Beginning of the Revolutionary Era: The American Revolution

Great Britian

At the end of the Seven Year War in 1763 ____ ____ had become the worlds greatest colonial power.

Loyalists

were strongest in New York and Pennsylvania and tended to be wealthy, older, and politically moderate.

common people, July August 1789

who and when, saved the Third Estate from the king's attempt to stop the Revolution.

public offices, robe

At the upper levels of society, remarkable similarities existed between the wealthier bourgeoisie and the nobility. It was still possible for wealthy middle-class individuals to join the ranks of the nobility by obtaining ____ ____ and entering nobility of the ____.

August 10, 1792

Attack on the royal palace

August 26, declaration of the rights of man and the citizen

THE DECLARATION OF THE RIGHTS OF MAN AND THE CITIZEN On _____ ___, the assembly provided the ideologi- cal foundation for its actions and an educational device for the nation by adopting the _____ ____ ____ _____ ___ ___ _____ ____ _____

July 19 August 3

A growing resentment of the entire seigneurial system, with its fees and obligations, greatly exacerbated by the economic and fis activities of the great estate holders-whether noble or bourgeois-in the difficult decade of the 178os, created the conditions for a popular uprising. The fall of the Bastille and the king's apparent capitulation to the demands of the Third Estate now encouraged peasants to take matters into their own hands. From _____ ___ to _____ ___ peasant rebellions occurred in five major areas of France.

Bourbon monarchy, people's army, Austrian Netherlands, Italian, French satellite

French Expansion During the Revolutionary Wars, 1792-1799. The conservative rulers of Europe, appalled at the republican character of the French Revolution, took up arms to restore the _____ _____. The French responded with a _____ _____, the largest ever seen, which pushed the invaders out of France, annexed the _____ ______ and some _____ territory, and created a number of _____ _____ states.

French Society

3 Classes of people: First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobles), and Third Estate (middle class/bourgeoisie/etc.)

Young men, Married men, Women, Children old men

A NATION IN ARMS _____ ____ will fight and are called to conquer. _____ _____ will forge arms, transport military baggage and guns and will prepare food supplies. _____ who at long last are to take their rightful place in the revolution and follow their true destiny, will forget their futile tasks: their delicate hands will work at making clothes for soldiers; they will make tents and they will extend their tender care to shelters where the defenders of the Patrie [nation] will receive the help that their wounds require. ______ will make lint of old cloth. It is for them that we are fighting: those beings destined to gather all the fruits of the revolution, will raise their pure hands toward the skies. And _____ ____ performing their missions again, as of yore, will be guided to the public squares of the cities where they will kindle the courage of young warriors and preach the doctrines of hate for kings and the unity of the Republic."

August 23 1793

A NATION IN ARMS To meet the crisis and save the Republic from its foreign enemies, the Committee of Public Safety decreed a universal mobilization of the nation on ______ ___ _____

300, seven codes, Civil Code, Property, radical, easy, undid, less equal, husbands, minors

A NEW CoDE oF LAWS Before the Revolution, France did not have a single set of laws but rather some _____ different legal systems. Efforts were made during the Revolu- tion to codify laws for the entire nation, but it remained for Napoleon to bring the work to completion in ____ ____, the of which was the _____ _____ (also known as most important the Code of Napoleon). This preserved most of the revolutionary gains by recognizing the principle of the equality of all citizens before the law, the right of individuals to choose their profes- sions, religious toleration, and the abolition of serfdom and feudalism. _____ rights continued to be carefully protected, while the interests of employers were safeguarded by outlaw- ing trade unions and strikes. The Civil Code clearly reflected the revolutionary aspirations for a uniform legal system, legal equality, and protection of property and individuals. But the Civil Code strictly curtailed the rights of some people. During the ____ phase of the French Revolution, new laws had made divorce an ____ process for both husbands and wives, restricted the rights of fathers over their children (they could no longer have their children put in prison arbitrarily), and allowed all children (including daughters) to inherit property equally. Napoleon's Civil Code _____ most of this legislation. The con- trol of fathers over their families was restored. Divorce was still allowed but was made more difficult for women to obtain. A wife caught in adultery, for example, could be divorced by her husband and even imprisoned. A husband, however, could only be açcused of adultery if he moved his mistress into his home Women were now "____ ____ than men" in other ways as well. When they married, their property came under the control of thier _____. in lawsuits they were treated as ____ and their testemony were seen as less reliable than men.

Napoleon

A consecutive series of great actions never is the result of chance and luck, it always is the product of planning and genius. Great men are rarely known to fail in their most perilous enterprises.... . Is it because they are lucky that they become great? No, but being great, they have been able to master luck. who said this

Revolutionary Tribunal

A court instituted in Paris by the Convention between October 1793 and the Thermidorian Reaction, the Tribunal was one of the main instruments of the Reign of Terror and had many people guillotined.

1804, monarchy, emperor, Josephine

The Coronation of Napoleon. In ____ Napoleon restored ______ to France when he crowned himself ______. In the coronation scene painted by Jacques-Louis David, Napoleon is shown crowning the empress _____ while the pope looks on. Shown seated in the box in the background is Napoleon's mother, even though she was not at the ceremony.

sword

The nobility of the _____ claimed to be descendants of the original medieval nobility. As a group, the nobles sought to expand their privileges at the expense of the monarchy- to defend liberty by resisting the arbitrary actions of monarchy, as some nobles asserted-and to maintain their monopoly over positions in the military, church, and govern- ment.

Girondins

A moderate republican faction active in the French Revolution from 1791 to 1793. The Girondin Party favored a policy of extending the French Revolution beyond France's borders.

Great Fear

A wave of senseless panic that spread through the French countryside after the storming of the Bastille in 1789

September 21, 1792

Abolition of the monarchy

merchants, industrialists, bankers

About 8 percent, or 2.3 million people, constituted the bour- geoisie or middle class, who owned about 20 to 25 percent of the land. This group included the _____, ______, and _____ who controlled the resources of trade, manufactur- ing, and finance and benefited from the economic prosperity after 1730. The bourgeoisie also included professional people- lawyers, holders of public offices, doctors, and writers. Many members of the bourgeoisie sought security and status through the purchase of land. They had their own set of grievances because they were often excluded from the social and political privileges monopolized by the nobles.

capable officials, merit, 3263, 1808, 1814, military, nobility, bourgeois

Administrative centralization required a bureaucracy of _____ _____, and Napoleon worked hard to develop one. Early on, the regime showed its preference for experts and cared little whether that expertise had been acquired in royal or revolutionary bureaucracies. Not rank or birth but only demon- strated abilities now determined promotion in civil or military offices. This was, of course, what many bourgeois had wanted before the Revolution. Napoleon, however, also created a new aristocracy based on _____ in the state service. Napoleon cre- ated _____ nobles between ____ and ____; nearly 60 percent were _______ officers, while the remainder came from the upper ranks of the civil service or were other state and local officials. Socially, only 22 percent of Napoleon's aristocracy came from the ________ of the old regime; almost 6o percent were of _________ origin.

Joseph, Spanish, Madrid

After Napoleon imposed his brother _____ on Spain as its king, the _____ people revolted against his authority, and a series of riots broke out in _____. This painting by Francisco Goya shows the French response-a deliberate execution of Spanish citizens to frighten people into submission. Goya portrays the French troops as a firing squad, killing people (including a monk) reacting in terror. The peasant in the middle throws out his arms in a gesture reminiscent of crucifixion. Goya painted many scenes depicting the horrors of war in Napoleonic Spain.

active citizens, electors, deputies

Although all had the same civil rights, only _____ _____ (men over the age of twenty-five paying taxes equivalent in value to three days' unskilled labor) could vote. The active citizens probably numbered 4.3 million in 1790. These citizens did not elect the members of the Legisla- tive Assembly directly but voted for _______ (men paying taxes equal in value to ten days labor). This relatively small group of 50,000 electors chose the _______. To qualify as a deputy, one had to pay at least a "silver mark" in taxes, an amount equiva lent to fifty-four days' labor.

collectors, 1789, 1802, balanced budget

As part of Napoleon's overhaul of the administrative sys- tem, tax collection became systematic and efficient (which it had never been under the old regime). Professional ______ employed by the state who dealt directly with each individual taxpayer now collected taxes. No tax exemptions due to birth status, or special arrangement were granted. In principle, these changes had been introduced in ____, but not until Napoleon did they actually work. In ____, the first consul proclaimed a ______ _____.

Radical Parisian, royal palace, Legislative Assembly, August 1792, sans-culottes

As fears of invasion grew, a frantic search for scapegoats began as one observer noted "Everywhere you that the king is betraying us, the generals are betraying us, that nobody is to be trusted;.. that Paris will be taken in six weeks by the austrians we are on a volcano ready to spout flames" Defeats in war coupled with economic shortages in the spring that had been dormant since the reinvigorated popular groups that had been dormant sinec the previous summer and led to renewed political demonstrations, especially against the king. ______ _____ political groups, declaring themselves an insurrectionary commune, organized a mob attack on the ______ ______ and _____ _____ in _____ _____, took the king captive, and forced the Legislative Assembly to suspend the monarchy and call for a national convention, chosen on the basis of universal male suffrage, to decide on the future form of government. The French Revolu tion was about to enter a more radical stage as power passed from the assembly to the new Paris Commune, composed of who proudly called themselves the _________ which are ordinary patriots without fine clothes. Although it has become customary to equate the more radical sans-culottes with working people or the poor, many were merchants and better-off artisans who were often the elite of their neighborhoods and trades

1787

Assembly of notables

1805

Battle of Austerlitz (defeat of Russia)

1805

Battle of Trafalgar (naval defeat of Napoleon's forces)

1805

Battle of Ulm (defeat of Austria)

1815

Battle of Waterloo; exile to Saint Helena

1807

Battles of Eylau and Friedland (defeat of Russia)

1806

Battles of Jena and Auerstadt (defeat of Prussia)

self-denying ordinance, clerics, nobles, property, lawyers, National Guard, Jacobin clubs, elective offices

Because the National Assembly had passed a "_____ _____ _____" that prohibited the reelection of its members, the composition of the Legislative Assembly turned out to be quite diferent from that of the National Assembly. The _____ and _____ were largely gone. Most of the representa tives were men of _____ many were _____. Although lacking national reputations, most had gained experience in the new revolutionary politics and prominence in their local areas through the ______ _____, the _____ _____, and many _____ _____ spawned by the administrative reordering of France. The king made what seemed to be a genuine effort to work with the new Legislative Assembly but frances relations with the rest of Europe soon led to louis downfall.

