Behavioral Analysis Chapter 2

Reactivity #2

Reactivity may be undesirable because the behavior recorded during the observation period is not representative of the level of the behavior occurring in the absence of the observer or in the absence of self-monitoring

A behavioral definition includes:

1. Active verbs describing specific behaviors that a person exhibits. 2. Is objective and unambiguous

Steps to develop a behavior recording program

1. Defining the target behavior 2. Determining the logistics of recording 3. Choosing a recording method 4. Choosing a recording instrument

A behavioral definition does NOT include:

1. Internal states (sad, upset, angry) cannot be observed or recorded by another person. 2. It does not make inferences about a persons intentions, because they cannot be observed and inferences about intentions are often incorrect. 3. A label ("a bad sport") is not used to define the behavior because labels do not identify the persons actions. Labels for behavior are ambiguous, they can mean different things to different people.

What are the two variations of IOA calculations for interval recording

1. Occurrence only IOA 2. Nonoccurrence only IOA

2. Determining the logistics of recording

1. The observer 2. When and where to record

Intensity

A behavior is the amount of force energy or exertion involved in it. Intensity (Aka magnitude), is more difficult to measure than frequency or duration because it does not involve simply counting the number of times the behavior occurs or recording the amount of time it takes to occur. It's often recorded with a measurement instrument or by using a rating scale. It is not used as often as frequency or duration, but it is a useful measure when you are most interested in force or magnitude of the behavior.

How to reduce reactivity #3

A participant observer is a person who is normally in the setting where the target behavior occurs. When a person starts to record his or her own behavior as part of a self-management project, the behavior often changes I the desired direction as a result of the self-monitoring. For this reason, self monitoring sometimes is used as a treatment to change a target behavior

Direct assessment #1

A person observes and records the target behavior as it occurs ( close proximity is necessary) the observer must have a precise definition of the target behavior so that its occurrence can be distinguished from occurrences from other behaviors.

How to reduce reactivity #2

Another is to have the observer record the behavior without the people knowing that they are being observed. This can be accomplished with the use of one-way observation Windows or with participant observers.

Recording instruments include...

Anything you can use to register each occurrence of a behavior can be considered a behavior recording instrument. Ex. Stop watch, golf stroke counter, laptop or handheld computer, barcode technology, etc

Importance of behavioral assessment #2

Behavioral assessment can provide information that helps you choose the best treatment.

Natural settings

Consists of the places in which the target behavior typically occurs. Observing and recording a target behavior in the classroom is an example of a natural setting for a student. This setting is likely to provide a more representative sample of the target behavior.

3. Choosing a recording method

Different aspects of the target behavior may be measured using different recording methods. These methods include: 1. Continuous recording 2. Product recording 3. Interval recording 4. Time-sample recording

Direct assessment #2

Direct assessment is more accurate than indirect assessment; because the observer is trained specifically to observe the target behavior and record it's occurrence immediately. Indirect assessment, information on target behavior depends on people's memories; the people providing information may not have been trained to observe the target behavior and may not have noticed all the occurrences of the behavior.

Frequency-within-interval recording

He observer records the frequency of the target behavior but does so within consecutive intervals of time in the observation period.

Rate

Is frequency divided by the time of the observation period. Rate is often reported as responses per minute.

Frequency of a behavior

Is the number of times the behavior occurs in the observation period. One occurrence is defined as one onset and offset of the behavior. You will use frequency measure when the number of times the behavior occurs is the most important information about the behavior. Frequency may be reported as rate.

Baseline

Is the period during which the target behavior is recorded before treatment is implemented.

The Latency of the behavior

Is the time from some stimulus or event to the onset of the behavior. You measure latency by recording how long it takes the person to initiate the behavior after a particular event occurs.

Duration

Is the total amount of time occupied by the behavior from start to finish. You measure the duration of behavior by timing it from its onset to its offset. You will use a duration measure when the most important aspect of he behavior is how long it lasts. Duration may be presented as percentage of time, which is duration divided by the time of the observation period.

Differences between latency and duration #1

Latency is the time from some stimulus or event to the onset of the behavior whereas duration is the time from he onset of the behavior to its offset. (That is latency is how long it takes to start the behavior and duration is how long the behavior lasts.

Behavioral assessment

Measurement of the target behavior(s) in behavior modification.

Importance of behavioral assessment #1

Measuring the behavior before treatment provides information that can help you determine whether treatment is necessary.

Importance of behavioral assessment #3

Measuring the target behavior before and after treatment allows you to determine whether the behavior changed after the treatment was implemented.

Unstructured observation

No specific events or activities are arranged and no instructions are given during the observations.

When and where to record #1

Observation period is when the observer records the target behavior in a specific period. It is important to choose an observation period at the time when the target behavior is likely to occur. Indirect assessment information from the client or others (e.g. from an interview) may indicate the best times to schedule the observation period.

Analogue setting

Observing a target behavior in a clinic playroom is an example of analog setting because being in the clinic is not part of the child's normal daily routine. This setting may provide a sample that is not representative of the behavior under normal circumstances. The benefits of observing in an analogue setting are, more controlled then a natural setting and the variables that influence the behavior are easier to manipulate.

