Berk Chp 9, 10, 11, 12

Identity and the path to violent extremism

- ... while in a frustrated state of identity development or what has been quite identity diffusion (i.e. when a person has not yet fully realize their social identity), such individuals are susceptible to influence by others who can firm up their sense of self-worth... - ... The human need for belonging has such a great power that the void resulting from its absence creates a psychological vulnerability to exploitation by nearly any collective that offers acceptance and security. - Thus, because radicalization tends to be a social process, extremist groups can provide an alluring source of social support, connectedness, and affiliation to use who lack these in their families, school communities, and neighborhoods. Identity development among ethnic minority Adolescents (Cultural Influences) - Secure ethnic identity linked to higher self-esteem, academic motivation, school performance, and resilience - Factors that can pose challenges to its positive formation: + Acculturative stress + Parental restrictions due to fear of assimilation + Discrimination + Biracial parents; parents of different ethnicities - Factors supporting ethnic identity achievements: + Effective Parenting and Family Ethnic pride + Schools supporting native language and rights to a quality education + Same ethnicity peers + Bicultural identity

Factors influencing racial and ethnic biases (Berk pg. 345)

- A fixed view of personality traits. I believe that peoples personality traits are fixed rather than changeable, after judge others as either good or bad. Ignoring motives or circumstances they rather leave form prejudice is based on limited information - Overly high self-esteem: children (and adults) with very high self-esteem are more likely to hold racial and ethnic prejudices. They belittle disadvantage people or groups to justify their own extremely favorable yet insecure self evaluation's. - A social world in which people are sorted into groups. The more adults highlight group distinctions and the less inner racial contact the children experience the more likely white children will express in group favoritism and out group prejudice.

Welcoming schools lesson plan example for elementary students

- Activity explain to the students that this activity looks at situations were you must decide, in that moment, how to react if you see someone being teased or bullied. Sometimes you may do something. Sometimes you may not. It often depends on the situation, how will you know someone, if they are older or younger, etc. This activity involves movement and action - For each situation, students will make a decision regarding how they will respond using the following four choices. Briefly discussed them to ensure that your students understand each one. + Ignore the situation or walk away + Intervene myself + Talk to the person in private + Seek help from an adult or someone older - Read the scenarios that you have chosen out loud to the class. Make sure your students understand the scenario, especially if it is a variation of one you just read. Ask them first to think for themselves which of the four corners they would like to go. Then have them move to the corner of the room that represents how they would act in response to that particular scenario Be an Advocate - When kids have a supportive school teacher - when they can say, "I have a teacher who is fair and protective of me" -they do better in school. California high school students feel safer and do better when teachers intervene in harassment - Finally, visibility and inclusion are critical. Both the emergence of clubs such as high school gay/straight alliances, as well as access to information and resources in schools, or issues that are strongly associated with safety and lower rates of harassment and victimization for sexual minority kids and LGBTQ kids. -Research indicates that GSA's gender and sexuality alliances improve school climate, individual well-being and educational outcomes for LGBTQ youth. Participation in GSA's is related to stronger school connectedness and improved academic achievements for LGBTQ youth, and regardless of whether LGBTQ students themselves participate in their schools GSA, just having a GSA in their school can create a more positive school climate for LGBTQ students

Cognitive Model: the way we look at things and I think about things influences how we feel

- Address negative beliefs about the self, work and future, disordered beliefs systems - Cognitive behavioral interventions: Affective education, problem-solving (e.g., fatigue seen as a problem to be solved), Coping skills training: doing something, talking to someone, changing thoughts (constructing more realistic thoughts about the events and what might happen next). - Progress Tracked through Mood and Energy Ratings Unhelpful Thinking Styles - All or nothing thinking: sometimes called black and white thinking - Mental filter: only paying attention to certain types of evidence noticing or failures but not seeing our successes - Jumping to conclusions: + Mind reading: imagining we know what others are thinking + Fortune telling: predicting the future - Emotional and Reasoning: assuming that because we feel a certain way that we think must be true - Labeling: assigning labels to ourselves or other people - Overgeneralizing: seeing a pattern based upon a single event or being overly broad in the conclusions we draw - Disqualifying the positive: discounting the good things that have happened or that you have done for some reason or another - Magnification catastrophsing and minimization: blowing things out of proportion, or inappropriately shrinking something to make it seem less important Should must: using critical words like "should", "most", or "ought" can make us feel guilty, or like we have already failed - Personalization "this is my fault": blaming yourself or taking responsibility for something that wasn't completely your fault. Conversely, blaming other people for something that was your fault Cognitive flip to helpful thinking mindset shift during a pandemic I am stuck at home -> I get to be SAFE in my home and spend time with my family

Role of Parenting in Self-Esteem

- Authoritative child rearing style is best - Styles links to poor self-esteem: + Controlling, disapproving Parenting + Indulgent Parenting - Excessive praise and cell focus can overly inflate child's self-esteem - Best to encourage striving for worthwhile goals: + Achievements fosters self-esteem and vice versa In fluency on Learned-Helplessness Attributions - Person praise: + Emphasizes child's traits + Teaches children that abilities are fixed + Parents believe child is incapable - Other factors: + Unsupportive teachers + Gender stereotypes + Cultural values Learned helplessness unlike their mastery oriented counterparts believe ability is fixed and cannot be approved upon Carol Dweck Fixed vs. Growth Mindset: "when students had more of a fixed mindset-the idea that abilities are carved in stone, that you have a certain amount and that's that-they saw challenges as risky. They could fail, and their basic abilities would be called into question. When they hit obstacles, setbacks, or criticism, this was just more proof that they didn't have the abilities that they cherished. In contrast, when students had more of a growth mindset, they held the view that talents and abilities could be developed and the challenges were a way to do it. Learning something new, something hard, sticking to things-that's how you get smarter. Setbacks and feedback weren't about your abilities, they were information you could use to help yourself learn. With a growth mindset, kids don't necessarily think that there's no such thing as talent or that everyone is the same, but they believe everyone can develop their abilities through hard work, strategies, and lots of help and mentoring from others."

Conceptions of Adolescence

- Biological perspective: + Puberty + G. Stanley Hall: storm and stress + Freud: genital stage - Social perspective: + Margaret Mead: social and cultural influences - Balanced point of view: + Biological, psychological, and social influences - Tribal and village societies have only a brief adolescence - Industrialized nations have an extended adolescence: + Early adolescence (ages 11 - 14): rapid pubertal change + Middle adolescence (ages 14- 16): puberty nearly complete + Late adolescence (ages 16 - 18): full adult appearance; anticipation of adult roles Hormonal Changes result in - Tremendous gains in body size: + Growth hormone and thyroxine - Sexual maturation: + Girls: estrogen and adrenal androgens + Boys: androgens, especially testosterone - For both sexes, estrogens combined with androgens stimulate gains in bone density

Influences on Moral Reasoning

- Child rearing practices: + Warm, supportive, communicative + Encourage prosocial behavior, fairness + Engage in moral discussions - Peer interaction: + Differing points of view, negotiation, cooperation + Close friendships, conversations with friends - Schooling: + Fairness; supporting social, political, minority rights + Higher education: perspective taking opportunities - Culture: + Valuing interdependence: morality a communal responsibility Research on Kohlberg's Stage Sequence - Moral development is slow and gradual - Individuals more thorough first four stages in order - Few people reach postconventional morality - Stages 3 and 4 reflect morally mature reasoning - In real life, people often reason below actual capacity Moral Reasoning and Behavior - Factors influencing moral behavior: + Maturity of moral reasoning (modest relationship) + Emotions: empathy, sympathy, guilt + Temperament + Cultural experiences and intuitive beliefs + Moral identity + Parenting practices: inductive discipline, moral standards + Community service