1791, sovereign, 745

By ____, the National Assembly hacd completed a new constitution that established a limited con stitutional monarchy. There was still a monarch (now called "king of the French"), but he enjoyed few powers not subjedt to review by the new Legislative Assembly. The assembly, in which ______ power was vested, was to sit for two years and consist of ____ representatives chosen by an indirect system of election that preserved power in the hands of the more affluent members of society. A distinction was drawn between active and passive citizens.

mid 1791, Civil Constitution

By _____ _____, however this consensus faced growing opposition from clerics angered by the _____ _____ of the Clergy, lower classes hurt by the rise in the cost of living resulting from the inflation of the assignats, peasants who remained oppossed still not been abandoned, and political clubs offering more radical solutions to the nation's problems.

1791, old regime, wealthier

By ______ France had moved into vast reordering of the _____ _____ that had been achieved by a revolutionary consensus that was largely the work of the _____ members of the bourgeoisie.

Josephine de Beauharnais, 1796, French army, Italy, 1797

By this time, Napoleon had become a hero in some Parisian social circles, where he met _____ ___ ______, a widow of a guillotined general. Six years older than Napoleon, she lived a life of luxury, thanks to gifts from her influential male lovers. Napoleon fell deeply in love with her, married her in _____, and remained committed to her for many years, despite her well-known affairs with other men. Soon after his marriage, Napoleon was made commander of the ____ ____ in _____ . There he turned a group of ill-disciplined soldiers into an effective fighting force and in a series of stunning victories defeated the austrians and made peace with them in _____

revolutionary army

Citizens in the New French Army. To save the Republic from its foreign enemies, the National Convention created a _______ _____ of unprecedented size. The illustration above, from a book of paintings on the French Revolution by the Lesueur brothers, shows three citizens learning to drill, while a young volunteer is being armed and outfitted by his family. The illustration at the left, also by the Lesueur brothers, shows two volunteers joyfully going off to fight.

July 12, 1790

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

revolutionary armies, Marseilles, August, Lyons, October, April 1794, Lyons

Commity of public safety and the rein of terror Military force in the form of ______ ______ was used to bring recalcitrant cities and districts back under the control of the National Convention. ______ fell to a revolutionary army in _____. Starving _____ surrendered early in ______ after two months of bombardment and resistance. Since Lyons was France's second city after Paris and had defied the National Convention during a time when the Republic was in peril, the Committee of Public Safety decided to make an example of it. By _____ _____, some 1,880 citizens of _____ had been executed. When guillotining proved too slow, cannon fire and grapeshot were used to blow condemned men into open graves.

1801

Concordat with Catholic Church

August 22, 1795

Constitution of 1795 is adopted

1806

Continental System established

second continental congress, thomas jefferson

Crisis followed crisis in the 1770's until 1776, when the colonists decided to declare their independence from the British Empire. On July 4, 1776, the ______ ____ ______ approved a declaration of independence written by ____ _______ (1743-1826). A stirring politi- document, the declaration affirmed the Enlightenment's natural rights of "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness and declared the colonies to be free and independent states absolved from all allegiance to the British crown. The war for American independence had begun.

de-Christianization, saint, temple of reason, november 1793, cathedral, patriotic maidens, Liberty, Catholic

DE-CHRISTIANIZATION AND THE NEW CALENDAR In its attempt to create a new order, the National Convention also pursued a policy of ___ ________. The word _____ was removed from street names, churches were pillaged and closed by revolutionary armies, and priests were encouraged to marry. In Paris, the cathedral of Notre Dame was designated the _____ ____ _____. In _____ _____, a public cerimony dedicated to the worship of reason was held in the former _______; _____ _____ adorned in white dresses paraded before a temple of reason where the high altar once stood. At the end of the ceremony, a female figure per- sonifying ______ rose out of the temple. As Robespierre came to realize, de-Christianization backfired because France was stil overwhelmingly ______. In fact, de-Christianization created more enemies than friends.

14 Frimaire, December 4 1793, Public Safety, 1794, Robespierre, National Convention, July 28 1794

DECLINE OF THE COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFE TY Main taining the revolutionary ideals in France proved not to be easy. By the Law of ___ ____ (passed on _____ __ _____), the Committee of ____ _____ sought to centralize the administration of France more effectively and to exercise greater control in order to check the excesses of the Reign of Terror. The activities of both the representatives on mission and the revolutionary armies were scrutinized more carefully and the campaign against Christianity was also dampened. Finally, in _____ the Committee of Public Safety turned against its radical Parisian supporters, executed the leaders of the rev olutionary Paris Commune, and turned it into a docile tool This might have been a good idea for the sake of order, but in suppressing the people who had been its chief supporters the national convention alienated an important group. At the same time, the French had been successful against their for eign foes. The military successes meant that the Terror no longer served much purpose. But the Terror continued because _______, now its dominant figure, had become obsessed with purifying the body politic of all the corrupt. Only then could the Republic of Virtue follow. Many deputies in the _____ _____, however, feared that they were not safe while Robespierre wa s free to act. An anti-Robespierre coalition in the National Convention, eager now to destroy Robespierre before he destroyed them, gathered enough votes to condemn him. Robespierre was guillotined on _____ ____ ____ beginning a reaction that brought an end to this radical stage of the French Revolution.

1821

Death of Napoleon

August 26, 1789

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

relics of feudalism, aristocratic privileges, August 4 1789, seigneurial rights, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces

Destruction of the Old Regime One of the first acts of the National Assembly (also called the Constituent Assembly because from 1789 to 1791 it was writing a new constitution) was to destroy the _____ ___ ______ or _______ _______. To some deputies, this measure was necesary to calm the peasants and restore order in the countryside, although many urban bourgeois were willing to abolish feudal ism as a matter of principle. On the night of ______ ___ _____, the National Assembly in an astonishing session voted to abolish _____ ____ as well as the fiscal privileges of _____, _____, ______, and ______.

1795-1799

Directory

Girondins, Mountain, 1792, 1793, Commune, radical change, May, June 1793

Domestic Crisis Factional disputes between the ______ and the ______ were only one aspect of France's domestic crisis in _____ and ____. In Paris, the local government was controlled by the ______, which drew a number of its leaders from the city's artisans and shop keepers. The Commune favored ______ _____ and put constant pressure on the National Convention, pushing it to ever more radical positions. As one man warned his fellow deputies, "Never forget that you were sent here by the sans-culottes." At the end of ____ and the beginning of ______ _____ the Commune organized a demon stration, invaded the National Conven- tion, and forced the arrest and execution of the leading Girondins, thereby leaving the Mountain in control of the convention.

radical mobs, middle class, 1793, treason, 387, 334, January 21 1793

Domestic Crisis representing primarily the provinces the Girondins came to fear the ____ ____ in paris and were disposed to keep the king alive as a hedge against future eventualities. The Mountain represented the interests of the city of Paris and owed much of its strength to the radical and popular elements in the city, although the members of the Mountain themselves were _____ _____. The Mountain won out at the beginning of _____ when the National Convention found the king guilty of ______ by a vote of ____ to _____ and sentenced him to death. On ______ ____ _____, the king was executed, and the destruction of the old regime was complete. Now there could be no turning back. But the execution of the king produced further challenges by creating new enemies for the Revolution both at home and abroad while strengthening those who were already its enemies.

1804-1815

Emperor Napoleon I

old order

The opposition of elites to the ___ ___ ultimately led them to take drastic action against the monarchical regime although they soon split over the question of how far to pro- ceed in eliminating traditional privileges. In a real sense, the Revolution had its origins in political grievances

equality, Friends of the Blacks, September 1791, West Indies, February 4 1794

Equality and slavery early in the French revolution the desire for _____ led to a discussion of what to do about slavery. A club called _____ ___ ____ _____ advocated The abolition of slavery which was achieved in France in _____ _____. Newtherless planters in the _____ _____, who profited greatly from the use of slaves on their sugar plantations, opposed the abolition of slavery in the French colonies. When the National Convention came into power, issue was revisited, and on ______ ___ ______, guided by ideals of equality, the government abolished slavery in the colonies.

Toussaint L Ouverture, 1746 1803, Hispaniola 1801. 1802, January 1 1804, Hispaniola

Eventually, leadership of the revolt was taken over by _____ ___ ______ in ____-______, a son of African slaves, who seized control of all of _____ by _____. Although Napo- leon had accepted the revolutionary ideal of equality, he did not deny the reports of white planters that the massacres of white planters by slaves demonstrated the savage nature of blacks. In _____ he reinstated slav- ery in the French West Indian colonies and sent an army that captured L'Ouverture who died in a French dungeon within a year. But the French soldiers, weakened by disease, soon succumbed to the slave forces. On _____ __ _____ the western part of _____, now called Haiti, announced its freedom and became the first independent state in Latin America. Despite Napoleon's efforts to the contrary, one of the French revolutionary ideals had triumphed abroad.

July 28, 1794

Execution of Robespierre

1793, National Convention, January 21, Louis XVI

Execution of the King. At the beginning of ____ the _____ _____ decreed the death of the king, and on _____ ____ of that year, _____ _____ was executed. As seen in this engraving, a new revolutionary device, the guillotine, was used to execute the king.

January 21, 1793

Execution of the king

1814

Exile to Elba

Rousseau

Existing privileges as well as social and political institutions were also coming under increasing criticism. Although the philosophes did not advo- cate revolution, their ideas circulated widely among the literate bourgeois and noble elites of France. The actual influence of the ideas of the philosophes is difficult to prove, but once the Revolution began, the revolutionary leaders frequently quoted Enlightenment writers, especially ______.

National Assembly, constitutional monarch

FOLLOWING TWO YEARS OF ARDUOUS DELIBERATIONS the _____ _____ was completing a new constitution before handing over the reigns of power to the king and the Legislative Assembly. The king, however, demonstrated his unwillingness to rule as a _______ ______ and deserted his people. The response by the people of Paris is described by well-known journalist Louis-Maris Prudhomme in his newspaper.