2. Nonoccurrence only IOA

Only those intervals where both observers agreed the behavior did not occur are counted as agreements. Intervals were both observer scored an occurrence of the behaviors are not used in the calculation. Nonoccurrence only IOA calculations provide a more conservative measure of IOA for a high rate behaviors because it's easier to agree on the occurrence of the behavior by chance

1. Occurrence only IOA

Only those intervals where both observers scored an occurrence of the behavior are counted as agreement. Intervals where both observers did not score an occurrence of the behavior are not used in the calculation. Occurrence only IOA calculations provide a more conservative measure of IOA for a low rate behaviors because it's easier to agree on the nonoccurrence of the behavior by chance.

Percentage of opportunities

Percentage of trials or percentage correct is one final way in which event recording may be conducted. In this method the observer records the occurrence of a behavior in relation to some other event, and reports the results as the percentage of opportunities in which the behavior occurred.

Real-time recording #2

Real time recording can be carried out after video recording the target behavior of the observation period. The observer plays the video and records the time indicated on the timer at the onset and offset of each occurrence of the behavior on a data sheet developed for real time recording. Alternatively, handheld or laptop computers with software that permits recording of the exact timing of events can be used for real time recording.

Interval recording

Record the occurrence or non occurrence of the behavior in consecutive intervals of time during an observation period.

Time sample recording

Record the occurrence or not occurrence of the behavior in discontinuous intervals of time (time samples) during an observation period.

Product recording

Record the tangible outcomes or permanent product of the occurrence of the behavior.

Self monitoring

The client may be able to observe and record the the target behavior throughout the day and may not be constrained by a specific observation period.

Real-time recording #1

The exact time of each onset and offset of the target behavior is recorded with real time recording, the researchers have a record of the frequency and the duration of the target behavior, as well as the exact timing of each occurrence of the behavior.

The Observer #2

The exception would be when the target behavior is observed via video. The observer must be trained to identify he occurrence of the target behavior and to record the behavior immediately. She or he must also have the time to observe and record the behavior and must be willing to function as an observer.

In Behavior Modification research #2

The observation periods are often brief (15-30 minutes). When observations occur in natural settings, researchers usually choose observation periods that are representative of the usual occurrence of the target behavior.

Structured observation

The observer arranges for specific events or activities to occur during the observation period (instructions may be given during session)

Continuous recording

The observer observes the client continuously throughout the observation period and records each occurrence of the behavior. They must be able to identify he onset and the offset (beg. and end) of each instance of the behavior. The observer can record various dimensions of the target behavior, particularly its frequency, duration, intensity, and latency.

Observation period

The observer records the target behavior in a specific period. Observation and recording of behavior take place in natural settings or in analogue settings.

The Observer #1

The observer, is typically a person other than the one exhibiting the target behavior. The observer may be a professional such as a behavior analyst or psychologist or a person routinely associated with the client in the client's natural environment, such as a teacher, parent, staff member or supervisor. The observer must have proximity to the client to observe the target behavior when it occurs.

In Behavior Modification research #1

The people observing and recording the target behavior are usually trained research assistants. They study the behavioral definition of the target behavior and then practice recording under the supervision of the researcher. When they record the behavior reliably during practice sessions, they record the target behavior during actual observation periods as part of the study.

Reactivity #1

The phenomenon in which the process of recording behavior causes the behavior to change even before treatment is implemented for the behavior

When and where to record #2

The timing of the observation periods is also determined by the availability of the observer(s) and the constraints imposed by the clients activities or preferences. Consent must be given to the observer by the client, the clients parent or guardian before any observations and recording take place.

Indirect assessment

This involves using interviews, questionnaires, and rating scales to obtain information not the target behavior from the person exhibiting the behavior or from others (i.e. Parents, teachers, staff). It does not occur when the target behavior occurs, but relies on individuals recall of the target behavior.

4. Choosing a recording instrument

This is the final step in developing a behavior recording plan. The recording instrument is what the observer uses to register or make a permanent product of the occurrence of the behavior. Put simply, he observer makes note on the paper each time he or she observes the behavior.

1. Defining target behavior

To define a target behavior for a particular person, you must identify exactly what the person says or does that constitutes the behavioral excess or deficit targeted for change.

Differences between latency and duration #3

To demonstrate the effectiveness of treatment, you must use established research methods and an experimental design. Simply measuring the behavior before, during, and after treatment demonstrates whether the target behavior changed, but does not prove that the treatment caused the behavior change.

Recording behavior

To record behavior effectively, the observer uses a data sheet prepared in advance for the particular behavior. The data sheet helps organize the recording process by making it clear what the observer is to write down when the behavior occurs

How to reduce reactivity #1

Wait until the people who are being observed become accustomed to the observer.

In Behavior Modification research #3

When observations occur in analogue settings, researchers often simulate events that are likely to occur in natural settings.

Self monitoring

When the client observes and records his or her own target behavior. Self monitoring is valuable when it is not possible for another observer to record the target behavior, as when the target behavior occurs infrequently or when it occurs only when no one else present. It may also be combined with Direct observation. ** if self monitoring is used in a behavior modification program, the client must be trained to record his or her own behavior on the same way that an observer would be trained.

Interobserver agreement (IOA) or Interobserver reliability

When two people independently observe the same behavior and both record that the behavior occurred.

Differences between latency and duration #2

When using cont. recording you can choose one or more dimensions to measure. The dimensions you choose depends on which aspect of the behavior is most important and which dimension is most sensitive to change in the behavior after treatment.

Reactivity #3 (An example)

When's disruptive child sees that someone is recording his or her behavior in the classroom, the child may decrease his or her disruptive behavior while the observer is present.