bi 240 Unit 1 Review Guide part 2, Community and Ecosystem Ecology, Population Genetics, Kingdom Fungi, Bio 240: Evolution, Classification and Domain Eukarya 1 "Protists", Bio 240: Plant Evolution and Life Cycles

pollinator syndrome

"Pollinator Syndromes" describe flower characteristics, or traits, that may appeal to a particular type of pollinator. Such characteristics can be used to predict the type of pollinator that will aid the flower in successful reproduction. A combination of color, odor, quantity of nectar, location and type of pollen, and flower structure can each affect a potential pollinator's ability to locate a flower and its food resources.

Phylum: Chytridiomycota (chytrids or chytridiomycetes) Allomyces

-ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Flagellate, diploid zoospores produced by mitosis in zoosporangia -SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Flagellate, haploid gametes in some species -other key characteristics: Haploid zoospores produced in resting sporangia; form haploid thallus

phylum: Zygomycota (zygomycetes) Black bread mold. Microsporidia are classified with the zygomycetes

-ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Haploid spores produced in sporangia -sexual: Zygospores develop in zygosporangia -other: Important decomposers; some are insect parasites. Microsporidia are opportunistic pathogens that infect animals.

choanoflagellate

-Biologists generally agree that animals share a common ances- tor with a group of protists

HOX genes

-a group of regulatory genes that specify the anterior-posterior axis during development -1.Concentration 2.Location 3.timing 4.target gene specificity

What were the key challenges that the green algae had to overcome in their adapting to life on dry land? How were these challenges met and in which lineages???

-absence of water, Structural changes, Desiccation and Upright Growth -obtaining enough water and preventing excessive water loss, tolerating high and low temperatures, and adapting to increased levels of solar radiation. -signaling molecules, Evolution of multicellular sporophyte embryo within maternal gametophyte tissues -Plants probably arose from a group of green algae called charophytes. this conclusion is based in part on molecular comparisons of DNA and rNA sequences, which show the closest match between charophytes and plants. -before liverworts they created cuticles, multicellular gametetangia, multicellular embryos, before club mosses they became sporophyte dominant and vascular tissues, before gymnosperms they created seeds

compare and contrast the biological and phylogenetic species concept.

-biological: biologist Ernst Mayr in 1942, a species consists of one or more populations whose members interbreed in nature to produce fertile offspring and do not interbreed with—that is, are reproductively isolated from—members of different species -issue with bio concept: -concept is based on reproductive isolation-only accounts for sexually active beings not asexual-does not account for organisms that do interbreed -phylogenetic: in which a population is declared a separate species if it has undergone evolution long enough for statistically significant differences in diagnostic traits to emerge(defines a species as the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor) -issues with phylogenetic: -cannot be used if group has not been well studied-if the other were to be embraced then species would double-some subspecies would become separate species

gymnosperms

-broken up into 4 phylum cycadophyta, ginkophyta, gnetophyta, coniferophyta-after the evolution of seedless vascular plants a lot of carbon dioxide was removed form the air this caused cooling. -no longer depends on water for reproduction -naked seeds -sporophyte dominant (2n) -Sporophytes kept their spores these spores then grew into gametophyte -Gametophyte dependent on sporophyte -Heterospory: male/female spores created -seed: ovuliferous scale, not protected-MEGAsporangia->MEGAspores(n)->Female gametophyte (n)->Ovule-MICROsporangia->MICROspores (n)-> MALE gametophyte(n)-> Pollen

coevolution

-describes such reciprocal adapta- tion, in which two species interact so closely that they become increasingly adapted to each other as they each undergo evolutionary change by natural selection.