1793, Austria, Prussia, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Dutch Republic

FOREIGN CRISIS Domestic turmoil was paralleled by a for- eign crisis. Early in _____ after Louis XVI had been executed, much of Europe-an informal coalition of ______, ______, ______, ______, ______, and the _____ ______ -was pitted against France. Car- ried away by initial successes and their own rhetoric, the French welcomed the struggle. Danton exclaimed to the con- vention, "They threaten you with kings! You have thrown down your gauntlet to them, and this gauntlet is a king's head, the signal of their coming death" Grossly overextended, the French armies began to experience reverses, and by late spring some members of the anti-French coalition were poised for an invasion of France. If they succeeded, both the Revolution and the revolutionaries would be destroyed and the old regime rees- tablished. The Revolution had reached a decisive moment.

July 14, 1789

Fall of the Bastille

portrait, door, bed, bonnet

Far from being "famished for a glimpse of the king," the people proved, by the way in which they took the escape of Louis XVI, that they were sick of the throne and tired of paying for it. They contented themselves with making sport, in their own way, of royalty and of the man who was invested with it. The _____ of the Louis XVI was taken down from its place of honor and hung on the _____. A fruit woman took possession antoinettes _____ and used it to display her cherries, saying, "It's the nation's turn now to be comfortable." A young girl refused to let them put the queen's ______ on her head and trampled it with indignation and contempt.

Clergy

First Estate

June 20-21, 1791

Flight of the king

Committee of Public Safety, Danton, 1793, Maximilien Robespierre, 1758-1794

Forein Crisis To meet these crises, the National Convention adopted a program of curbing anarchy and counterrevolution at home while attempting to win the war by a vigorous mobilization of the people. To administer the government, the convention gave broad powers to an executive committee known as the _____ ____ _____ _______ which was dominated initially by ______. For the next twelve months, virtually the same twelve members were reelected and the gave country the leadership it needed to weather the domestic and foreign crises of _____. One of the most important members was _______ _______ from _____-_____, a small-town lawyer who had moved to Paris as a member of the Estates General. Politics was his life, and he was dedicated to using power to benefit the people, whom he loved in the abstract though not on a one-to-one basis.

June 17, 1789

Formation of National Assembly

April 20, 1792

France declares war on Austria

1778, 1787, 1788, 1789, war, royal extravagance, peasantry

France experienced a depression from _____ to ____ as a result of a loss of overseas markets and overproduction. Prices of grain and wine fell by forty and fifty percent. Peasants faced increas- ing uncertainty as rent prices remained high due to a rapidly growing population. Poor harvests in ____ and _____ sent prices wheat and rye soaring -leaving many desperate. At a time when France was experiencing economic crises, the govern ment was drastically short of money. Yet French governmental expenditures continued to grow due to costly ____ and ____ ______. The government responded by borrowing. Poor taxation policy contributed to the high debt, with most of the monarchy's funds coming from the _______. Unlike Britain where the Bank of England financed the borrowing of money low interest rates, France had no central bank, and instead relied on private loans. By 1788, the interest on the debt alone constituted half of government spending. Total debt had reached 4 billion livres (roughly s40 billion). Financial lenders, fearful they would never be repaid, were refusing to lend addi tional amounts.

taille

France's chief tax

Old Order

France's social and political structure that places the king at the top and three estates below him

Allied, Prussia, Austria, Russia

_____ states were those defeated by Napoleon and forced to join his struggle against Britain, they included _____, _____, and ______. Although the internal structure of the Grand Empire varied outside its inner core Napoleon considered himself the leader of the whole: "Europe cannot be at rest except under a single head who will have kings for his officers, who will distribute his kingdom to his lieutenants."

Marseilles

French port city; troops marched to a patriotic song as they marched from this city, the song eventually became the French national anthem

Summer 1789

Great Fear

Committee of Public Safety, Reign of Terror, Maximilien Robespierre

IN ITS TIME OF TROUBLES, THE NATIONAL CONVENTION, under the direction of the ____ ___ ____ _____, instituted the ____ __ _____ to preserve the Revolution from its internal enemies. In this selection, _______ _______, one of the committee's leading members, tries to justify the violence to which these believers in republican liberty resorted.

1796, 27, speed, deception, surprise

IN ____, AT THE AGE OF ____, Napoleon Bonaparte was given command of the French army in italy, where he won a series of stunning victories. His use of ____, _____, and ______ to overwhelm his opponents is well known. In this selection from a proclamation to his troops in Italy, Napoleon also appears to be a master of psychological warfare

Ségur Law

In 1781, in reaction to the ambitions of aristocrats newly arrived from the bourgeoisie, the _____ _____ attempted to limit the sale of military officerships to fourth- generation nobles, thus excluding newly enrolled members of the nobility

Canada, Mississippi, thirteen American colonies, stamp act, 1765

In North America, Britain controlled _____ and the lands east of the ______. After the war, British policy makers sought to obtain new revenues from the _____ _____ ______ to pay for expenses the British army had incurred in defending the colonists. An attempt to levy new taxes by a ____ ____ in ____, however, led to riots and the law's quick repeal.

1797, Egypt, India, seas, 1799, 30

In ____, Napoleon returned to France as a conquering hero and was given command of an army training to invade Eng land. Believing that the French were unready for such an inva sion, he proposed instead to strike indirectly at Britain by taking _____ and threatening _____, a major source of British wealth. But the British controlled the _____ and by ____ had cut off sup- plies from Napoleon's army in Egypt. Seeing no future in cer tain defeat, Napoleon did not hesitate to abandon his army and return to Paris, where he participated in the coup d'état that ultimately led to his virtual dictatorship of France. He was only ____ years old at the time.

Prussia, old order, Baron Heinrich von Stein, Prince Karl von Hardenberg, serfdom, city councils, army

In _____, feeling against Napoleon led to a serious reform of the _____ _____ that had been so easily crushed by the French emperor. As one Prussian officer put it, the Prussians must learn from the French example and "place their entire national ener- gies in opposition to the enemy." Under the direction of _____ ____ ____ ____ and later ____ _____ ____ _____ Prussia embarked on a series of political and military reforms, including the abo- lition of ______, election of city _____, and creation of a larger standing ____. Prussia's reforms, instituted as a response to Napoleon, enabled it to again play an important role in Euro pean affairs.

1803, britain, Austria, Russia, Third Coalition, 1805, Tsar Alexander I, Jena, Auerstadt, October 1806, Eylau, Friedland, June 1807, Treaties of Tilsit, July

In _____, war was renewed with _____, which was soon joined by _____ and _____ in the _____ _____. At the Battle of Ulm in southern Germany in ____, Napoleon surrounded and austrian army which quickly surrendered. Proceeding eastward from Ulm, Napoleon faced a large Russian army under ____ ____ __ and some Austrian troops at Austerlitz. The combined allied forces outnumbered Napoleon's forces, but the tsar chose poor terrain for the battle, and Napo- leon devastated the allied forces. Austria sued for peace, and Tsar Alexander took his remaining troops back to russia. At first, Prussia had refused to join the Third Coalition, but after Napoleon began to reorganize the German states, Prussia reversed course. Acting quickly, Napoleon crushed the Prus- sian forces in two battles at _____ and ______ in _____ ____ and then moved on to defeat the Russians, who had decided to reenter the fray, at _____ and _______ in _____ ____. The _____ ___ _____, signed by Napoleon and the rulers of Prussia and Austria at the French the beginning of _____, ended the fighting and gave the opportunity to create a new European order.

mid 1791, tax evasion, June 1791

In addition, by _____ _____, the government was still facing severe financial difficulties due to massive ____ ______. Despite all of their problems, however, the bourgeois politicians in charge remained relatively unified on the basis of their trust in the king. But Louis XVI disastrously undercut them. Quite upset with the whole turn of revolutionary events, he sought to flee France in _____ _____ and almost succeeded.

650000, September 1794, 1169000, nation in arms, Austrian Netherlands, May 1795, 1793, modern nationalism

In less than a year, the French revolutionary government had raised an army of _________ by ______ ______, it numbered _______. The Republic's army a _____ ___ _____ was the largest Europe had ever seen. It now pushed the allies back across the Rhine and even conquered the ______ ______. By ____ ______, the anti-French coalition of ______ was breaking up. Historians have focused on the importance of the French revolutionary army in the creation of _____ ______. Previously, wars had been fought between governments or ruling dynasties by relatively small armies of professional soldiers.

1791, Saint Domingue, revolution

In one French colony, slaves had already rebelled for their freedom. In _____, black slaves in the French sugar colony of _____ ______ (the western third of the island of Hispaniola), inspired by the ideals of the _______ occurring in France, revolted against French plantation owners. Slaves attacked, killing plantation owners and their families and burning their buildings. White planters retaliated with equal brutality. One wealthy French settler reported, "How can we where slaves have raised their hands against stay in a country their masters?"

December 12, Vendée, Nantes, Loire River

In the Vendée, revolutionary armies were also brutal in defeating the rebel armies. After destroying one army on _______ ____, the commander of the revolutionary army ordered that no quarter be given: "The road to Laval is strewn with corpses. Women, priests, monks, children, all have been put to death. I have spared nobody" The Terror was at its most destructive in the ______. Forty-two percent of the death sentences during the terror were passed in territories affected by the vendee rebellion. Perhaps the most notorious act of vio- lence occurred in _____, where victims were executed by sink- ing them in barges in the _____ _____.

inner core, dependent states, old order, Nobility, clergy

In the ____ ____ and ____ _____ of his Grand Empire, Napoleon tried to destroy the ____ ____. ____ and _____ everywhere in these states lost their special privileges. He decreed equality of opportunity with offices open to talent, equality before the law, and religious toleration. This spread of French revolutionary principles was an important factor in the development of liberal traditions in these countries. These reforms have led some historians to view Napoleon as the last of the enlightened absolutists.

