antwerp in the seventeenth century. These eclectic collections are known as Kunstkammern, which means rooms of art. They are also known as Wunderkammern, which mean rooms of wonder that help give a glimpse of exotic collections of seashells, insects, rare flowers and scientific instruments in the painting. The art collection in The Allegory of Sight is that of Habsburg archduke and archduchess who are both seen in the double portrait. Watteau's use of color planted him firmly in the Rubẻniste camp even though his innovation and creativity were exquisite. The rose satin colored dress draws the eye of the viewer. Watteau's painting also takes place in a shop where the people in the painting are looking at the paintings on the wall as if they were going to buy them. Also, scholars believe that the paintings on the wall in his painting are not copies but are variants of both Flemish and Venetian works. The left side shows a scene where it looks like one of the figures has purchased a painting because it shows a painting of the king being taken down off of the wall and put into a box. One key difference in both of these paintings is that the Watteau Gersaint's Signboard (22.4) takes place in a shop where people could buy the paintings. Whereas in Brueghel the Elder's Allegory of Sight (20.10), someone's collection of paintings and objects from around the world shows that people during this time collected and showed art in their home. Watteau's painting shows it is more about selling art than collecting art.
Explain the various ways that Versailles (21.13) served as a stage to highlight the power of the French monarchy. How do the building and grounds of Versailles communicate a message of absolutism?
The structure is expanded to accommodate the ever growing royal house (751). The garden front was intended to be the main view of the palace and was stretched to an enormous length but it had no change to the architectural elements. Also, the full length mirrors are unique because they represent a great investment which was part of the monarchy (751). Mirrors reflect the outside of the garden making the rooms appear larger by day. "At night, myriad reflections of candlelight illuminated the grand space" (Janson's History of Art p. 751) The effect of the mirrors was impressive. The front looks "repetitious and out of scale"(Janson's History of Art p. 751) The center block contains a room 240 feet in length that consist of mirrors. Louis XIV's forced the aristocracy to live under royal scrutiny outside of Pairs. The mansion faces east so when the sun rises, it shines light in and reflects the light off of the mirrors in the halls and brightens the halls. The mansion reflects the king's own taste. Le Notre's plan, called the spirit of absolutism which is the taming of nature. The forests were thinned to create avenues, and he had water pumped into fountains