Teaching Children with Learning Disabilities

- Children often placed in regular, inclusive classrooms: + Law requires "less restrictive" environment + Children with learning disabilities: 5-10% + Concerns: inadequate support and peer rejection - Supportive measures: + Part-time resource room with special education teacher + Teacher prepares class for special needs student + Teacher-guided peer tutoring

Impact of racism on children and adolescents

- Depressive symptoms were the most common of these negative mental health outcomes to be investigated and 79% of associations between experiences of racial discrimination and increased depressive symptoms for children and youth examined by the review were significant (Priest et al. 2013). - Some examine loneliness as a particular depressive symptoms (Cogburn et al. 2011), while others specifically examine the loneliness as a separate outcome (Juang & Alvarez 2010; Neto & Barros 2000). - ...Vicarious (as well as direct) experiences of racial discrimination have been associated with higher anger expression and depressive symptoms among African-American adolescence (see Stevenson & Arrington 2009), while caregiver experiences of racism (i.e., vicarious racism) have been associated with adolescent depressive symptoms (Ford et al. 2013).

Berk chapter 10: prejudice

- Development of Prejudice: children pick up mainstream beliefs from implicit messages in the media and elsewhere in the environments-social context that presents the world is sorted into groups, such as racial and ethnic segregation in schools and communities. - Studies confirm by age up to 6 white children generally evaluate their own racial group favorably and other racial groups less favorably. In-group favoritism emerges. (Example of group based on T-shirt color, pg. 344) - Around age 7 white children's prejudice against our group members often weakens. Children pay more attention to inner traits. Yet, prejudice often operate without awareness as in study is described on pg. 344. - Around age 10, children start to avoid talking about race to appear unbiased as many adults do.

Gender dysmorphia: transgender Children (PG. 281)

- Dissatisfaction with needle sex and strong identification as the other sex, yielding high distress: + Affects 1.5% of natal boys and 2% of natal girls + Emerges in early childhood; deepens in adolescence - Usually persists for children home: + Are severely troubled by their mismatch + Insist they are the other gender + Engage in high levels of "other gender" to behavior - Therapies directed at lesson and cross gender identity yield poor results. Ex. boy erased - Therapies should be geared toward permitting children to follow their gender identity inclinations How can children so young know their gender identity? - Children categorize them selves in terms of their gender by the age of 2 to 3 years, And by age 5, they use gender as a category one thinking about others and 10 to assign people into categories based on gender (Halim & Ruble, 2010). Moreover, preschool age children engage in gender stereotypes behaviors, show preference for gender-stereotypical toys, describe appears according to stereotypes connected to traditional masculinity and femininity, and admire peers who exemplify gender stereotypical behavior (Davies, 2004; Miller, Lurye, Zosuls, & Ruble, 2009). - Savage and Lagerstrom (2015) found that 80% of transgender adults knew their gender identity before the age of 10; 96% knew before the age of 18. While the average age of self-realization was 7.9, it was not until age 15.5 that transgender individuals reported knowing how to describe their identities. Those years in between self-realization and outword expression was a time often marked by fear and shame, with little support from families or schools.

Reducing Prejudice

- Diverse children working toward common goal - Long term inner group contact and collaboration + Neighborhoods + Schools + Communities - Fostering believe in change ability of human traits - Volunteering Reducing Prejudice Berk, pg. 345 - Research confirms that an effective way to reduce racism/prejudice is through intergroup contact. - Long-term contact and collaboration among neighborhoods, school, and community groups may be the best way to reduce racism/prejudice - School environments that expose children to broad ethnic diversity, teach them to understand and value those differences, directly address the damage caused by prejudice, emphasize moral values of justice and fairness, and encourage perspective taking and empathy both prevents children from forming negative biases and lessen already acquired biases. Teaching Tolerance Lesson Plans on Race and Ethnicity Goal: - Cultivate positive identity formation, encourage students to confront racial and ethnic injustice, and prepare them to live and work together in a diverse world. Two examples: - Tell Stories, Jackie Robinson Teaching Tolerance Lessons

Self- Concept

- During middle school years begin to evaluate self in terms of strengths and weaknesses. "I'm smart and certain things, not others." - Social comparisons are frequent judgments of their appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others - Can other people's messages more accurately. Form an ideal self they use to evaluate their real self. A large discrepancy between the two can undermine self-esteem - Parent support for development of self-esteem is vital. Lots of parent-children conversations about past experiences construct rich, positive narratives above the self. Leads to more complex, favorable, coherent self concepts Influences on self-esteem - Academic self-esteem predicts how important, useful and enjoyable children judge school (language arts, math, other school subjects) - Social self-esteem- are better like by classmates (relationship with peers and relationship with parents) - Athletic competence is positively associated with investments in and performance at sports (outdoor games and various sports) - Low self-esteem in all areas linked to anxiety, depression and increasing antisocial behavior Influences on Self-Esteem - Culture, gender, and ethnicity - Child Rearing Practices - Attributions: + Mastery oriented + Learned helplessness - Process praise vs. person praise Culture, Gender, and Ethnicity and Self-Esteem - Media influence - Gender stereotypes: + Girls less confident about appearance and athletic abilities + Girls higher in language arts and friendship self-esteem + Boys higher in math and science self-esteem - African-American children have slightly higher self-esteem than European-American children possible because of warm extended families and stronger sense of ethnic pride Self-esteem supported by neighborhoods and schools where child's SES and ethnicity are well represented

Influences on Identity Development

- Earlier resolution of conflicts pave way for positive identity - Personality characteristics - Child-rearing Practices: + Attachment + Warm, open communication - Close friends, diverse peers - Schools, communities: + Supportive mentors and activities - Culture - Societal forces Culture and identity - View of self-continuity - Cultural majority adolescents: + Individualistic approach + Enduring personal essence - Native Canadian adolescence: + Inter-dependent approach + Constantly transforming self: coherent narrative Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents (Cultural Influences) - Secure ethnic identity linked to higher self-esteem, academic motivation, school performance, and resilience - Factors that can pose challenges to its positive formation: + Acculturation stress + Parental restrictions due to fear of assimilation + Discrimination + Biracial parents; parents of different ethnicities - Factors supporting ethnic identity achievement: + Effective parenting and family ethnic pride + Schools supporting native language and right to quality education + Same-ethnicity peers + Bicultural identity

Gender Identity

- Gender identity: image of oneself as relatively masculine or feminine characteristics. By middle childhood can rate by personality traits. Feminine, masculine, androgynous (both masculine and feminine). - Gender ID good predictor of psychological adjustment. Masculine and androgynous children and adults have higher self-esteem than "feminine" individuals. Androgynous more adaptable. - Gender Scheme Theory: experiences are organized into gender schemas or masculine and feminine categories, used to interpret the world. Definition of Terms Terminology and gender basics - Transgender: term for people who identify outside of socially prescribed male and female norms. It is sometimes more specifically defined as an individual who's gender identity does that match the sex assigned at birth. - Cisgender: "denoting or relating to a person who is self identity conforms with the gender that corresponds to their biological sex; not transgender." - Gender dysmorphia: gender dysmorphia is the clinical term that has replaced the gender identity disorder in the most recent Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Current research confirms that feeling a mismatch between one's biological sex and gender identity is not psychopathology, the persons me experience clinical levels of anxiety, depression, and stress due to genetic predisposition or environmental factors related to acceptance