1812

Invasion of Russia

Dumas, gendarmes, hackney

J. G. Milligen, The Revolutionary Tribunal (Paris, October 1793) In the center of the hall, under a statue of Justice, holding scales in one hand, and a sword in the other, sat _____, the President, with the other judges... .To the right were benches on which the accused were placed in several rows and gendarmes with carbines and fixed bayonets by their sides. To the left was the jury. Never can I forget the mournful of these appearance funereal processions to the place of execution. The march was opened by a detachment of mounted ______ the carts followed; they were the same carts as those that are used in Paris for carrying wood; four boards were placed across them for seats, and on each board sat two, and sometimes three victims; their hands were tied behind their backs, and the constant jolting of the cart made them nod their heads up and down, to the great amusement of the spectators. On the front of the cart stood Samson, the executioner, or one of his sons or assistants; gendarmes on foot marched by the side; then followed a ______, in which was the reporting clerk, whose duty it was to witness the execution, and then return to the public accuser's office to report the execution of what they called the law The process of execution was also a sad and heartrending spectacle. In the middle of the Place de la Revolution was erected a guillotine, in front of a colossal statue of Liberty represented seated on a rock, a cap on her head, a spear in her hand, the other reposing on a shield. On one side of the scaffold were drawn out a sufficient number of carts, with large baskets painted red, to receive the heads and bodies of the victims. Those bearing the condemned moved on slowly to the foot of the guillotine; the culprits were led out in turn, and if necessary, supported by two of the executioner's assistants, but their assistance was rarely required. Most of these unfortunates ascended the scaffold with a determined of them looked up firmly on the menacing step-many instrument of death, beholding for the last time the of rays the glorious sun, beaming on the polished axe; and I have seen some young men actually dance a few steps before they went up to be strapped to the perpendicular plane, which was then tilted to a horizontal plane in a moment, and ran on the until the neck was secured and closed in by a moving grooves board, when the head passed through what was called, in derision, "the republican toilet seat"; the weighty knife was then dropped with a heavy fall; and, with incredible dexterity and rapidity, two executioners tossed the body into the basket, while another threw the head after it.

1791-1792

Legislative Assembly

sansculottes, Robespierre, guillotine, Vendée revolt, Lyons, Marseilles, National Convention

Many victims were persons who had opposed the radical activities of the _______. _______ forced through the Convention a law that denied suspects sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal all rights to defend themselves. This law increased the of executions. In the course of nine pace months, 16,oo0 people were officially killed under the blade of the ______, a revolutionary device for the quick and efficient of heads from bodies. But the true number of the separation Terror's victims was probably totaled closer to 25o,ooo. The bulk of the Terror's executions took place during the _____ _____ and in cities such as ____ and ______, places that had been in open rebellion against the authority of the _____ _____.

brigadier general, 25

Napoleon rose quickly through the military ranks, being promoted to the rank of ____ _____ at the age of ____.

May 5, 1789

Meeting of Estates-General

radical, conservative, home

Most men, ____ or ______ agreed that a woman's place was in the _____ and not in military or political affairs. one man asked, "Since when is it considered normal for a woman to abandon the pious care of her home, the cradle of her children, to listen to speeches in the public forum?

insurgents, Louis XVI, National Guard

Paris was abandoned to the ______, and ____ _____ was soon informed that the royal troops were unreliable. Louis's acceptance of that reality signaled the collapse of royal authority; the king could no longer enforce his will. Louis then confirmed the appointment of the marquis de Lafayette as commander of a newly created citizens' militia known as the ____ ____

1801, Catholic Church, rationalist, Muslim, Catholic, 1800, Milan, Pope Pius VII

NAPOLEON AND THE CATHOLIC CHURCH In ____, Napo- leon made peace with the oldest and most implacable enemy of the Revolution, the _____ _____. Napoleon himself was devoid of any personal faith; he was an eighteenth-century _______ who regarded religion at most as a convenience. In Egypt, he called himself a _____; in France, a _____. But Napoleon saw the necessity to come to terms with the Catholic Church in order to stabilize his regime. In _____, he had declared to the clergy of _____: "It is my firm intention that the Christian, Catholic, and Roman religion shall be pre- served in its entirety.. . . No society can exist without morality; there is no good morality without religion. It is religion alone, therefore, that gives to the State a firm and durable support."a Soon after making this statement, Napoleon opened negotia- tions with ____ ____ ____ to reestablish the Catholic Church in France

French, dependent states, allied states

NAPOLEON'S GRAND EMPIRE The Grand Empire was com posed of three major parts: the _____ empire, a series of ____ _____, and ____ ____. The French empire, the inner core of the Grand Empire, consisted of an enlarged France extending to the Rhine in the east and includ- ing the western half of Italy north of Rome. Dependent states included Spain, the Netherlands, the kingdom of Italy, the Swiss Republic, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and the Con- federation of the Rhine (a union of all German states except Austria and Prussia).

60, police, Germaine de Staël, 1800

NAPOLEON'S GROWING DESPOTISM In his domestic poli- cies, then, Napoleon both destroyed and preserved aspects of the Revolution. Although equality was preserved in the law code and the opening of careers to talent, the creation of a new aristocracy, the strong protection accorded to property rights and the use of conscription for the military make it clear that much equality had been lost. Liberty had been replaced by an initially benevolent despotism that grew increasingly arbitrary. Napoleon shut down ____ of France's seventy-three newspa- pers and insisted that all manuscripts be subjected to govern- ment scrutiny before they were published. Government _____ even opened the mail. One prominent writer, Germaine de Staël (1766-1817), refused to accept Napoleon's growing des- potism. Educated in Enlightenment ideas, she set up a salon in Paris that was a prominent intellectual center by ____. She wrote novels and political works that denounced Napoleon's rule as tyrannical. Napoleon banned her books in France and exiled her to the German states, where she continued to write, although not without considerable anguish at being absent from France. "The universe is in France," she once wrote; "out- sidè it there is nothing." After the overthrow of Napoleon, Ger- maine de Staël returned to her beloved Paris, where she died two years later

1792, captain, artillery commander, Toulon, brigadier general, 1794, 25, October 1795, National Convention, major general

NAPOLEON's MILITARY CAREER Napoleon rose quickly and in the through the ranks. In ____, he became a _____ following year performed so well as an ____ ____ in the capture of _____ that he was promoted to the rank of ____ ____ in ____, when he was only ____. In ____ ____, he saved the _____ _____ from the Parisian mob, for which he was promoted to the rank of _____ _____.

nationalism, fraternité, hated, do, Spanish, British

NATIONALISM A second important factor in the defeat of Napoleon was ______. This political creed had arisen during the French Revolution in the French people's empha- sis on ______ and solidarity against other peoples. Nationalism involved the unique cultural identity of a people based on a common language, religion, and national symbols. The spirit of French nationalism had made possible the mass armies of the revolutionary and Napoleonic eras. But in spreading the principles of the French Revolution beyond France, Napoleon inadvertently brought about a spread of nationalism as well. The French aroused nationalism in two ways: by making themselves ____ oppressors, and thus arous- ing the patriotism of others in opposition to French national- ism, and by showing the people of Europe what nationalism was and what a nation in arms could ___. The lesson was not lost on other peoples and rulers. A _____ uprising against Napoleon's rule, aided by ______ support, kept a French force of 200,oo0 pinned down for years.

administrative machine, 83, self governing, prefects, local, central

Napoleon also worked on THE FRENCH BUREAUCRACY rationalizing the bureaucratic structure of France by develop- ing a powerful centralized ____ ____. During the Revolution, the National Assembly had divided France into ____ departments and replaced the provincial estates nobles, and intendants with _____ _____ assemblies. Napo- leon kept the departments but eliminated the locally elected assemblies and instituted new officials, the most important of which were the _______. As the central government's agents, appointed by the first consul (Napoleon), the prefects were responsible for supervising all aspects of _____ government. Yet they were not local men, and their careers depended on the _______ government.

1799-1804

Napoleon as first consul

1812, Russia, Continental System, June 1812, Heat, disease, Borodino, 45, 30, October, Great Retreat, January 1813, liberation, April 1814

Napoleon decided in ____ to invade ______. It was the beginning of his downfall, but Russia's defection from the _____ _____ had left him with little choice. Although aware of the risks in invading such a large country, Napoleon also knew that if the Russians were allowed to challenge the Continental System unopposed, others would soon follow suit In ____ ____, Napoleon's Grand Army of more than 600,o00 men entered Russia. Napoleon's hopes for victory depended on quickly meeting and defeating the Russian armies, but the Russian forces refused to give battle and retreated hundreds of miles while torching their own villages and countryside to pre vent Napoleon's army from finding food and forage. ____ and _____ also took their toll of the army, and the vast space of Russian territory led many troops to desert. When the Russians did stop to fight at _____ Napoleon's forces won an indecisive and costly victory. ____ thousand Russian troops were killed; the French lost ___ thousand men, but they had no replacements nearby. When the remaining troops of the Grand Army arrived in Moscow, they found the city ablaze Lacking food and supplies, Napoleon abandoned Moscow late in _____ and made the ____ _____ across Russia in terri- ble winter conditions. Only 4o,ooo troops managed to straggle back to Poland in _____ ______. This military disaster then led to a war of ______ all over Europe, culminating in Napoleon's defeat in _____ ____.

1799, Russia, Great Britain, Austria, Amiens, March 1802, North Sea, Adriatic

Napoleon's Empire and the European Response When Napoleon became consul in ____, France was at war with a second European coalition of _____, _____ _____, and _____. Napoleon realized the need for a pause. He remarked to a Prussian diplomat "that the French Revolution is not finished so long as the of war lasts. scourge I want peace, as much to settle the present French government as to save the world from chaos." The peace he sought was achieved at _____ in _____ ____ and left France with new frontiers and a number of client territories from the _____ ___ to the ______. But the peace did not last because the British and French both regarded it as temporary and had little intention of adhering to its terms.

Austria, Prussia, Russia, 1807

Napoleon's Grand Empire in 1810. Napoleon's Grand Army won a series of victories against _____, _____, and _____ that gave the French emperor full or partial control over much of Europe by ____

1789-1791

National Assembly (Constituent Assembly)

1792-1795

National Convention

1797, Committee of Public Safety, military, 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte

New elections in ____ created even more uncertainty and instability. Battered by the left and right, unable to find a defini tive solution to the country's economic problems, and still car rying on the wars left from the Committee of Public Safety the Directory increasingly relied on the ____ to maintain its power. This led to a coup d'etat in ____ in which the success- ful and popular general _____ _____ was able to seize power.

JULY 14 1789, weapons, Bastille

ON _____ ___ _____ PARISIAN CROWDS IN SEARCH OF _____ attacked and captured the royal armory known as the _____. It had also been a state prison, and its fall marked the triumph of "liberty" over despotism. This intervention of the Parisian populace saved the Third Estate from Louis XVI's attempted counterrevolution

August 1789, National Assembly, 1791

ONE OF THE IMPORTANT DOCUMENTS OF THE French Revolution, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, was adopted in _____ _____ by the ______ _____. The declaration affirmed that "men are born and remain free and equal in rights," that government must protect these natural rights, and that political power is derived from the people. Olympe de Gouges (the pen name used by Marie Gouze) was a butcher's daughter who wrote plays and pamphlets. She argued that the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen did not apply to women and composed her own Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen in _____

October 1791, Legislative Assembly

OPPOSITION FROM ABROAD By this time, most ultra royal- ists had emigrated, including the Count d'Artois, the king's younger brother, and the Count de Provence (later Louis XVIII) In _____ _____, the _____ _____ ordered the émigré nobles to return to France or face the loss of their property and be legally classified as traitors. Louis XVI vetoed this law, raising doubts about his willingness to support the new constitution. Meanwhile, some European monarchs had become concerned about the French example and feared that revolution would spread to their countries.