Bryophyta

-divided into three distinct phyla: mosses (phylum Bryophyta), liverworts (phylum Hepatophyta), and hornworts (phylum Anthocerophyta) -only living nonvascular plants -they have no means for extensive internal transport of water, sugar, and essential minerals -small -require a moist environment for active growth and reproduction, some tolerate dry areas -The earliest colonizers- -450 mya first emerged -Gametophyte is both dominant and independent -need water to reproduce -sporophyte is dependent on gametophyte

conifer

-examples include pine and redwood trees-make female and male cones- female cones are large and woody, two ovules will be produced per ovuliferous scale-Male cones are smaller and pollen grains -can produce a lot of spore baring leaves

ovule

-in gymnosperm (future seed) surrounded by integument (future seed coat) -Seed plants produce ovules, each of which is a megasporan- gium surrounded by integuments, layers of sporophyte tissue that enclose the megasporangium. After fertilization takes place, the ovule develops into a seed, and the integuments develop into the seed coat

angiosperms

-one angiosperm phylum: Anthophyta -innovations include flowers and fruit -flowers increased sperm transport-fruits increased seed dispersal -endosperm: product of double fertilization.-Flowers allowed reproduction with far away plants-Sessile-Not able to attract own species to mate-Use third party to get to male gamete-Animals led to the diversification of this phylum because they act as pollinators/ or perform sexual duties for land plants -Anthophyta divided into 2 -sporophyte is dominant and independent -gametophyte dependent

3 types of symmetry and how it relates to cephalization

-radial: body plan is divisible into identical parts around a central axis -bilateral: body plan in which the left and right sides of the organism can be divided into approximate mirror images of each other along the midline cephalization: the development of a head where sensory structures are concentrated. In these groups, concentrations of nerve cells in the head form a brain, and one or two nerve cords extend from the brain toward the rear end of the animal. Bilateral symmetry and cephalization are adaptations for locomotion. The head end of the animal meets its environment first and is best equipped to capture food or respond to danger.

The 5 Prezygotic barriers

-reproductive isolating mechanisms that prevent fertilization from taking place temporal isolation, habitat isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, and gametic isolation

How does horizontal gene transfer confuse our understanding of relationships between organisms?

-some systematists argue that the common ancestor of all living things may have been a community of species that traded their genes -suggest that there is no simple tree of life (bush/ring

Darwin's mechanism of evolution by natural selection consists of observations on four aspects of the natural world. Name each "aspect" and provide a description that includes how it contributes to natural selection or evolution.

1. variation Each individual has a unique combination of traits, such as size, color, ability to tolerate harsh environmental conditions, and resistance to certain parasites or infections 2. overproduction: in every generation each species has the capacity to produce more offspring than can survive 3. limits on population growth/struggle for existence: There is only so much food, water, light, growing space, and other resources available to a population, so organisms compete with one another for these limited resources 4. differential reproductive success: successful reproduction is the key to natural selection: the best-adapted individuals produce the most offspring, whereas individuals that are less well adapted die prematurely or produce fewer or inferior offspring.

traditional classification

1.Presence or absence of different tissue types 2.Type of body symmetry 3.Presence or absence of a true body cavity 4.Patterns of embryonic development

bottleneck effect

A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population

genetic drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.

food web

A community of organisms where there are several interrelated food chains

Population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

population

A group of organisms of the same species that live in a defined geographic area at the same time.

monophyletic

A group of organisms that includes a recent common ancestor and all its descendants; a clade

Evolution

Any cumulative genetic changes ina population from generation to generation. Evolution leads to differences in populations and explains the origin of all the organisms that exist today or have ever existed.

spore

A reproductive cell with a hard, protective coating

succession

A series of predictable and orderly changes within an ecosystem over time.

food chain

A series of steps in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten

endostyle

A shared derived character of chordates; a groove in the floor of the pharynx that secretes mucus and traps food particles in sea water passing through the pharynx. In vertebrates, the thyroid gland is derived from the endostyle

characteristic for parasites

Absence of sensory organs Reduction of locomotor and digestive systems Expanded reproductive system Presence of holdfast organs

community

All the different populations that live together in an area

why is it incorrect to say "individuals evolve", but it is correct to say "populations evolve'?

An individual is born with the genes it has—these do not change as the individual ages. Therefore, an individual cannot evolve or adapt through natural selection. Evolution is the change in genetic composition of a population over time, specifically over generations, resulting from differential reproduction of individuals with certain alleles. Individuals do change over their lifetime, but this is called development; it involves changes programmed by the set of genes the individual acquired at birth in coordination with the individual's environment.

root

An organ in vascular plants that anchors the plant and enables it to absorb water and minerals from the soil.

secondary consumer

An organism that eats primary consumers

primary consumer

An organism that eats producers

tertiary consumer

An organism that eats secondary consumers

heterotrophs

An organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their by-products.