Gender Typing (Chp. 8, pgs. 276-282)

- Gender typing: Association of objects, activities, rules, or traits with one sex or the other that conform to gender stereotypes. In early childhood children engage in gender stereotyping. Explained via social learning theory (reinforcement) and cognitive developmental theory (children active thinkers). - Biological Influences on Gender typing: evolutionary perspective. Pg. 277. Prenatally administered androgens (hormones that play a role in male traits and reproductive activity) increase active play and aggression and suppress maternal caregiving and male and female mammals. Girls show more "masculine behavior." Boys with reduced androgens more "feminine behaviors." - Environmental influences: parents more positive when son plays with cars etc. More positive when daughters provide help, participate in household tasks, refer to emotions. Father is more tolerant of girls engaging in "cross gender" behaviors than boys. Parent Influences (convey what is valued) Expectations for gender typed characteristics: - Boys: achievement, competition, and emotion control - Girls: warmth, politeness, closely supervised activities - Greater expectation of boys to conform, e.g. sissy vs. tomboy Parenting Practices: - Gender-typed toys and activities for child - Positive reactions to child's gender-typed behaviors - Indirect cues: voiced stereotyped generic statements

Strategies to Increase Student Engagement

- Good instructional match between academic tasks and student ability - Promotes connections between students lives and interests and real life events - Provides choices, offer smaller class size, increase participation in extracurriculars, promotes family involvement in learning - Use of media and technology - Service learning, solving real world problems Example What Works Clearinghouse: Preventing DropOut in Secondary School Recommendation 3 - Summary of evidence: strong evidence - Engage students by offering curricula and programs that connect school work with college and career success and the improve students capacity to manage challenges in and out of school - Directly connect schoolwork to students options after high school - Provide curricula and programs that help students build supportive relationships and teach students how to manage challenges - Regularly assess student engagement to identify areas for improvement, and target interventions to students who are not meaningfully engaged Dropout Prevention Strategies - Intensive remedial instruction - Personalized counseling - High-quality vocational education - Addressing personal factors related to dropouts: parent involvement, flexible work-study arrangements - Extracurricular participation

Erikson: Identify vs Role Confusion

- Identity: + Defining who you are, your values, and your direction in life + A process of exploration followed by commitment: to ideals, vocation, relationships, sexual orientation, ethnic group - Role confusion: + Earlier psychosocial conflicts not resolved + Lack of direction and self definition + Society restricts choices + Unprepared for challenges of adulthood Changes in self-esteem - Continues to add new dimensions: + Close friendships + Romantic appeal + Job competence - Rises for most young people: + Increasing sense of mastery predicts rise - Parenting style and teacher encouragement affect level and stability of self-esteem Identity statuses (pg 409) - High exploration high commitment = identity achievement - High exploration low commitment = Identity moratorium - Low expiration high commitment = identity foreclosure - Low exploration low commitment = identity diffusion Identity status and psychological well-being - Identity achieved and moratorium: + Information-gathering style + Higher self-esteem; feels more in control of life + Exception: expiration that is ruminative - Forclosure: + Commitment offers security, satisfaction + Dogmatic, inflexible style + Internalizes others values and beliefs + Depends on others for self-esteem; fear rejection - Long term diffusion: + Diffuse-avoidant style + Avoids dealing with personal decisions, problems + Time management and academic difficulties + Low self-esteem + Prone to depression and behavior problems

DSM V criteria used to diagnose ADHD

- Inattention: six or more symptoms of inattention for children up to age 16 years, or five or more for adolescence age 17 years and older and adults, symptoms of inattention have been present for at least six months and they are inappropriate for developmental level: 1. Often fails to give close attention to details or make careless mistakes in school work, at work, or with other activities 2. Often has trouble holding attention on tasks or play activities 3. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly 4. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in a workplace (e.g. loses focus, sidetracked) 5. Often has trouble organizing tasks and activities 6. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to do tasks they require mental efforts over a long period of time (such as schoolwork or homework) 7. Often loses things necessary necessary for tasks and activities (e.g. school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephone) 8. Is often easily distracted 9. Is often forgetful and daily activities - hyperactivity and impulsivity: Six or more symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity for children up to age 16 years, or five or more for adolescents age 17 years and older and adults; symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have been present for at least 6 moths to an extent that is disruptive and inappropriate for the person's developmental level: 1. Often fidgets with or taps hands and feet, or squirms in seat 2. Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected 3. Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is not appropriate (adolescents or adults may be limited to feeling restless) 4. Often unable to play or take part in leisure activities quietly 5. Is often "on the go" acting as if "driven by a motor" 6. Often talks excessively 7. Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed 8. Often has trouble waiting their turn 9. Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e..g. Butts into conversations or games) In addition, the following conditions must be met: - Several inattentive or hyper-impulsive symptoms were present before age 12 - Several symptoms are present in 2 or more settings, (such as home, school, or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities) - There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, school, or work functioning - The symptoms are not better explained by another mental disorder (such as a mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, or a personality disorder). The symptoms do not happen only during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder.

Gender typing and self-worth (pg. 351)

- Longitudinal study (Cirby, et al 2007): 3-7 graders, gender typical and gender contended children gained in self-esteem over a year, gender atypical and gender discontented children declined in self-worth - Those gender atypical who had intense pressure to conform experience serious difficulties: withdrawal, sadness, disappointment, anxiety. - Rejection causes suffering Mental Health - US and international studies consistently concluded that LGBT youth reports elevated rates of emotional distress, symptoms related to mood and anxiety disorders, self harm, suicidal ideation, and suicidal behavior when compared to heterosexual youth (Eskin et al. 2005, Ferguson et al. 2005, Fleming et al. 2007, Marshal et al. 2011), and that compromised mental health is a fundamental predictor of a host of behavioral health disparities evident among LGBT youth (e.g. substance use, abuse, and dependence; Marshal et al. 2008) What helps children and adolescents feel safe? - 6,000 students in 17 California high schools had significant variability across schools in the LGBT resources and supports and perceptions of safety (Russell & McGuire, 2008). The greater the density of young people that say they have resources and supports and say that they have learned about LGBTQ issues in the classroom, the less the frequency of harassment. - Stephen Russell, surveyed 245 LGBT young adults, ages 21-25 years old living in California, about their experiences in high school, found a lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender teenagers who openly share their sexual orientation in school have a higher self-esteem than those who do not. - Parent/family response makes a big difference Reducing Gender Stereotypes - Delay exposure to stereotype the messages in language and media - Limit traditional gender roles and own behavior - Provide nontraditional models - Encourage mixed gender activities - Once aware of stereotypes, point out exceptions

Dating

- Mixed race cliques prepare teenagers for dating - Cultural expectations determine when dating begins - Dating goals change with age: + Early adolescence: recreation, peer status + Late adolescence: intimacy, compatibility, social support - Factors influencing dating relationships: + Relationships with parents and friends + Security of attachment + Parents marital interactions and conflict resolution Dating Challenges - Early dating linked to: + Drug use, sex, delinquency + Poor academic achievement + Dating violence - Lesbian and gay youth face special challenges: + Initiating and maintaining visible romances + Finding partners who have come out + Retreating into heterosexual dating