90, cahiers de doléances, church, nobility

Of the 282 representatives of the nobility, about ___ were liberal minded, urban oriented, and interested in the enlightened ideas of the century; half of them were under forty years of age. The activists of the Third Estate and the reform-minded individuals among the First and Second Estates had common ties in their youth, urban background, and hostility to privilege. The ____ ___ _______ or statements of local grievances, which were drafted throughout France during the elections to the Estates- General, advocated a regular constitutional government that would abolish the fiscal privileges of the _____ and _______ as the major way to regenerate the country.

August 27 1791, Emperor Leopold II, King Frederick William II, Declaration of Pillnitz

On _____ ___ _____ , _____ ____ ___ of Austria and ______ _____ _____ ____ of Prussia had issued the ______ ____ ______ , which invited other European monarchs to take "the most effectual means to put the king of France in a state to strengthen, in the most perfect liberty, the bases of a monarchical government equally becoming to the rights of sovereigns and to the well-being of the French Nation." European monarchs were too suspicious of each other to undertake such a plan; however, an increasing number of monarchs openly supported the French émigrés, especially in the Rhineland where most émigrés had fled.

October 6, flour, severed heads

On _____ ___ the king complied. As a goodwill gesture, he brought along wagonloads of ____ from the palace stores. All were escorted by women armed with pikes (some of which held the _____ _____ of the king's guards), singing, "We are bringing back the baker, the baker's wife, and the baker's boy and their son). The king now accepted the (the king, queen, National Assembly's decrees; it was neither the first nor the last occasion when Parisian crowds would affect national politics The king was virtually a prisoner in Paris, and the National Assembly, now meeting in Paris, would also feel the influence of Parisian insurrectionary politics.

october 5, Hôtel de Ville, Lafayette

On ______ ____ after marching to the _____ ___ _____, the city hall, to the demand bread, crowds of Parisian women numbering in thousands set off for versailles 12 miles away to confront the king and the National Assembly. One eyewitness was amazed at the sight of "detachments of women coming up from every direction, armed with broomsticks, lances, pitchforks, swords, pistols and muskets." After meeting with a delegation of these women, who tearfully described how their children were starving for lack of bread, Louis XVI promised them grain supplies for Paris, thinking that this would end the protest. But the women's action had forced the Paris National Guard under ________ to follow their lead and march to Versailles. The crowd now insisted that the royal family return to Paris.

Varennes, loyal king, kidnapped, October 1791

Once recognized in _____ louis XVI could have escaped, but while waiting for a larger military escort, the National Guardsmen and members of the National Assembly arrived instead and brought him back to Paris. The flight to Varennes shattered the illusion of a _____ _____. Though radicals called for the king to be deposed, the members of the National Assembly, fearful of the popular forces in Paris calling for a republic, chose to ignore the king's flight and pretended that he had been _______. In this unsettled situation, with a discredited and seemingly disloyal monarch, the new Legislative Assembly held its first session in _____ ____

Thermidorean Reaction, Committee of Public Safety, Jacobin club, Parisian, February 21 1795, laissez faire

Reaction and the Directory After the execution of Robespierre, revolutionary fervor began to give way to the _____ _______, named after the month of Thermidor. The Terror began to abate. The National Convention curtailed the power of the _____ ___ ____ _____, shut down the ____ _____, and attempted to provide better protection for its deputies against the ______ mobs. Churches were allowed to reopen for public worship, and a decree of _____ ___ _____, gave freedom of worship to all cults. Economic regulation was dropped in favor of _____ ____ policies, another clear indication that moderate forces were regaining control of the Revolution.

outside the sovereign

Reign of Terror and public safety whatever is outside of the sovereign is an enemy. the twelve men, in the name of the republic, took it upon themselves to ascertain the sovereign will of the french and to kill their enemies as "____ ____ ____"

1791, cannon, Tuileries, National Assembly

Response to the King's Flight to Varennes Louis-Marie Prudhomme, Révolutions de Paris in _______. It was not until ten o'clock in the morning that the municipal government announced, by firing a ______ thrice, the unex- pected event of the day. But for three hours the news had already been passing from mouth to mouth and was circulat- ing in all quarters of the city. During these three hours many outrages might have been committed. The king had gone. This news produced a moment of anxiety, and everybody ran in a crowd to the palace of the ______ to see if it were true; but every one turned almost immediately to the hall where the ______ ______ met, declaring that their king was in there and that Louis XVI might go where he please.

civil, liberty, constitutional government, revolutionary government, good, enemies

Robespierre speech on revolutionary government The revolutionary government has to summon extraordinary activity to its aid precisely because it is at war. It is subjected to less binding and less uniform regulations, because the circumstances in which it finds itself are tempestuous and shifting above all because it is compelled to deploy, swiftly and incessantly, new resources to meet new and pressing dangers. The principal concern of constitutional government is ____. _____; that of revolutionary government, public liberty. Under a ______ ______ little more is required than to protect the individual against abuses by the state, whereas _____ ______ is obliged to defend the state itself against the factions that assail it from every quarter. To ____ citizens revolutionary government owes the full protection of the state; to the _____ of the people it owes only death.

government, constitutional government, revolutionary government, Revolution, constitution

Robespierre, Speech on Revolutionary Government The theory of revolutionary government is as new as the Revolution that created it....It behooves us to explain it to all in order that we may rally good citizens, at least, in support of the principles governing the public interest. It is the function of _______ to guide the moral and physical energies purposes of the nation toward the for which it was established. The object of ______ ______ is to preserve the Republic; the object of the ______ ______ is to establish it. ______ is the war waged by liberty against its enemies; a ________ is that which crowns the edifice of freedom once victory has been won and the nation is at peace.

July 4, 1776

The Declaration of Independence, approved on _____ __ ____ by the Second Continental Congress, opened the door to the war for American independence. John Trumbull's famous painting, The Signing Declaration, shows the members of the committee responsible for the Declaration of Independence (from left to right, John Adams, Roger Sherman, Robert Livingston, Thomas Jefferson, and Benjamin Franklin) standing before John Hancock, president of the Second Continental Congress.

Nobles

Second Estate

republican liberty

The Domestic Policies of Emperor Napoleon Napoleon often claimed that he had preserved the gains of the Revolution for the French people. The ideal of _____ ______ had, of course, been destroyed by Napoleon's thinly disguised autocracy. But were revolutionary ideals maintained in other ways? An examination of his domestic policies will enable us to judge the truth falsehood of Napoleon's assertion.

commoners

The Third Estate, the ______ of society, constituted the overwhelming majority of the French population.

Public Safety, spring 1793, radical, General Maximum

THE "REPUBLIC OF VIRTUE" Along with the Terror, the Committee of _____ _____ took other steps both to control France and to create a new republican order and new republican citizens. By ____ _____ the committee was sending representatives on mission" as agents of the central government to all departments to explain the war emergency measures and to implement the laws dealing with the wartime emergency. The committee also attempted to provide some economic controls, especially since members of the more ______ working class were advocating them. It established a system of req uisitioning food supplies for the cities enforced by the forays of revolutionary armies into the countryside. The Law of the _____ _____ established price controls on goods declared of first necessity, ranging from food and drink to fuel and cloth- ing. The controls failed to work very well because the govern- ment lacked the machinery to enforce them.

Reign of Terror, Queen Marie Antoinette, Girondins, Olympe de Gouges

THE COMMITTEE OF PUBLIC SAFETY AND THE REIGN OF TERROR To meet the domestic crisis, the National Conven- tion and the Committee of Public Safety instituted the "_____ ___ _____" Revolutionary courts were organized to protect the Republic from its internal enemies, "who either by their conduct, their contacts, their words or their writings, showed themselves to be supporters of tyranny or enemies of liberty" or "who have not constantly manifested their attachment to the revolution." Victims of the Terror ranged from royalists, such as _______ _____ ______, to former revolutionary _______, including _______ ____ ______, the chief advocate for political rights for women and even included thousands of peasants.

Abbé Sieyès, Everything, Nothing, something, 1789

THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY The failure of the government to assume the leadership at the opening of the Estates-General created an opportunity for the Third Estate to push its demands for voting by head. Since it had double representation, with the assistance of liberal nobles and clerics, it could turn the three estates into a single-chamber legislature that would reform France in its own way. One representative, the _____ _____ issued a pamphlet in which he asked, What is the Third Estate? _____. What has it been thus far in the political order? _____. What does it demand? To become _____. Sieyès's sentiment, however, was not representative of the general feeling in _____. Most delegates still wanted to make changes within a framework of respect for the authority of the king; revival or reform did not mean the overthrow of traditional institutions.

radical, Temple of Reason

THE PHENOMENON OF DE - CHRISTIAN , ZATION PRODUCED some unusual spectacles during the _____ stage of the French Revolution. This selection from the minutes of the National Convention describes how the cathedral of Notre ame was put to new use as the _____ ___ _____.

sea power, Trafalgar, 1805, Continental System, 1806, 1807, 1810

THE PROBLEM OF GREAT BRITAIN Like Hitler 130 years later, Napoleon hoped that his Grand Empire would last for centuries; like Hitler's empire, it collapsed almost as rapidly as it had been formed. Two major reasons help explain this: the survival of Great Britain and the force of nationalism. Britain's survival was due primarily to its ____ ____. As long as Britain ruled the waves, it was almost invulnerable to military attack. Although Napoleon contemplated an invasion of England and even collected ships for it, he could not overcome the British navy's decisive defeat of a combined French-Spanish fleet at ______ in ____. Napoleon then turned to his _____ _____ to defeat Britain. Put into effect British goods between ____ and ____, it attempted to prevent from reaching the European continent in order to weaken Britain economically and destroy its capacity to wage war. But the Continental System failed. Allied states resented the ever-tightening French economic hegemony; some began to cheat and others to resist, thereby opening the door to British collaboration. New markets in the eastern Mediterranean and in Latin America also provided compensation for the British. Indeed, by ____, British overseas exports were approaching record highs.

traitors

THE REIGN OF TERROR CREATED A REPRESSIVE environment in which revolutionary courts often acted quickly to condemn _____ to the revolutionary cause. In this account, an English visitor describes the court, the procession to the scene of execution, and the final execution procedure.

radical, Sunday February 25 1793, Tuesday, 1793, Revolutionary Republican Women

THE ROLE OF WOMEN Women continued to play an active role in this ______ phase of the French Revolution. As specta- tors at sessions of revolutionary clubs and the National Con- vention, women made the members and deputies aware of their demands. When on _____ _____ ____ _____, a group of women appealed formally to the National Convention for lower bread prices, the convention reacted by adjourning until ______. The women responded bitterly by accosting the depu- ties: "We are adjourned until Tuesday; but as for us, we adjourn ourselves until Monday. When our children ask us for milk we don't adjourn them until the day after tomorrow." In ____, two women-an actress and a chocolate manufacturer-founded the Society for ______ ______ _____. Composed viewed largely of working-class women, this Parisian group itself as a "family of sisters" and vowed "to rush to the defense of the Fatherland."

peasants

THE THIRD ESTATE: The ____ who alone constituted 75 to 80 percent of the total population, were by far the largest segment of the third Estate. They owned about 35 to 40 percent land, although their landholdings varied from area to area and more than half had no or little land on which to survive.