Understand what descent with modification means and how this applies to studying organisms.

Descent with modification is referred to as the passing on of traits from parents to their offspring's. Descent of modification can be applied to study the diversity in organisms and it can also be used to study adaptations in organisms.

seeds over spores

Seeds are reproductively superior to spores for several rea- sons. First, a seed is further along in its development before itis released to survive on its own: a seed contains a multicellular young plant with embryonic root, stem, and one or more leaves already formed, whereas a spore is a single cell. Second, a seed contains an abundant food supply. After germination, food stored in the seed nourishes the plant embryo until it becomes self-sufficient. Because a spore is a single cell, few food reserves exist for the plant that develops from a spore. Third, a seed is protected by a multicellular seed coat that is very thick and hard in some plants, as, for example, in lima beans. Like spores, seeds live for extended periods at reduced rates of metabolism and germinate when conditions become favorable.

convergent evolution

Process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

Pterifophytes

Pterifophytes Phyla: Lycophytes, Ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns -Sporophyte dominant (2n) -Independent -Vascular Seedless -horizontal underground stem, or rhizome, that bears leaves, called fronds, and true roots -sperm have flagella -reproduction relies on water -First Tracheophytes -contains lignified tissue -these tissues help w/water transport and strengthening -xylem transports waters and minerals-phloem transports sugars -Sporophtye and gametophyte stages are independent of one another -alternation of generations

notochord

The flexible, longitudinal rod in the anterior-posterior axis that serves as an internal skeleton in the embryos of all chordates and in the adults of some. It also plays an important role in embryonic development of the vertebrates.

In what ways do fungi impact humans? (economic and otherwise)

They play an important role in medicine yielding antibiotics, in agriculture by maintaining the fertility of the soil and causing crop and fruit diseases, forming basis of many industries and as important means of food. Some of the fungi are important research tools in the study of fundamental biological processes.

phylum: Ascomycota (ascomycetes) Yeasts, powdery mildews, molds, morels, truffles

asexual: Conidia pinch off from conidiophores sexual: Ascospores develop in asci other: Have a dikaryotic stage; form important symbiotic relationships as lichens and mycorrhizae

phylum: Glomeromycota (glomeromycetes)

asexual: Large, multinucleate blastospores sexual: Has not been observed other: Form arbuscular mycorrhizae with plant roots

phylum: Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes or club fungi)Mushrooms, bracketfungi, puffballs, rusts, smuts

asexual: uncommon sexual: Basidiospores develop on club-shaped basidia other: Have a dikaryotic stage; many form mycorrhizae with tree roots

With regard to the water cycle, water moves from the ocean to the __________ to the land to the __________ and back to the ocean.

atmosphere; freshwater ecosystems (watershed)

coelom

body cavity lined with mesoderm

founder effect

change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population

function of choanocytes?

choanocytes tend to line certain inner portions of the sponge body that surround the mesohyl.generate a water current through the sponge and to trap and ingest food particles by phagocytosis

boney fish

chordata; vertebrate; Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes)

amphibians

chordata; vertebrate; amphibia

mammals

chordata; vertebrate; mammalia

reptiles

chordata; vertebrate; reptilia

plankton

consists of the mainly microscopic animals and protists food for many aquatic animals.

cladogram or phylogenetic tree

diagrams showing lines of descent— can be derived from differences in a given DNA nucleotide sequence

sexual dimorphism

distinct difference in size or appearance between the sexes of an animal in addition to difference between the sexual organs themselves.

Cnidaria: digest food?

extracellular digestion, with digestion completed by intracellular digestive processes. Food is taken into the gastrovascular cavity, enzymes are secreted into the cavity, and the cells lining the cavity absorb the nutrient products of the extracellular digestive process

An overgrowth of algae is often directly the result of

fertilizer runoff

disruptive selection

form of natural selection in which a single curve splits into two; occurs when individuals at the upper and lower ends of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle

endoderm

forms the lining of the digestive tube and other digestive structures.