Depression in Adolescence

- Most common psychological problems: 15-20% have had one or more major episodes - Twice as many girls as boys: gender difference sustained throughout the lifespan - Majority do not receive treatment: adults often minimize as a passing phase Adolescent Depression Diagnosis Major depression APA DSM V: - Must experience a depressed or irritable mood and a loss of interest or pleasure along with three or more of: - Significant weight loss or decrease in appetite, insomnia, hypersomnia, psycho motor agitation or retardation, fatigue or lack of energy, feelings of worthlessness or guilt, decreased concentration or indecisiveness, or recurrent thoughts of suicide Vulnerability & Factors Related to Adolescent Depression - Biological (genetic) factors - Negative life events (e.g., parents divorce, mom losing job, serious illness) - Early experience & insecure attachment/parental depression and associated maladaptive Parenting - Affect the regulation difficult time of pulling self out of depressed mood - Social behavior; lack of social support - Cognitive biases attributional style (when something bad happens it's my fault) + Learned helplessness (pg. 339 attribute their failures, not successes to ability. Believe ability is fixed. Important events are out of my control.) - Hormonal changes of puberty: estrogens (girls) - Gender typed coping styles and greater communication (girls) - Genetic and hormonal risk factors combined with stressful experiences (e.g., research on the short 5-HTTLPR gene pg. 428)

ADHD Causes: Barkley

- Multiple, but all fall into realm of biology - (social factors alone do not cause the disorder but they do matter) - ADHD runs in families. The heritability of ADHD averages approximately 80%, meaning that genetic factors account for 80% of the differences amount individuals in this set of behavioral traits - Acquired cases (Examples are not exhaustive) Prematurity, especially if brain bleeding (45% + have ADHD). Also, head trauma, leas poisoning. Other is gene by toxin interaction (e.g., genetic plus fetal alcohol). - Brain regions involved are: Right Frontal Lobe, and connections to basal ganglia (subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor control, and other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and behaviors, and emotions) connections to cerebellum, connections to deep inside anterior cingulate. Also corpus callosum. These areas of brain are 3-10% smaller, but can't use brain imaging to diagnose cause so small. What can be done to Help? Barkley etc. - Assess, get an understanding of what is going on. - Family interventions: Parents patience is strained, need support and help addressing unique challenges (E.g., Parent Training). Parents and teachers are at the heart. Their compression, kindness, investment. ADHD is a chronic disorder (like diabetes) our goal is to manage it, minimize symptoms. Prevent secondary harms such as: depression etc... - Behavior Modification: Helps with skill building, used for instructional value. Token systems, star charts etc. always need more frequent consequences/feedback. Rewards, helps with internal motivation. Make problem solving visual e.g., math with hands on, if writing use graphic organizers, note cards, Do well in jobs that involve manual... - Change environment to help manage deficits in executive functioning: use visuals, sticky notes, charts, cues reminders substitutes for working memory deficit. Need paper journal in pocket and pen. Timer, watch set to vibrate. Break down large tasks into smaller. - Medication, OHI, Section 504

Nutrition in Adolescence

- Nutritional requirements increase - Poor diets are common: + Skipping breakfast + Eating at east-food restaurants - Iron, vitamin-mineral deficiencies - Family meals associated with healthier diet Eating Disorders - Risk factor for girls: + Reach puberty early + Grow up in homes with focus on weight and thinness + Body dissatisfaction and severs dieting are strong predictors - Three most serious eating disorders: + Anorexia nervosa + Bulimia nervosa + Binge-eating disorder Self Esteem (Chapter 10) - In one study the more 5 - 8 year old girls talked with friend about the way people look, watched TV shows focusing on physical appearance, and perceived their friends as valuing thinness, the greater their dissatisfaction with their physical self and the lower the overall self-esteem a year later (Dohnt & Tiggemann, Yeung et al., 2016) - Being overweight was more strongly linked to negative body image for third grade girls than for boys - Perceived physical appearance correlates more strongly with overall self-worth than does any other self esteem factor (O'Dea, 2012; Shankar & Keating, 2005)\

Overweight and obesity

- Obesity: rates tripled since 1970s, 32% US children overweight, 17% obese, defined as a greater than 20% increase over healthy weight: - Based on body max index (BMI) comparison - Overweight if above 85th percentile - Obese if above 95th percentile Rising obesity worldwide due to urbanization: more sedentary lifestyles and diet high in refined foods Average child in North America is 45lbs. Age 6, 3 1/2 ft. tall. Causes of obesity: - Heredity, twin studies page 295 - Low SES - Diets rich in sugar and fatty foods - Frequent eating out, high calorie fast food - Demanding work schedules, cost, affects time for healthy meal prep Parental feeding practices: - Anxious overfeeding or overly restricting - Family Stress - Insufficient sleep: disrupts metabolism - TV and screen media Low physical activity

Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

- Presented hypothetical dilemmas involving conflict between two moral values: not stealing vs. saving a dying person - What determines moral maturity: + The way an individual reasons about moral dilemma + Not the content of the response - Moral understanding promoted by: + Actively grappling with moral issues + Gains in perspective taking Stages of Moral Development - Preconventional level: Stage 1: Punishment and obedience stage 2: Instrumental purpose - Conventional level: Stage 3: "Good boy-good girl" (morality of interpersonal cooperation; ideal reciprocity) Stage 4: Social-order-maintaining - Postconventional or principle level: Stage 5: Social conflict Stage 6: Universal ethical principle

We see Sexual Maturation at this age

- Primary sexual characteristics: + Maturation of reproductive organs + Girls: menarche + Boys: spermarche - Secondary sexual characteristics: + Other visible changes signaling sexual maturity + Girls: breasts + Boys: facial hair, voice change + Both: underarm and pubic hair Individual Differences in Timing of Puberty - Heredity - Nutrition, exercise, body fat - SES - Ethnicity - Developing vs. industrialized countries + Poverty, malnutrition as late as 14 in parts of Africa, Asia - Early family experiences - Secular trends Adolescent Sexuality - Hormonal changes lead to increased sex drive - North American attitudes relatively restrictive: contradictory messages from media, culture, and family - Influences of sexualized media exposure: + More exposure predicts increased sexual activity + Internet pornography can increase adjustment problems - Attitudes of U.S. adolescents and adults toward nonmartial sex have become more accepting - A substantial percentage of U.S. teenagers are sexually active

Changes in the brain in Adolescence

- Pruning of unused synapses - Growth and myelination of stimulated neural fibers - Ability to control emotions and managing impulses not fully developed. Neurons more responsive to excitatory neurotransmitters. Adolescents react more strongly to stress, experiences pleasurable events is more intense. - The area of the brain that controls "executive functions" — including weighing long-term consequences and controlling impulses — is among the last to fully mature. Brian development from childhood to adulthood: more blue and purple and green Adolescent Brain Development - Expansion of synaptic connections supports gains in executive function, reasoning, problem solving, and decision making - Cognitive-control network still developing: inhibition, planning, and delay of gratification not fully mature - Changes in emotional/social network out space development of cognitive-control network, resulting in self-regulation difficulties: + Stronger response to excitatory neurotransmitters: increased reactivity to stress and to pleasurable and social stimuli + Unchecked drive for novelty, leads to sensation-seeking Scientific Reasoning - Ability to distinguish theory from evidence and use logical rules to examine their relationship: + Improves steadily from childhood into adolescence + Development continues into adulthood - Contributing factors: + Working memory capacity + Exposure to complex problems + Metacognitive understanding Consequences of Adolescent Cognitive Changes - Self-consciousness and self-focusing: + Imaginary audience + Personal fable - Idealism and criticism - Decision making: + Seeks immediate rewards; increased risk-taking + Often does not evaluate options; falls back on well-learned judgments