June 20, 1789

Tennis Court Oath

prison, marquis de Launay

The Bastille had also been a state _____ but now held only seven prisoners (five forgers and two insane persons). There were few weapons there except those in the hands of the small group of defenders. The Bastille was an imposing fortress with eight towers connected by 9-foot-thick walls. It was easily defended, but its commander, the _____ ___ _____, was more inclined to negotiate. Although fighting erupted, de Launay refused to open fire with his cannon, and the garrison soon surrendered. In the minds of the Parisians who fought there, the fall of the Bastille was a great victory, and it quickly became a popular symbol of triumph over despotism

Parliament, assembly

The British envisioned a single empire with Parliament as the supreme authority throughout. Only ______ could make laws for all the people in the empire, including the American colonists. The Americans, in contrast, had their own representative assemblies. They believed that neither the king nor Parliament had any right to interfere in their internal affairs and that no tax could be levied without the consent of an ______ whose members actually represented the people.

old order, July 1790, bishops, priests, clergy 54, enemy

The Catholic Church was viewed as an important pillar of the ____ _____, and it soon also felt the impact of reform. Because of the need for money, most of the lands of the church were confiscated, and assignats, a form of paper money, were issued based on the collateral of the newly nationalized church property. The church was also secularized . In _____ _____ , the new Civil Constitution of the Clergy was put into effect. Both _____ and _______ of the Catholic Church were to be elected by the people and paid by the state. All _____ were also required to swear an oath of alle- giance to the Civil Constitution. Since the pope forbade it, only ____ percent of the French parish clergy took the oath, and the majority of bishops refused. This was a critical development because the Catholic Church, still an important institution in the life of the French people, now became an ______ of the Revolution. The Civil Constitution has often been viewed as a serious tactical blunder on the part of the National Assembly for by arousing the opposition of the church, it gave the counter- revolution a popular base from which to operate.

French society

The Estates-General consisted of representatives from the three orders of

double representation, 600, 300, two thousand

The Estates-General consisted of representatives from the three orders of French society. In the elections for the Estates General, the government had ruled that the Third Estate should get _____ _______ (it did, after all, constitute 97 percent of the population). Consequently, while both the First Estate (the clergy) and the Second (the nobility) had about _____ delegates each, the commoners had almost ______ representa- tives. Two-thirds of the latter were people with legal training, and three-fourths were from towns with more than ______ ______ inhabitants, giving the Third Estate a particularly strong legal and urban representation.

Versailles, May 5 1789, one

The Estates-General opened at _____ on ____ __ ____. It was divided from the start over the question of whether voting should be by order or by head (each delegate having _____ vote)

clergy, 130000, church

The First Estate consisted of the _____ and numbered about ______ people. The _____ owned approximately ro percent of the land.

taille, livres, parish priests

The First Estate consisted of the clergy and numbered about 130,o00 people. The church owned approximately 10 percent of the land. Clergy were exempt from the _____ (TY), France's chief tax, although the church had agreed to pay a "voluntary contribution every five years to the state. The church was very wealthy; income from church property and other investments produced almost 300 million ____ annually -half the income of the royal crown. Clergy were also radically divided, since the higher clergy, stemming from aristocratic families, shared the interests of the nobility and lived in palaces and townhouses, while the ____ _____ were often poor commoners.

Austrian Netherlands, May, June, 20,000 National Guardsmen, Marseillaise

The French fared badly in the initial fighting. A French army invaded the _____ _______ (Belgium) but was routed, and Paris now feared invasion. In fact, if the Austrians and Prus- sians had cooperated, they might have seized Paris in _____ or _____. Alarmed by the turn of events, the Legislative Assembly called for _______ _____ ______ from the provinces to come and defend Paris. One group came from marseilles sing- ing a rousing war song, soon known as the _______ that three years later became the French national anthem.

robe

The French nobility was also divided. The nobility of the _____ derived their status from officeholding, a pathway that had often enabled commoners to attain noble rank. These nobles now dominated the royal law courts and important administrative offices.

reform, new taxes, financial

The French parlements often frustrated efforts at _____. These thirteen law courts, which were responsible for registering royal decrees, could block royal edicts by not registering them. Although Louis XIV had forced them into submission, the parlements had gained new strength in the eighteenth century as they and their noble ,judges assumed the role of defenders of "liberty" against the arbitrary power of the monarchy. As noble defenders, how- ever, they often pushed their own interests as well, especially by blocking _____ _____. This last point reminds us that one of the fundamental problems facing the monarchy was _____.

western, Vendée, Lyons, marseilles, indivisible republic

The National Convention itself still did not rule all of France. The authority of the convention was repudiated in ______ France, particularly in the department of the ______, by peasants who revolted against the new military draft. The Vendean rebellion soon escalated into a full- blown counterrevolutionary appeal: "Long live the king and our good priests. We want our king, our priests and the old regime." Some of France's major provincial cities, including _____ and Marseilles also began to break from the central authority. Arguing as Marseilles did that away "it is time for the anarchy of a few men of blood to stop.," these cities favored a decentralized republic to free themselves from the ascendancy of Paris. In no way did they favor breaking up the "______ ______"

nobles, robe, order, separately, veto power, aristocratic, reforms, patriots, lovers of liberty, bourgeoisie, nobles, society of thirty

The Parlement of Paris, consisting of ____ of the _____, had advocated voting by _____ according to the form used in 1614. Each order would vote _____; each would have _____ _____ over the other two, thus guaranteeing ______ control over _______. But opposition to the Parlement's proposal arose from a group of reformers calling themselves ______ or "_____ ___ ______" Although they claimed to represent the nation, they consisted primarily of _____ and _____. One group of patriots known as the _____ ___ ______ drew most of its members from the salons of paris. the american revolution had directly influenced some of this largely noble group but all had been affected by the ideas of the Enlightenment and favored reforms made in the light of reason and untility.

Paris Commune, Georges Danton, 1759-1794, Prussian army, September 1792

The Radical Revolution Before the National Convention met, the _____ ______ dominated the political scene. Led by the newly appointed minister of justice, _____ _____ from _____-_____, the sans-culottes sought revenge on those who had aided the king and resisted the popular will. The advance of a _____ ____ on Paris intensified the fears of treachery. Thou- sands of presumed traitors were arrested and then massacred as ordinary Parisian tradespeople and artisans solved the problem of overcrowded prisons by mass executions of their inmates. In _____ ____ , the newly elected National Convention began its sessions. Although it was called to draft a new constitution, it also acted as the sovereign ruling body of France.

45, September 21, Girondins, Mountain, Jacobin club

The Radical Revolution Socially, the composition of the National Convention was similar to that of its predecessors. Dominated by lawyers, pro- fessionals, and property owners, it also included for the first time a handful of artisans. Two-thirds of the deputies were under age ____ and almost all had had political experience as a result of the Revolution. Almost all were also intensely distrustful of the king and his activities. It was therefore no surprise that the convention's first major step in ______ ____ was to abolish the monarchy and establish a republic. But that was about as far as members of the convention could agree, and the National Convention soon split into factions over the fate of the king. The two most important were the ______ (so-called because their leaders came from the department of Gironde, located in southwestern France) and the ______ (so-called because its members' seats were on the side of the convention hall where the floor slanted upward) Both were members of the_____ _____.

radical, man, bonnet

The Role of Women Despite the importance of women to the revolutionary cause, male revolutionaries reacted disdainfully to female par- ticipation in political activity. In the _____ phase of the Revolu- tion, the Paris Commune outlawed women's clubs and forbade women to be present at its meetings. One of its members explained why: It is horrible, it is contrary to all laws of nature for a woman to want to make herself a ____. The Council must recall that some time ago these denatured women, these viragos wandered through the markets with the red cap to sully that badge of liberty and wanted to force all women to take off the modest headdress that is appropriate for them the _____. Is it the place of women to propose motions? Is it the place of women to place themselves at the head of our armies?" basically they didnt want women to particapate because they once acted so crazy.

George Washington

The Second Continental Congress had authorized the formation of a Continental Army in 1732-1799 under _____ ____ who had political experience in Virginia and military experience in the French and Indian War, was a good choice for the job.

nobility, 350000

The Second Estate was the ______ composed of no more than ____ people who netherless owned about 25 to 30 percent of the land.

Louis XV, Louis XVI

The Second Estate: Under ____ ___ and _____ ___ the nobility had continued to play an impor- tant and even crucial role in French society, holding many of the military, the law the leading positions in the government, courts, and the higher church offices.

Notre Dame, Temple of Reason, National Convention, Liberty

The Temple of Reason A member puts in the form of a motion the demand of the citizens of Paris that the metropolitan cathedral called _____ _____ be henceforth the _____ ___ ______. A member requests that the goddess of Reason place herself at the side of the president. The attorney of the Commune conducts her to the desk. The president and the secretaries give her the fraternal kiss in the midst of applause A member demands that the ______ ______ march in a body, in the midst of the People, to the Temple of Reason to sing the hymn of ______ there This proposal is passed. The Convention marches with the People to the Temple of Reason in the midst of general enthusiasm and joyful acclamations.