What is the difference between bottleneck effect and founder effect?

founder: Founder effect refers to the loss of genetic variation when a new colony is established by a very small number of individuals away from a larger population. As a result of the loss of genetic variation, the new population may be distinctively different, both genetically and phenotypically. In extreme cases, the founder effect is thought to lead to the evolution of new species Bottleneck: Bottleneck effect is an evolutionary event in which a very large percentage of a population or species is killed or otherwiseprevented from reproducing. Population bottlenecks increase genetic drift. They also increase inbreeding due to the reduced pool of possible mates.

horizontal gene transfer

gene swapping between organisms in one taxon and unrelated organisms in another taxon -genes move from one species to another species in the same generation -endosymbiosis

mesoderm

gives rise to most other body structures, including muscles, skeletal structures, and circulatory system

ectoderm

gives rise to the tissues that form the outer covering of the body as well as to nervous tissue.

aseptate

hyphae that have no cross-walls and are multinucleate

Vessel element

in angiosperms, xylem cell that forms part of a continuous tube through which water can move -Gnetophytes share certain features that make them unique among the gymnosperms. For example, gnetophytes have more efficient water-conducting cells, called vessel elements, in their xylem. Flowering plants also have vessel elements in their xylem, but of the gymno- sperms, only the gnetophytes do.

describe the difference between an open versus closed circulatory system. Using phylum mollusca, relate lifestyle to the tupe of circulatory system

in closed circulatory systems, the heart pumps blood through vessels that are separate from the interstitial fluid of the body. ... In an open circulatory system, the blood is not enclosed in the blood vessels, but is pumped into a cavity called a hemocoel.

ascocarp

in sac fungi, the reproductive structure in which haploid nuclei fuse to form a zygote

natural selection

in which better adapted organisms are more likely to survive and become the parents of the next generation.

gametic isolation

in which the egg and sperm of different species are incompatible

describe and provide examples of animals exhibiting complete and incomplete metamorphosis

incomplete: grasshoppers and cockroaches complete: butterflies, bees

flagship species

large and charismatic species used as spearheads for biodiversity conservation

some ferns exhibit heterospory but it also characterizes gymnosperms and flowering plants

life cycle of heterospory

mycelium

mass of hyphae

alpha proteobacteria are ancestors to which eukaryotic organelle?

mitochondria

gene flow

movement of alleles from one population to another

sporangia

multicellular organs that produce spores

zygomycota

name the phylum

The most abundant gas in the atmosphere is

nitrogen

Commercial fertilizers often add _______________ to the soil.

nitrogen and phosphorus

gills

organs that exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide with water

ovary

ovary, an enlarged structure that contains one or more ovules

invasive species

plants and animals that have migrated to places where they are not native

hybrid sterility

postzygotic If an interspecific hybrid does live, it may not reproduce for any of several reasons. occurs when problems during meiosis cause the gametes of an interspecific hybrid to be abnormal. particularly common if the two parental species have different chromosome numbers

hybrid inviability

postzygotic the genes from parents belonging to different species do not interact properly in regulating the mechanisms for normal development.

hybrid breakdown

postzygotic the inability of a hybrid to reproduce because of some defect (the first hybrid generation maybe fertile but the second generation is not)

reproductive isolating mechanism

prevent interbreeding between two different species whose ranges (areas where each lives) overlap. These mechanisms preserve the genetic integrity of each species because gene flow between the two species is prevented.

habitat isolation

prezygotic Although two closely related species may be found in the same geographic area, they usually live and breed in different habitats in that area

behavioral isolation (also known as sexual isolation)

prezygotic Many animal species exchange a distinctive series of signals before mating

mechanical isolation

prezygotic Structural differences that inhibit mating between species

temporal isolation

prezygotic sometimes genetic exchange between two groups is prevented because they reproduce at different times of the day, season, or year.

madreporite

sea water enters through small pores in the madreporite

List, give the common name, and describe the key differentiating characteristics of each of the major surviving phyla of plants.