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

- Rating rising: affect 1 out of 5 sexually active teens: + Females more easily infected through heterosexual transmission + Oral sex is an underestimated mode of transmission + At greatest risk: low SES teenagers who feel hopelessness - Can lead to sterility and life-threatening complications - AIDS most serious; often infected during adolescence - Teenagers often poorly informed about STIs and how to protect themselves Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood - About 625,000 U.S. teenage pregnancies in most recently reported year; 11,000 younger than age 15 - 1 in 4 ends in abortion - 89% of adolescent births to unmarried mothers Risks for Teenage Mothers and Babies - Low educational and occupational attainment - More time as single parent; absent father - Multiple teenage pregnancies - Pregnancy and birth complications - Weak parenting skills, often harsh and abusive Teenage Pregnancy Prevention - More effective sex eduction - Skills for handling sexual situations - Information on and access to contraceptives - Building academic and social competence - Expanding educational, vocational, and employment opportunities

Executive functioning: skill definitions

- Response inhibition: the capacity to think before you act this ability to resist the urge to say or do something allows us the time to evaluate a situation and how our behavior might impact it - Working memory: the ability to hold information in memory while performing complex tasks. It incorporates the ability to draw on past learning or experience to apply to a situation at hand or to project into the future - Emotional control: the ability to manage emotions in order to achieve goals, complete tasks, or control and direct behavior. A young child with this skill is able to recover from a disappointment in a short time - Sustained attention: the capacity to maintain attention to a situation or task in spite of distractibility, fatigue, or boredom. Completing a 5-minute chore with occasional supervision is an example of sustained attention in a younger child. The teenager is able to attend to homework, with short breaks, for one or two hours - Flexibility: the ability to revise plans in the face of obstacles, setbacks, new information or mistakes. It relates to an adaptability to change conditions. A young child can adjust to a change in plans without major distress. A high school student can except an alternative such as a different job when the first choice is not available - Metacognition: the ability to stand back and take a Birdseye view of oneself self in the situation. It is an ability to observe how you problem solve. It also includes self monitoring and south of value relative skills (e.g. asking yourself, "how am I doing? or how did I do?"). - Stress tolerance: of the ability to thrive in stressful situations and to cope with uncertainty, change, and performance demands. - Task initiation: the ability to begin projects without undue procrastination, in an efficient or timely fashion. A young child is able to start a chore or assignments right after instructions are given. A high school student does not wait until the last minute to begin a project - Planning/prioritization: the ability to create a roadmap to reach a goal or to complete a task. It also involves being able to make decisions about what's important to focus on and what's not important. A young child, with coaching, can think of options to settle peer conflict. A teenager can formulate a plan to get a job - Organization: the ability to create and maintain systems to keep track of information or materials. A young child can, with a reminder, put toys in a designated place. And adolescents can organize and locate sports equipment - Time management: the ability to estimate how much time one has, how to allocate it, and how to stay within time limits and deadlines. It also involves a sense that time is important. A young child can complete a short job within the time limit set by an adults. The high school students can establish a schedule to meet task deadlines - Goal directed persistence: the capacity to have a goal, follow through to the completion of the goal, and not to be put off by or distracted by competing interests. A first grader can complete a job in order to get to recess. A teenager can earn and save money overtime to buy something of importance

Delinquency

- Rises over adolescence, declines in early 20s - Related Factors: + Gender; boys more likely to commit violent crimes + SES, ethnicity + Difficult Temperament + Low intelligence, poor school performance + Peer rejection, association with antisocial peers + Parenting (inept, harsh, inconsistent), marital transitions + Lack of supervision + Poverty stricken neighborhoods, poor quality schools Violence and Juvenile Delinquency - Types: Physical, Verbal, Relational Aggression - Characteristics: serious crimes mostly boys, difficult temperament (more active, impulsive and targets of parents anger, punishment), low intelligence, poor school performance, pure rejection, associating with antisocial peers linked to delinquency. Tendency to arrest, charge, and punish low SES ethnic minority use more than white and Asian (School to Prison pipeline). Zero tolerance policy is low SES minority students 2-3 times more likely to be punished excluding students from school can lead to drop out, antisocial behavior. - Biologically Based: teratogens such as lead. UWM Study - Environmentally Based: most consistent finding is parenting, low in warmth, high in conflict, harsh inconsistent discipline, weak control and monitoring More on Environment: - Teenagers commit more crimes in poverty stricken neighborhoods with poor quality schools, limited recreational unemployment opportunities and high adult criminality (Leventhal, Dupere, & Brooks-Gunn, 2009). - ... Were teenagers have easy access to deviant peers, drugs, and fire arms and likely recruited into gangs. Schools failed to meet students needs a large school class sizes, weak instruction, rigid rules, and reduced academic expectations and opportunities assoc. With higher rates of lawbreaking. Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency - Early Onset Type-inherited traits that predispose them to violence usually boys, emotionally negative, restless, will fall, physically aggressive, deficits in cognitive function related to language, executive functioning, emotional self-regulation, and emotions of empathy and guilt. Some have ADHD. Most aggressive early onset, declines overtime. Life course path influences are harsh parenting, feel academically, rejected, boyfriend deviant peers. School dropout, unemployment - Late Onset Type-Antisocial behavior begins in puberty. Peer context. Declines. If doesn't decline due to being closed off from opportunities through incarceration, dropout etc. Path to chronic delinquency for adolescents with childhood-onset antisocial behavior - Early childhood: Difficult temperament, cognitive deficits, attention deficit hyper activity disorder leads to conflict-ridden home; lax and inconsistent discipline - Middle Childhood: Child conduct problems: hostility, defiance, and persistent aggression. 1) rejection by typical peers 2) Academic failure leads to commitment to deviant peer group - Adolescence: Delinquency

Body growth in the middle childhood

- Slow, regular pace - Girls shorter and lighter until about age 9, when trend reverses - Lower portion of body grows fastest - Bones lengthen, broaden. Growing pains common, muscles adapt to growing skeleton - Muscles very flexible - All permanent teeth appear

Parent-Adolescent Relationships

- Strives for autonomy: + Emotional component: self-reliance + Behavioral components: independent decision-making - Deidolizes parents - Effective Parenting: + Warm, supportive ties + Balancing autonomy granting with monitoring Family Influences on Adolescents' Adjustment - Family circumstances that affect autonomy granting: + Financial security + Parental work pressures + Parental marital happiness - Sibling relationships: + Less intense, and both positive and negative feelings + Attachment remains strong in most cases + Culture influences quality of ties Characteristics of Adolescent Friendships - Fewer "best friends" - Value intimacy, mutual understanding, loyalty - Most important source of social support - Tends to be similar and become more so: + Identity status + Educational aspirations + Political beliefs + Deviant behavior - Cooperation and mutual affirmation increase Friendship Risks - Corumination: + More common for girls + Associated with anxiety, depression - Relational aggression: + Conflicts between intimate friends + Girls' closest friendships of shorter duration than boys' - Masculine stereotypes: + Often interfere with friendship closeness among ethnic minority boys Friendships, Cell Phones, and the Internet - Important context for friendship communication and closeness: + Girls: texting, cell calling, social media sites + Boys: online gaming - Risks and disadvantages: + Face-to-face interaction may suffer + Contexts for expressing jealousies and misunderstanding + Personal information accessible to third parties + Excessive social media use linked to unsatisfying face-to-face experiences and impaired mental health Benefits of Adolescent Friendships - Opportunities to explore the self - Opportunities to deeply understand another - Foundation for future intimate relationships - Helpful in managing stress - Greater empathy, sympathy, and prosocial behavior - Improved attitudes toward and involvement in school Cliques and Crowds Cliques: Small tightly knit groups: 5-7 Similar in family background, attitudes, and values More important to girls Crowds: Larger: composed of several cliques Membership based on reputation, stereotype Affiliations reflect abilities and interests (e.g., "brains," "jocks," "populars," "nonconformists") or express ethnicity