October 5 1789, Versailles, Louis XVI, bread

The Women's March Versailles. On _____ ___ _____, thousands of Parisian women marched to _____ to confront King _____ _____ and to demand ______ for their starving children. This contemporary print shows a group of dedicated marchers returning from Versailles with the King and his guard's heads on pikes.

Bill of Rights

The _____ ___ ____ guaranteed freedom of religion, speech, press, and assembly, as well as the right to bear arms, protection against unreasonable searches and arrests, trial by jury due process of law, and protection of property rights. Many of these rights were derived from the natural rights philosophy of the eighteenth-century philosophes, which was popular the American colonists. Is it any wonder that many among European intellectuals saw the American Revolution as the embodiment of the Enlightenment's political dreams?

National Convention, Public Safety

The _____ _____ and its Committee of _____ _____ had accomplished a great deal. By creating a nation in arms, they preserved the French Revolution and prevented it from being destroyed by its foreign enemies, who, if they had succeeded, would have reestablished the old monarchi- cal order. Domestically, the Revolution had also been saved from the forces of counterrevolution. The committee's tac- tics, however, provided an example for the use of violence in domestic politics that has continued to bedevil the Westerrn world to this day.

agrarian revolts, Great Fear, July 20, August 6, National Assembly

The _____ _____ served as a backdrop to the _____ _____ , a vast panic that spread like wildfire through France between _____ ___ and _____ ___. Fear of invasion by foreign troops, aided by a supposed aristocratic plot, encouraged the formation of more citizens' militias and permanent committees. The great- est impact of the agrarian revolts and the Great Fear was on the _____ _____ meeting in Versailles. We will now examine its attempt to reform France.

National Assembly, 1789, eighty-three, bourgeoisie

The ______ ______ also undertook an administrative restructuring of France. In _____ it abolished all the old local and provincial divisions and divided France into _____ _____ departments, roughly equal in size and population. Depart- ments were in turn divided into districts and communes, all supervised by elected councils and officials who oversaw financial, administrative, judicial, and ecclesiastical institutions within their territories. although both bourgeois and aristocrats were eligible for offices based on property qualifications few nobles were elected leaving local and departmental government in the hands of the _______ especially lawyers of various types.

Olympe de Gouges, Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen

The declaration also raised another important issue. Did the proclamation's ideal of equal rights for "all men" include women? Many deputies insisted that it did, at least in terms of civil liberties, provided that, as one said, "women do not aspire to exercise political rights and functions." ______ ___ _____ a playwright and pamphleteer, refused to accept this exclusion of women from political rights. Echo- ing the words of the official declaration, she penned a Declara tion of the _____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ______ _____ in which she insisted that women should have the same rights as as men. The National Assembly ignored her demands.

Elba, Tuscany, Bourbon monarchy, Louis XVIII, March 20 1815

The defeated emperor of the French was allowed to play ruler on the island of ____, off the coast of _____, while the _____ _____ was restored to France in the of person _____ ______, brother of the executed king. But the new king had little support, and Napoleon, bored on Elba, slipped back into France. When troops were sent to capture him, Napo- leon opened his coat and addressed them: "Soldiers of the fifth regiment, I am your Emperor If there is a man among you would kill his Emperor, here I am!" No one fired a shot. Shouting "Vive l'Empéreur! Vive l'Empéreur," the troops went over to his side, and Napoleon entered Paris in triumph on _____ ____ ______.

5, Council Elders, Council 500, National Convention, October, Napoleon Bonaparte

The executive authority or Directory consisted of ___ directors elected by the _____ of _____ from a list presented by the ____ of ____. To ensure some continuity from the old order to the new, the members of the _____ _____ ruled that two-thirds of the new members of the National Assembly must be chosen from their ranks. This decision set off disturbances in Paris and an insurrection at the beginning of _____ that was dispersed after fierce combat by an army contingent under the artillery general ______ ______. This would be the last time in the great French Revolution that the city of Paris would attempt to impose its wishes on the central government. Even more significant and ominous was this use of the army, which made it clear that the Directory from the beginning had to rely on the military for survival.

peasants, Napoleon, January 1 1806, radical, time

The government could hardly expect _____ to follow the new calendar when government officials were ignoring it. ______ later perceived that the revolutionary calendar was politically unpopular, and he simply abandoned it on _____ ____ ____. In addition to its anti-Christian function, the revolution- calendar had also served to mark the Revolution as a new ary historical beginning, a _____ break in time. Revolutionary upheavals often project millenarian expectations, the hope that a new age is dawning. The revolutionary dream of a new order presupposed the creation of a new human being freed from the old order and its symbols, a new citizen surrounded by a framework of new habits. Restructuring ____ itself offered the opportunity to forge new habits and create a lasting new order.

Jacobin, radicals, Gracchus Babeuf, Babeuf, Conspiracy Equals, 1796, 1797

The government of the Directory had to contend with political enemies from both ends of the political spectrum. On the right, royalists who dreamed of restoring the monarchy continued their agitation; some still toyed with violent means. On the left, ____ hopes of power were revived by continu- ing economic problems, especially the total collapse in the value of the assignats. Some ______ even went beyond earlier goals, especially _____ _____, who sneered, "What is the French Revolution? An open war between patricians and plebeians, between rich and poor." ______, who was appalled at the misery of the common people, wanted to abolish private property and eliminate private enterprise. His ______ of _____ was crushed in _____ and he was executed in _____.

government finances

The immediate cause of the French Re volution was the near collapse of

day laborers, flour mill, community oven, winepress

The landless peasants were ____ _____ who increasingly migrated to Paris in search of work; they were the first to suffer in hard times. Serfdom no longer existed on any large scale in France, but French peasants still had obligations to their local landlords that they deeply resented. These relics of feudalism included the of payment fees for the use of village facilities, such as the ____ ____, _____ _____, and ______, as well as tithes to the clergy. The nobility also maintained the right to hunt on peasants' land

estates

The long-range or indirect causes of the French Revolution must first be sought in the condition of French society. Before the Revolution, French society was grounded in the inequality of rights or the idea of privilege. During the eighteenth century the population had increased by forty-four percent from 18 mil- lion to 26 million. It was a young country, with 36 percent under the age of twenty, and 40 percent between twenty and forty and it was divided, as it had been since the Middle Ages, into legal categories known as the three orders or _____

coercion, republican, décadi, wives

The new calendar faced intense popular opposition, and the revolutionary government relied primarily on _____ to win its acceptance. Journalists, for example, were commanded to use _______ dates in their newspaper articles. But many peo- ple refused to give up the old calendar, as one official reported: Sundays and Catholic holidays, even if there are ten in a row have for some time been celebrated with as much and pomp splendor as before. The same cannot be said of _____, which is observed by only a small handful of citizens. The first to disobey the law are the _____ of public officials, who dress up on the holidays of the old calendar and abstain from work more religiously than anyone else."

bastille, july 14

The most famous of the urban risings was the fall of the ______. The king's attempt to take defensive measures by increasing the number of troops at the arsenals in Paris and along the roads to Versailles served not to intimidate but rather to inflame public opinion. Increased mob activity in Paris led Parisian leaders to form the so-called Permanent Committee to keep order. Needing arms, they orga- nized a popular force to capture the Invalides, a royal armory and in ____ ___ attacked the bastille another royal armory.

government, ferocity, restraint

The new French army, however, was the creation of a "peo- ple's ______; its wars were now "people's" wars. The entire nation was to be involved in the war. But when dynastic wars became people's wars, warfare increased in _____ and lack of ______. Although innocent civilians had suffered in the earlier struggles, now the carnage became appalling at times The wars of the French revolutionary era opened the door to the total war of the modern world.

Reign of Terror, Republic of Virtue

The period of the Directory was an era of material istic reaction to the suffering and sacrifices that had been demanded in the ____ __ ____ and the ____ ____ ____. Speculators made fortunes in property by taking advantage of the government's severe monetary problems. Elaborate fashions, which had gone out of style because of their iden tification with the nobility, were worn again. Gambling and roulette became popular once more. Groups of "gilded youth"-sons of the wealthy, with long hair and rumpled clothes-took to the streets to insult former supporters of the Revolution.

Jacobins, August 4 1789, October 1789, spring 1790

The political clubs grew out of informal gatherings in the coffee houses and public spaces that had accompanied the elections to the Estates General. The most famous were the ______ who first emerged as a gathering of more radical deputies at the beginning of the Revolution, especially during the events of the night of ____ ___ _____. After _____ ____ they occupied the former Jacobin convent in Paris. Jacobin clubs also formed in the provinces, where they served primarily as discussion groups. Eventually, they joined together in an extensive correspondence network and by _____ _____ were seeking affiliation with the Parisian club. One year later, there were nine hundred Jacobin clubs in France associ- ated with the Parisian center. Members were usually the elite of their local societies, but they also included artisans and tradespeople

liberty, property, security, resistance, oppression, taxation, freedom, equal rights, talent

This charter of basic liberties reflected the ideas of the major phi- losophes of the French Enlightenment and also owed much to the American Declaration of Independence and American state constitutions. The declaration began with a ringing affirmation of "the natural and imprescriptible rights of man to "_____, ______, ______, and _______ to _____. It went on to affirm the destruction of aristocratic privileges by proclaiming an end to exemptions from _______, ______ and _____ _____ for all men, and access to public office based on ______. The monarchy was restricted, and all citizens were to have the right to take part in the legislative process. Free- dom of speech and press were coupled with the outlawing of arbitrary arrests

skilled artisans, shopkeepers, wage earners

another part of the Third Estate consisted of _____ ____, _____, and other ____ _____ in the cities. Although the eighteenth century had been a period of rapid urban growth, 90 percent of French towns had fewer than 10,000 inhabitants; only nine cities had more than 50,000. In the eighteenth cen- tury, consumer prices, especially the price of bread, rose faster than wages, causing these urban groups to experience a decline in purchasing power.

8, 25, 6, 60, twelve men, Louis Saint Just, Committee of Public Safety

To a great extent, the Terror demonstrated little class preju- dice. Estimates are that the nobles constituted ___ percent of its victims; the middle classes ___, the clergy ___, and the peasant and laboring classes ___. To the Committee of Public Safety this bloodletting was only a temporary expedient. Once the war and domestic emergency were over, "the republic of vir- tue" would ensue, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen would be fully established. Although theoreti- cally a republic, the French government during the Terror was of _____ ____ who ordered the execution of led by a group people as national enemies. But how did they justify this? ____ ____ ____ one of the younger members of the _____ ___ ____ ____, explained their rationalization in a speech to the convention: "Since the French people has mani- fested its will, everything opposed to it is outside the sovereign.