seedless plants table

larva

sexually immature form of an animal that is morphologically distinct from the adult

homology

similarity resulting from common ancestry -that are derived from the same structure in a common ancestor different functions

umbrella species

species whose being protected under the Endangered Species Act leads to the preservation of its habitat and all of the other organisms in its community

With intermediate levels of disturbance, who gets the advantage (K-or r-selected)? -Think of what happens after a low fuel burning fire.

strategists being advantageous in speed of reproduction will easily survive any disturbance.

archegonium

structure that produces eggs, develops on the gametophyte -Gametophytes also produce female gametangia, known as archegonia (sing., archegonium), each bearing a single egg -Embryo development takes place within the archegonium; thus, the embryo is protected as it develops

What power(s) the movement of water between reservoirs.

sun

lichen

symbiotic association between a fungus and a photosynthetic organism

septa

the cells that make up hyphae are divided by these cross sections

hydrostatic skeleton

the coelom can serve as a hydrostatic skeleton in which contracting muscles push against a tube of fluid. The hydrostatic skeleton also shapes the body of soft animals. -supports the body and allows movement. (nematodes and annelids)

Compare a realized and fundamental niche. How does the Competitive Exclusion Principle explain this?

the entire set of conditions under which an animal can survive and reproduce itself known as fundamental niche. But in this fundamental niche the small area and environmental conditions actually use by organism is known as realized niche . In this Realized niche is interactions with other species (predation and especially competition) also considered. For example a bird living on a plant , plant and surrounding environment condition make fundamental niche . But in the plant the bird is lining at the lower branches only where it face some different type of environment condition as well as some interaction. This are is actually realized niche.

leaf

the main organ of photosynthesis and transpiration in higher plants

species richness

the number of different species in a community

radial cleavage

the planes of cell division that transform the zygote into a ball of cells are either parallel or perpendicular to the polar axis, thereby aligning tiers of cells one above the other.

spiral cleavage

the planes of cell division that transform the zygote into a ball of cells occur obliquely to the polar axis, resulting in cells of each tier sitting in the grooves between cells of adjacent tiers.

plasmogamy

the union of the cytoplasms of two parent mycelia

Biodiversity

the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.

pharyngeal slits are an important characteristic of chordates, and all deuterostomes. describe what these are and some modifications to pharyngeal slits that evolved

these are openings between the pharynx, or throat, and the outside. They have been modified extensively in the course of evolution. In primitive chordates, these slits are used to filter food particles from the water gills, jaw and inner ear bones

Monophyetic

they evolved from a common ancestor

trophic system

those who lose the most energy via heat are at the top those who don't lose as much are at the bottom: Bear Wolf Deer Grass Sub: Decomposers

pollination

transfer of pollen from anther to stigma -the transfer of pollen to the female cones, occurs in the spring for a week or ten days, after which the pollen cones wither and drop off the tree.

xylem

vascular tissue that carries water upward from the roots to every part of a plant

vestigial

vestigial structures are remnants of more developed structures that were present and functional in ancestral organisms.

A _______________ is a region where all of the rain eventually flows into a specific river.

watershed

ascospores

what are the pink circles called?

basidiomycota

what is the phylum

haploid

what is the ploidy of the hyphae of this organism?

sexual phase

what part of the life cycle do these structures represent?

dikaryotic

what type of hyphae make up this fruiting body?

gametophyte

which produces gametes by mitosis. Two haploid gametes then fuse to form a diploid zygote, which divides mitotically to produce a new sporophyte generation.

metamorphosis

a developmental process that converts the immature animal into a juvenile form that can then grow into an adult.

zygote

a diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid sex cells, or gametes

population

a group of individuals of one species that live in the same geographic area at the same time

species

a group of organisms, with similar genetic information, structure, function, and behavior, that are capable of interbreeding with one another

sympatric speciation

a new species evolves within the same geo- graphic region as the parental species. The divergence of two populations in the same geographic range occurs when reproductive isolating mechanisms evolve at the start of the speciation process. 2 ways: change in ploidy (the number of chromosomes) or ecology