Vocabulary and Grammar in Middle Childhood

- Vocabulary increases fourfold (20 new words/day): + Reading contributes greatly + More precise word use + Appreciates double meanings and subtle metaphors; uses riddles and puns - Mastery of complex grammatical constructions improves: + Passive voice + Infinitive phrases Pragmatics - Understands more subtle, indirect expressions, including irony, sarcasm, and double meanings - Narrative more organized, detailed, and expressive: - Due to improved memory, perspective taking, and conversations with adults - Wide cultural variations in narrative styles: + Topic-focused: European-American children + Topic-associating: African-American children Bilingualism - Bilingual development: + Sensitive period during childhood - Bilingualism enhances: + Executive processing and cognition + Language awareness and reading achievement - Bilingual education: + Children more involved in learning, acquire second language more easily + English-only programs risk inadequate proficiency in both languages

Nutrition

- Well balanced, plentiful diet provides energy for successful learning and physical activity - IQ, cognition, focus, and test taking affected by: + Diets high in sugar and processed foods + Diets low in iron and folate - Malnutrition nutrition that persists from early childhood into the school year is often results in permanent physical and mental damage

A new social cognitive development perspective on prejudice: the interplay between morality and group identity

- What about children? Do they show prejudice, and, if so, why? Prior research has demonstrated that, on the one hand, children display ethnic biases and prejudice in interest in interethnic contexts, on the other hand, evaluate racial and ethnic exclusion from groups as unfair — that is, morally wrong. - This proposes that the dynamic between developing Morality and Group Identity reflects the crux of prejudice as it emerges in childhood, and that group membership becomes an important source of influence on children's ability and motivation to enact their emerging beliefs about fairness, inclusion, and equality - Children have to weigh their concerns about group identity (i.e. preserving group norms) with their developing moral beliefs about fairness and justice - For example, all boy private schools are often asked to include girls, but some boys bulk at the idea and cite the need to preserve the group and maintain "group order," as the idea is seen as disruptive and unconventional. In contrast, other boys challenge the underlying set of stereotypes behind the argument and advocate gender-integrated schools based on the moral principles of fairness and equality - In this article, we are concerned with whether (and when) children consider both their group identity (i.e. the need to be valued by the group) and morality (i.e. the need to act according tomorrow principles) when affirming or rejecting prejudiced attitudes. - Developmental research have recently shown the contact between different social groups under certain conditions reduces childhood prejudice. For example, research has shown that, as children acquire cross-race friendships, prejudice is reduced and adolescents are able to reject stereotypic expectations about others (due to the understanding that their friendship. Peers do not hold the negative qualities promote it and societal stereotypic images). - In a group contact is also known to reduce the use of stereotypes to explain racial discomfort in interracial peers interactions. Recently, developmental research using a measure of the wrong fullness of race-based exclusion has shown that inner group contact promotes moral reasoning about social exclusion.

Nature, Nurture, and IQ

-Adoption studies confirm the influence of both heredity and environment. -Ethnic differences are largely environmental. + Poverty severely depresses intelligence -Dramatic generational rise in IQ supports the role of environment. The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ (Cultural Influences) - IQs have increased steadily each generation: + Evident in 30 nations, industrialized and developing + Challenging belief that genetics explains ethnic variations + Greatest gains in spatial reasoning - Influenced by extent of societal modernization: + Improved education + Health + Technology (TV, computers, the internet) + More cognitively demanding jobs and leisure activities Cultural Bias in Testing Test scores influenced by: - Ethnic differences in language and communication styles - Knowledge acquired as part of majority-culture upbringing - Stereotyping threat: fear of being judged on basis of negative stereotype of your group Reducing Cultural Bias in Testing - Combine test scores with assessment of adaptive behavior - Culturally relevant testing procedures: dynamic assessment - Countering negative impact of stereotype threat (e.g., self-affirmation intervention)

Preventing Adolescent Delinquency

-Start early, intervene on multiple levels -Zero tolerance policies ineffective - Effective interventions train parents and provide use skill-building experiences: + Parental communication, monitoring, and discipline strategies + Youth experiences to improve cognitive, social, and emotional self-regulation skills -Multisystemic therapy: combines family intervention with positive school, work, and leisure activities Multi-Level System of Supports The tier 2 team also laid the foundation for one-on-one regular connections (mentoring), which allow for individualized attention Restorative Practices Circle of Supports - Prevention & Skill Building (Classroom and Peace-keeping Circles): + Morning meetings + Community building circles + Circles for SEL + Instruction or advisory + Staff meetings, PTA meetings, IEP meetings - Early Intervention (Alternative to Suspensions): + Youth peer court + Peer mediation + Conflict resolution training + Restitution - Intensive Intervention (Return from Suspension/AT or School Crime/Diversion): + Victim offender meetings + Family/community group + Conferences + Restitution Multisystemic Therapy - Intensive family based - When child is in psychological crisis, at risk for incarceration, or out of home placement - Use of family, school and community supports - Uses CBT, behavior therapy, parent training, pragmatic family therapies, education about pharmacological interventions when needed - Sending kids to prison doesn't work video

Who are gifted children?

Academically gifted children: Above 98% on group achievement tests Intellectually Gifted Children: IQ above 130 (98%) - A more expanded concept includes creativity: - Convergent thinking: generating a single, correct answer; emphasized on intelligence tests - Divergent thinking: generating multiple, unusual possibilities; taps creativity Other cognitive contributions: defining new problems, evaluating divergent ideas, and choosing the most promising - Giftedness extended to include talent: outstanding performance in a specific field such as dance, music, computers, landscaping, cooking, backing... Educational approaches for Gifted Children: - Enrichment in regula classrooms - Pull children out for special instruction - Move to higher grade - Multiple intelligences model Gifted and Talented Students - Identification -Services

Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (Biology and environment)

Affects 5% of US and school age children: - More boys diagnosed than girls, who gets overlooked - Inattention, impulsivity, excessive motor activity, and difficulty managing emotions - Results in academic and social problems Executive function deficiencies underlying symptoms - Associated with: prenatal teratogens, parents with psychological disorders, and high stress families