August 23, 1793

Universal mobilization of the nation

1813-1814

War of liberation

president, senate, house representatives, supreme court

We needed a new constitution so the federal government was divided into three branches. • A _____ would serve as the chief executive with the power to execute laws, veto the legislature's acts, supervise foreign affairs, and direct military forces. •Legislative power was vested in the second branch of government, a bicameral legislature composed of the _____, elected by the state legislatures, and the _____ of _____, elected directly by the people. •The ____ _____ and other courts "as deemed necessary" by Congress served as the third branch of government. They would enforce the Constitu as the "supreme law of the land."

June 17 1789, National Assembly, constitution, June 20, tennis court, Tennis Court Oath, June 17, June 20, lawyers, Third Estate, First Estate, Louis XVI

When the First Estate declared in favor of voting by order, the Third Estate felt com- pelled to respond in a significant fashion. On ______ ___ ______ the Third Estate voted to constitute itself a _____ _____ and decided to draw up a _______. Three days later, on _____ ___, the deputies of the Third Estate arrived at their meet- ing place only to find the doors locked; thereupon they moved to a nearby indoor _____ _____ and swore (in what has come to be known as the _____ _____ ____) that they would continue to meet until they had produced a French constitution. These actions of _____ ____ and ____ ___ constituted the first step in the French Revolution, since the Third Estate had no legal right to act as the National Assembly. This revolution, largely the work of the _____ of the _____ _____, was soon in jeopardy however, as the king sided with the _____ _____ and threatened to dissolve the Estates-General. _____ ____ now prepared to use force. The revolution of the lawyers appeared doomed

legal equality, religious toleration, economic freedom, Jerome, Westphalia

Within his empire, Napoleon demanded obedience, in part because he needed a common front against the British and in part because his growing egotism required obedience to his will. But as a child of the Enlightenment and the Revolution, Napoleon also sought acceptance everywhere of certain revolu- tionary principles, including _____ _____, _____ ______ and _____ _____. As he explained to his brother _____, shortly after making him king of the new German state of _______

October 5-6, 1789

Women's march to Versailles king's return to Paris

Nobles

_____ also controlled much heavy industry in France, either through investment or by ownership of mining and metallurgical enterprises.

October 5 1793, September 22 1792, 2, décades, rest day, Sundays, saints, revolutionary festivals, five, sixth, liberty, equality

Yet another manifestation of de-Christianization was the republican calendar on ______ __ _____. adoption of a new Years would no longer be numbered from the birth of Jesus but from _____ ____ ______, the day the French Republic was proclaimed. Thus, at the time the calendar was adopted, the French were already living in year ___. The calendar contained twelve months; each month consisted of three, ten-day weeks called ____ with the tenth day of each week a ____ ____. This eliminated ______ and sunday worship services and put an end to the ordering of French lives by a Christian calendar that emphasized Sundays, called _____ days and church holidays and festivals. Religious celebrations were to be replaced by _____ ____. Especially important were the ___ days (six in leap years) left over in the calendar at the end of the year. These days were to form a half-week of festivals to celebrate the revolutionary virtues. Virtue, Intel- ligence, Labor, Opinion, and Rewards. The ____ extra day in a leap year would be a special festival day when French citizens would "come from all parts of the Republic to celebrate _____ and _____, to cement by their embraces the national frater- nity" Of course, ending church holidays also reduced the num- ber of nonworking holidays from fifty-six to thirty-two, a goal long recommended by eighteenth-century economic theorists.

Nationalist, German, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, radically, 19th

____ movements also arose in the ____ states where a number of intellectuals advocated a cultural national- ism based on the unity of the German people. The philosopher _____ _____ _____ (1762- 1814), who had at first welcomed the French Revolution for free- ing the human spirit, soon became a proponent of a German national spirit ______ different from that of France. Although philosophical voices like Fichte's did little to overthrow the French, they did awaken a dream of German nationalism that would bear fruit later in the ____ century.

Napoleon, 1799, 1815, 10, military, supreme power

______ (1769-1821) dominated both French and European history from ____ to ____. The coup that brought him to power occurred exactly ____ years after the outbreak of the French Rev- olution. In a sense, Napoleon brought the Revolution to an end, but he was also its child; he even called himself the Son of the Revolution. The French Revolution had made possible his rise first in the ______ and then to _____ _____ in France. Even beyond this, Napoleon had once said, "I am the Revolution," and he never ceased to remind the French that they owed to him the preservation of all that was beneficial in the revolution- ary progrm

January 1791, Legislative Assembly, Austria, April 20 1792

______ _____ the ______ ______ sent an ultimatum to austria, demanding that the Holy Roman emperor, Leopold II, expel all French émigrés. The emperor refused, and the Legis- lative Assembly declared war on _______ on ______ ___ ______. Why take such a step in view of its obvious dangers? Many people in France wanted war. Reactionaries hoped that a preoccupation with war would cool off the Revolution; French defeat, which seemed likely in view of the army's disintegration, might even lead to the restoration of the old regime. Leftists hoped that war would consolidate the Revolution at home and spread it to all of Europe.

Maximilien Robespierre, National Convention, July 28 1794

_______ _____, eventually became the dominant figure in the Committee of Public Safety. Fear of Robespierre, however, led many in the _____ _____ to condemn him, and on _____ ___ _____, he executed

1801, bishops, seminaries, Concordat, state

bothbsides gained from the concordat that napoleon arranged with the pope in ____. although the pop gained the right to depose French _____, this gave him little real con- trol over the French Catholic Church, since the state retained the right to nominate bishops. The Catholic Church was also permitted to hold processions again and reopen the ______. But Napoleon gained more than the pope. Just by signing the ______, the pope acknowledged the accomplishments of the Revolution. Moreover, the pope agreed not to raise the question of the church lands confiscated during the Revolution. Contrary to the pope's wishes, Catholicism was not reestab- lished as the state religion; Napoleon was only willing to rec- ognize Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the French people. The clergy would be paid by the _____, but to avoid the appearance of a state church, Protestant ministers were also put on the state payroll. As a result of the Concordat, the Catholic Church was no longer an enemy of the French govern- ment. At the same time, the agreement reassured those wheo had acquired church property during the Revolution that they could keep it, an assurance that obviously made them support ers of the Napoleonic regime.

charles de calonne, estates general, taxes

dealing with the finacial crisis the king's finance ministry wrestled with the problem but met with resistance. The parlements refused to assist in fiscal reform, fearing that it would involve higher taxes. In 1786, _____ __ _____ the controller general of finance, finding himself unable to borrow any more, proposed a complete revamping of the fiscal and administra- tive system of the state. To gain support, Calonne convened an "assembly of notables" early in 1787. This gathering of nobles, prelates, and magistrates refused to cooperate, and the government's attempt to go it alone brought further disaster On the verge of a complete financial collapse, the government was finally forced to call a meeting of the ______ ____, the French parliamentary body that had not met since 1614. By call ing the Estates-General, the government was virtually admit- that the consent of the nation was required to raise _____.

apathetic

half the colonial population was ____ at the beginning of the struggle, the patriots, like the Loyalists constituted a minority of the population.

livres

half the income of the royal crown

patriots

managed to win over many of the uncommitted, either by persuasion or by force.

aristocrats, bourgeoisie

many members of the bourgeoisie and nobility formed a single class. Finally, the new and critical ideas of the Enlightenment proved attractive to both _____ and _____. Members of both groups shared a common world of liberal political thought. The old view that the French Revolution was the result of the conflict between two rigid orders, the bourgeoisie and the nobility, has been enlarged and revised. Both aristocratic and bourgeois elites, long accustomed to a new socioeconomic reality based on wealth and economic achievement, were increasingly frus trated by a monarchical system resting on privileges and on an old and rigid order based on the concept of estates

mountain

members seats were on the side of the convention hall where the floor slanted upward

Estates General, agreed

peasants simply forced their lay and ecclesiastical lords to renounce dues and tithes; elsewhere they burned charters listing their obligations. The peasants were not acting in blind fury; they knew what they were doing, Many also believed that chronicler the king supported their actions. As a contemporary wrote, "For several weeks, news went from village to village. They announced that the _____ _____ was going to abolish tithes, quitrents and dues, that the King _____ but that the peasants had to support the public authorities by going them- selves to demand the destruction of titles.

Peasant Rebellion

peasants used Luther as a model for denying secular authority and revolted; Luther urged the princes to slay the rebels-more than 100,000 people killed and 100's of villages burned

Treaty of Paris

signed in 1783, recognized the inde- pendence of the American colonies and granted the Americans control of the western territory from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River

Louis XIV

stopped for unplanned rest to have his meals prepared & missed his military escort

Britain

was a strong European military power with enormous financial resources.

constitution, August 1795, 1789, 1795, Council 500, legislation, 250, Council Elders, 40, 750, 1791, 21

the _____, written in ____ _____, reflected this more con servative republicanism or a desire for a stability that did not sacrifice the ideals of ____. To avoid the dangers of another single legislative assembly the Constitution of _____ established a national legislative assem- bly consisting of two chambers: a lower house, known as the _____ of ____, whose function was to initiate legislation, and an upper house of ____ members, the _____ of _____, com- posed of married or widowed members over age ____, which would accept or reject the proposed laws. The ____ members of etwo legislative bodies were chosen by electors who had to be owners or renters of property worth between one hundred and two hundred days' labor, a requirement that limited their num- ber to 30,00o, an even smaller base than the Constitution of ____ had provided. The electors were chosen by the active citizens, now defined as all male taxpayers over the age of ___.

Belgium, Waterloo, June 18, Wellington, Saint Helena

the powers that had defeated him pledged once more to fight this person they called the "Enemy and Disturber of the Tranquillity of the World." Having decided to strike first at his enemies, Napoleon raised yet another army and moved to attack the nearest allied forces stationed in _____. At ______ on ___ ____, Napoleon met a combined British and Prussian army under the duke of ______ and suffered a bloody defeat. This time, the victorious allies exiled him to _____ _____, a small, forsaken island in the South Atlantic. Only Napoleon's memory would continue to haunt French political life.

Bourgeoisie (middle class)

third estate