Trochophore larva

a small, translucent, free-swimming larva characteristic of marine annelids and most groups of mollusks. Trochophores are spherical or pear-shaped and are girdled by a ring of cilia the prototroch, that enables them to swim

r-selected species

a species that has a high intrinsic growth rate, which often leads to population overshoots and die-offs

k-selected species

a species with a low intrinsic growth rate that causes the population to increase slowly until it reaches carrying capacity

mutualistic fungi

absorb nutrients from host beneficial to host in uptake of soil nutrients

saprobic fungi

absorb nutrients from nonliving organisms

parasitic fungi

absorb nutrients from the cells of living hosts

evolution

accumulation of genetic changes within populations over time

antheridium

alternation of generations more closely. The haploid gametophytes produce male gametangia, known as antheridia (sing., antheridium), in which sperm cells form

What are the biological benefits to interval fires as a land management technique such as that used by the Kumeyaay (think of a mosaic patterning of succession)?

ame management, insect control, modify growth of plants, increase certain species, increase soil fertility and reduction of erosion, make gathering easier, change plant community compositions, presence large destructive wildfires, eliminate diseased plants and harmful insects, and increase biodiversity

disturbance

an event, caused by physical, chemical, or biological agents, resulting in changes in population size or community composition

adaptation

an evolutionary modification that improves the chances of survival and reproductive success in a given environment

bacteria

Domain of unicellular prokaryotes that have cell walls containing peptidoglycan

parapodia

(annelids) pair of paddle-shaped appendages that function in locomotion and in gas exchange

How do homologous and homoplastic (analogous) features provide evidence of evolution? What are specific examples of each?

-Comparing the structural details of features found in different but related organisms reveals a basic similarity. -homologous ex: consider the limb bones of mammals. A human arm, a cat forelimb, a whale front flipper, and a bat wing, although quite different in appearance, have strikingly similar arrangements of bones, muscles, and nerves. - they are derived form the same common ancestor but are used for different functions -Like homology, homoplasy offers crucial evidence of evolution. Homoplastic features are of evolutionary interest because they demonstrate that organisms with separate ancestries may adapt in similar ways to similar environmental demands -homoplastic ex: such as insects and birds

Mosses

-Each individual gametophyte plant has tiny, hairlike absorptive structures called rhizoids and an upright, stemlike structure that bears leaflike blades, each normally consisting of a single layer of undifferentiated cells except at the midrib -water-conducting cells and sugar- conducting cells, although these cells are not lignified, nor are they as specialized -Alternation of generations -separate sexes, sometime both -important role in forming soil

What organelle is derived from this prokayotic ancestor? What theory describes this?

-Eukaryotes arose from prokaryotes -hypothesis of serial endosymbiosis, organelles such as mito- chondria and chloroplasts may have originated from mutually advantageous symbiotic relationships between two prokaryotic -Chloroplasts apparently evolved from photosynthetic bacteria (cyanobacteria) that lived inside larger heterotrophic cells, whereas mitochondria presumably evolved from aerobic bacteria (perhaps ancient purple bacteria) that lived inside larger anaerobic cells. Thus, early eukaryotic cells were assemblages of formerly free-living prokaryotes. -mitochondria provided the ability to carry out the aerobic respiration lacking in the original anaerobic host cell. Chloroplasts provided the ability to use a simple carbon source (CO2) to produce needed organic molecules. The host cell provided endosymbionts with a safe environment and raw materials or nutrients. -own DNA and ribosomes, have machineiry for protein synthesis, responds to poison, double membrane -secondary endosymbiosis

how did the presence of bryophytes change the ecology of the earth? How did ancient vascular plants change the environment on Earth