Eating disorders

Anorexia Nervosa - Starve self due to fear of getting fat: + Extremely distorted body image; lose 25-50% of body weight + Denial makes it difficult to treat - Severe malnutrition, physical complications, possible death - Influences beyond cultural values: + Genetics, abnormalities in neurotransmitters + Parenting style: controlling, high expectations for appearance + Unrealistic, perfectionistic standards for self + Ethnicity - Effective treatments: family therapy; medication to reduce anxiety and neurotransmitter imbalance Bulimia Nervosa - Binge eating followed by compensatory efforts to avoid weight gain: + Deliberate vomiting or purging with laxatives + Excessive exercise or fasting - Experience depression, guilt, and suicidal thoughts - Influences beyond cultural values: + Heredity + Overweight and early menarche + Impulsive, sensation-seeking tendencies + Disengaged parenting style + Easier to treat because individuals want help Binge-Eating Disorder - Regular binging without compensatory purging: typically leads to overweight and obesity - Experience severe distress and suicidal thoughts - Associated with social adjustment difficulties - Effective treatments resemble those for bulimia: + Support groups + Nutrition education and training + Anti-anxiety, antidepressants, and appetite-control medication Treatment for Eating Disorders - Cognitive behavioral therapy: (CBT) daily 2 per day + CBT is highly effective in helping patients make changes in their behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. - Experimental therapy: 1 to 2 times per week + Includes horticultural, recreational, and art therapy to strengthen coping skills while learning to connect and express thoughts in many ways - Exposure and response prevention (ERP): daily 2 x per day + A component of CBT, ERP helps individuals gradually confront their fears and reduce her anxiety in a planned manner. Working through these "hierarchies" of addressing fears provides a thought, creative approach for affective treatment - Family therapy: 1 time per week - Individualized Behavioral activation: daily + Teachers your child had to take breaks and develop a healthy relationship with movement both indoors and outdoors - Meet with dietician Individually: 1 time per week - Meet with psychiatrist: 2 to 3 times per week - Meet with therapist Individually: 1 time per week - Nutrition group therapy: 1 time per week + Group session facilitated by the registered dietitian on nutrition. Your child will gain a basic understanding of nutritional information. Examples: why bodies need carbohydrates, the importance of fats, how to menu plan - Pet therapy: 1 time per week - School: 1 per day, five times per week + Your child will meet with an education specialist who coordinates lessons with your child's school - Spiritual care: 1 time per week (optional) + This is an optional group therapy that offers residents the chance to explore

Executive function

Attention becomes more: - Selective - Flexible, adaptable Working Memory games: - More effective thinking - Processing time declines rapidly - Exception: poverty hinders task performance Children perform increasingly complex tasks that require integration of working memory, inhibition, and flexible shifting of attention

Bullies and Their Victims (Biology and environment)

Bullies: - Most are boys - Physically, verbally, relationally aggressive - Socially powerful, admired by peers Victims: - Passive when active behavior expected teach what bullying is and assertiveness - Lack defenders -Inhibited Temperament - Physically frail - Overly protective, controlling parents Interventions: - Help victimize children form friendships - Community codes against traditional and cyber bullying principal involved, whole school - Teaching child bystanders to intervene

Pleasant event scheduling is also important

Doing something fun to feel better: Activities enjoyed in the past Doing things with someone you like Staying busy by getting involved in a group or club Hoping someone else Adolescent Suicide - Suicide rate jumped sharply at adolescence - Related Factors: + Gender: boys — more risk factors, gender role expectations + Ethnicity: increase in African-American boys, high in Native American youth's + Family environment, high life stress, poverty + Sexual orientation + Personality: + Intelligent, withdrawn, cannot meet on or others standards + Antisocial, hostile, destructive behavior - Triggering negative life events Native American youth (pg. 429) - Public policies resulting in cultural disintegration have amplified suicide rates among native American youth. Forced Native American families to enroll youth and government run boarding school to erase tribal affiliations - Left many unprepared and emotionally scarred. Alcohol abuse, youth crime, and suicide rates escalated Suicide Prevention - Parent and teacher training - Warning signs pg. 429 - PrePare training NASP - Assessment: talking about suicide does not cause suicidal thoughts or behavior. Not talking about it is a problem. Need to assess. - Schools and community increase connections with their cultural heritage, mentor, in school counseling, peer support, - Medication, individual, family, group therapy, removing weapons. - Gun control legislation - Postconventional. RestrainT by media Trevor helpline: 866.4. U. TREVOR - The Trevor Project is a national organization focused on crisis and suicide prevention efforts among lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and questioning (LGBTQ) youth - The Trevor Project operates an a a S accredited, nationwide, around the clock crisis and suicide prevention helpline for LGBTQ youth. The website also has a one page fact sheet, a sample suicide prevention policy and a webinar

Physical and cognitive development in the middle childhood

During the "school years" (ages 6 to 11), children: - Expand activities and relationships - Are guided toward real-world challenging tasks - Acquire functional knowledge and skills needed to operate in a complex social world - Grades K -5 in United States

Treating obesity

Family-based interventions are most effective: - Focus on changing weight related behaviors - Monitoring and a tracking device is beneficial School interventions: - Screenings - Improved nutrition standards - Additional recess and physical education time - Obesity awareness programs Common health problems - Vision - Hearing - Chronic illness - Injuries

Illness in middle childhood

High rates in first two years of school: - Exposure to sick children - Immune system still developing 20-25% percent have chronic illness: - Asthma (most common by far) - Severe illnesses, such as sickle cell anemia, cystic fibrosis, diabetes, arthritis, cancer, and AIDS Unintentional injuries - Boys are more at risk Leading causes: - # 1: motor vehicle accidents - # 2: Bicycle accidents Prevention: - School and community-based safety programs - Protective helmets - Reduced exposure to hazardous situations Gains in Information Processing in Middle Childhood Can handle increasingly difficult tasks due to improved: - Working Memory - Inhibition - Flexible shifting of attention - Planning - Strategic thinking - Self monitoring and self correction

Middle Childhood ages 6-11

Industry vs. Inferiority - resolved when sense of competence versus lack of self-confidence Introduction The "school years" bring about: - Industriousness - Expanded social understanding sizing up strengths, weaknesses, personality characteristics - Reliance on friends for understanding and emotional support - Shifts in the parent-child relationship Erikson's Theory: Industry vs. Inferiority - Industry: sense of competence at skills and tasks; combines several developments: + Positive but realistic self-concept + Pride in accomplishment + Moral responsibility + Cooperative participation with age mates - Inferiority: the danger at this stage is + Pessimism and lack of confidence in own ability to do well + Others' negative responses can contribute. "This sense of an adequacy can develop when family life has not prepared children for school life or when teachers and peers destroy children self-confidence with negative responses" Berk

Achievements related attributions

Mastery oriented = (reason for success) ability = (reason for failure) controllable factors, such as insufficient effort. Seek information on how best to increase their ability through efforts. Learned helplessness = (reason for success) external factors = (reason for failure) ability cannot be changed by effort. Seek positive and avoid negative evaluation 's; ability no longer predictive of performance. Fostering a Mastery-Oriented Approach - Process praise: + Emphasizes Behavior and effort + Suggests competence develops through efforts - Attribution (what failure of success attributes to) retraining encourages: + Exerting more effort gets child to believe they can overcome failure by exerting more effort and using more effective strategies + Using more effective strategies - Focus on mastering a task for its own sake - Individual improvement, not compared to others Parental Divorce - Immediate consequences: + Family Conflict + Drop in income in mother headed households + Maternal stress, inconsistent discipline, and loss of routines + Child reactions vary with age, sex, and temperament - Long term consequences: + Improved adjustment after two years + Declines in academic achievement, self-esteem, and social competence + Emotional and behavioral problems + Problems with intimate relationships Helping Children Adjust to Divorce - Shield Child from Conflict - Provide continuity and familiarity in daily life - Use authoritative parenting style - Promote regular contact with father (or noncustodial parent) - Explain the divorce and response to child's feelings - Parent training programs - Divorce mediation increases: + Out of court settlements + Cooperation and involvement of both parents - Joint custody grants parents equal say * Requires and promotes affective coparenting - Child support

Intelligence

Measurement of intelligence Intelligence: Theories include Sternberg, Gardner Multiple Intelligences p. 317 Intelligence Testing - Group-administrated tests: + Permit large groups of students to be tested at once - Individually administrated tests: + Help identify highly intelligent children and children with learning problems + Well-trained examiner considers child's answers and observes child's behaviors + Stanford-Binet: assess five intellectual factors + WISC-V: designed to downplay culture-dependent information Other Efforts to Define Intelligence - Incorporate information-processing approach - Sternberg's triarchic theory identifies: + Analytical intelligence (apply strategies, acquire task-relevant and metacognitive knowledge, engage in self-regulation) + Creative intelligence (Solve novel problems, Making processing skills automatic to free working memory for complex thinking) + Practical intelligence (Adapt to..., Shape... and/or, select... environments to meet both personal goals and the demands of ones everyday world) - Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences tests: + Processing operations for culturally valued activities + Non-IQ abilities, e.g., emotional intelligence

Vision and hearing

Myopia (nearsightedness): - Most common vision problem - Risk increases with time spent reading, writing, using computer - Can be induced by early biological trauma Middle ear infections less frequent than in infancy and early childhood: - Screening still important to prevent hearing loss

CDC: Covid and obesity

Overweight, obesity and severe obesity Having obesity, defined as a body mass index BMI between 30 kg/m2 and <40 kg/m2 or severe obesity (BMI of 40 kg/m2 or above), increase your risk of severe illness from COVID-19. Having overweight, defined as a BMI > 25 kg/m2 but less than 30 kg/m2 might increase your risk of severe illness from COVID-19. Actions to take - Take your prescription medicines for overweight, obesity or severe obesity exactly as prescribed - Follow your healthcare providers recommendations for nutrition and physical activity, while maintaining social distance precautions - Call your healthcare provider if you have concerns or feel sick Why obesity puts one at higher risk for COVID-19 - Severe obesity puts those with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) at particularly high risk of death, more so than related risk factors such as diabetes or hypertension, according to a study of patient records that researchers from Kaiser Permanente published today. - In an accompanying editorial, David A. Kass, MD, a cardiologist at John Hopkins University, wrote that these findings, one taken with prior research, "should put to rest the contention that obesity is common in severe COVID-19 because it is common in the population. Obesity is an important independent risk factor for serious COVID-19 disease." - His assessment was stark: COVID-19 makes it hard to breathe, and excessive fats only makes this worse. - "As a cardiologist who studies heart failure, I am struck by how many of these mechanisms that are mentioned in reviews of obesity risk and heart disease are also mentioned in reviews of obesity and cover 19," Kass wrote. Things like sleep apnea and increased inflammation are all at work, damaging lungs and particularly the air sacs that do the heavy lifting in the respiratory system. - "It's requires more muscle force to display the diaphragm downward when a substantial fat mass lies below it. Abdominal obesity also makes it more difficult to breathe in a prone position that is favored to improve ventilation and patient with cover 19."

Social issues: family stressors and childhood obesity page 296

The effort to manage persistent stress strains self regulatory capacity Chronic and persistent stress trigger: - Elevated stress hormones such as cortisol that signal energy expenditure - Pre-diabetic insulin resistance, inducing raging appetite - Self-regulation problems that cause excessive eating Childhood obesity also linked to: - Deficits in delay of gratification - Poor regulation of emotion and behavior *Self Regulation Training Helps* Health risks for obese children More likely to be obese adults Physical symptoms: - High blood pressure, cholesterol - Respiratory problems - Insulin resistance Development of lifelong problems: Heart disease, circulatory problems, diabetes, gallbladder, sleep apnea Psychological and social consequences of obesity - Stereotyping - Social isolation: peer teasing, low self-esteem - Poorer academic achievement - Severe anxiety, depression, suicidal thoughts - Reduced life chances in relationships and employment

Information Processing and Academic Learning

Reading - Phonological awareness, information-processing speed, and visual discrimination contribute to reading skills - Blend whole-language and phonics approaches Mathematics - Learn facts, procedures, and strategies through practice, reasoning, and experimentation - Blend drill and "number sense" approaches - Cultural supports for learning (e.g., language, metric systems)

Learning in School

School Transitions in Adolescence - Grades decline with early transition: + Higher academic standards + Less supportive teaching-learning environment + For ethnic minorities, fewer same-ethnicity peers - Decline in a liking for school, academic motivation, and self-esteem - Additional strains (e.g., poverty, family disruption) increase risk for self-esteem and academic difficulties Ninth Grade is a Critical Year High school: absenteeism and course failure predicts later drop out. Ninth graders who missed one month or more of classes in a semester had less than 10% chance of graduating (Allensworth & Easton, 2005). Helping Adolescents Adjust to School Transitions - Parent involvement, monitoring - Close friendships - Fewer transitions, K-8 schools - Smaller units within the schools - Same-ethnicity peers - Homeroom teacher relationships - Classes with familiar peers or constant group of new peers Supporting Academic Achievement - Child-rearing practices: + Authoritative parenting + Joint decision making + Parent involvement in education - Peer influences: + Valuing high achievement - School characteristics: + Warm, personal teaching + Learning activities that promote high-level thinking + Opportunities to break out of low academic tracks - Employment schedule: + Limited hours of part-time employment + High-quality vocational education Factors Related to Dropping Out - Low grades, low academic self-esteem - Lower attendance, pay less attention - Parents: uninvolved, limited education - Grade retention - Large, impersonal schools - Frequent peer victimization - General education, vocational tracks

The impact of racism on children's health

The impact of racism has been linked to birth disparities and mental health problems and children and adolescents. The biological mechanism that emerges from chronic stress leads to increased and prolonged levels of exposure to stress hormones and oxidative stress at the cellular level. Prolonged exposure to stress hormones, such as cortisol, leads to inflammatory reaction is that predispose individuals to chronic disease. As an example, racial disparities in the infant mortality rates remain, and the complications of low birth weight has been associated with Perceived Rachel Scheme and ation and maternal stress.

Learning in School: Philosophies

Traditional vs. Constructivist classrooms: - Traditional: teacher is sole authority for knowledge, rules - Constructivist: students construct their own knowledge - Recent directions: social-constructivist: + Teacher and children as partners + Many types of symbolic communication + Teaching adapted to zone of proximal development - Cooperative learning: -Small groups of classmates work toward common goals Grouping by ability is Poor Practice - Homogeneous classes: - Children of similar ability levels - Source of negative self-fulfilling prophecies, especially for low-SES and minority children. - What are Best Practices in Education?: Check vid Teaching Practices: Best and Not so Good - Teaching that fosters achievement: + Caring, helpful + Stimulating, emphasizing high-level thinking + High Expectations + Heterogeneous Grouping Teaching that impedes achievement: - Use of repetitive drill - Less supportive relationships with at-risk students - Negative self-fulfilling prophecies: have greater impact on low-achieving students

Development of Civic Engagement (Social Issues: Education)

Volunteering promotes moral maturity and altruism - Influential factors: + Family: socially responsible values + School, community activities: + Vision and skills for civic engagement + Exploration of political and moral ideals + Service learning programs - More school-based programs needed for lo SES, inner-city youth's Religious Involvement and Morality - Formal religious involvement declines in adolescence - Religious involvement linked to: + More community service + Responsible academic and social behavior + More trusting relationships with family and friends + Greater empathy and prosocial behavior + Less delinquency, drug and alcohol use + Delayed sexual activity Pragmatic Approach to Morality - Claims kohlberg's stages is inadequately account for morality in everyday life - Moral judgments are practical tools with that: + Depends on current context and motivation + Are frequently directed at self-serving goals - Critics: people often rise above self interest to defend others rights