-Overcame obtaining enough water and preventing excessive water loss, tolerating high and low temperatures, and adapting to increased levels of solar radiation -Around 450 million years ago, the first plants emerge from the water. They are collectively called the bryophytes and still thrive in moist environments today. These early pioneers are small and simple, yet able to make the first "steps" onto land. -The most important adaptation found in seedless vascular plants, although absent in algae and bryophytes, is specialized vascular tissues—xylem and phloem—for support and conduc- tion. This system of conduction lets vascular plants grow larger than bryophytes because water, minerals, and sugar are trans- ported to all parts of the plant. rue stems with vascular tissues, and most also have true roots and leaves. The two basic types of true leaves—microphylls and megaphylls—evolved independently of each other -megaphylls evolved over a 40-million-year period in the Late Paleozoic era in response to a gradual decline in the level of atmospheric CO2. As CO2 declined, plants developed a flattened blade with more stomata for gas exchange. (More stomata allowed cells inside the leaf to get enough CO2.) -club mosses major contributors to our present-day coal deposits

What organism is believed to be the ancestor to plants? why? what do land plants share with their ancestors? what are new innovations?

-Plants probably arose from a group of green algae called charophytes. this conclusion is based in part on molecular comparisons of DNA and rNA sequences, which show the closest match between charophytes and plants. -Green algae have pigments, energy reserve products, and cell walls that are chemically identical to those of land plants -photosynthetic, with chloroplasts -cell walls with cellulose, although some lack walls -The multicellular forms do not have cells differentiated into tissues, a characteristic that separates them from land plants.

cyanobacteria

-The first photosynthetic autotrophs to obtain hydrogen electrons by splitting water -The process of splitting water released oxygen as a gas (O2) -cyanobacteria had produced enough oxygen to begin significantly changing the composition of the atmosphere by 2.4 bya -The increase in atmospheric oxygen affected life profoundly. The oxygen poisoned obligate anaerobes (organisms that cannot use oxygen for cellular respiration -lead to aerobes, a respiratory path- way that used oxygen to extract more energy from food evolved -Organisms that respire aerobically gain much more energy from a single molecule of glu- cose than anaerobes gain by fermentation -The evolution of aerobic respiration stabilized both oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the biosphere. Photosynthetic organisms used carbon dioxide as a source of carbon for synthesizing organic compounds.

describe the advantages to having seeds; to having flowers.

-the two groups of seed plants are the gymnosperms and the angiosperms. Gymnosperms produce seeds that are totally exposed or borne on the scales of cones; an ovary wall does not surround the ovules of gymnosperms. -angiosperms are flowering plants that produce their seeds within a fruit (a mature ovary). each seed contains a young plant embryo and nutritive tissue (the endosperm), both of which are surrounded by a protective seed coat -Fruits serve two purposes: to protect the developing seeds from desiccation as they grow and mature and to aid in the dispersal of seeds. -Closed carpels, which give rise to fruits surrounding the seeds, and the process of double fertilization with its resulting endosperm increase the likelihood of reproductive success. -The flower, which may contain sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels, functions in sexual reproduction. Unlike those of gymnosperms, the ovules of flowering plants are enclosed within an ovary. After fertilization, the ovules become seeds, and the ovary develops into a fruit.

Describe and provide an example of the following types of symbiosis: 1. Predator/Prey Interactions (+/-) 2. Parasitism (+/-) 3. Mutualism (+/+) 4. Commensalism (+/0) 5. Amensalism (-/0)

1- predator is an organism that eats prey and prey is an organism that is eaten by the predator. For example, a lion is a predator that eats deer (prey). Here predator is benefitted but prey gets harmed. 2- Parasitesm a type of relationship in which one organism is parasite lives on the body of another organism. Example ticks that live on dogs or cattle. 3- Mutualism is a type of symbiotic relationship in which both the organism get benefitted from the relationship. Example plant-pollinator insect and plants. the plant-pollinator insect gets the nectar and plants get pollinated. 4- commensalism is a type of symbiotic relationship in which one organism gets benefitted while other remains unaffected from the relationship. Example clownfish and sea anemones. Clownfish live in the tentacles of sea anemone and eat the food left from anemone eatings. 5- Amensalism- is a type of relationship in which one organism remains unaffected while others get harmed from the relationship. Antibiosis in which one organism releases the chemicals that harms others but the one who secrete the chemicals remains unharmed.

what are the similarities and differences between the traditional and molecular classification?

1. Division pf protostomes into 2 clades 2.presence of absence of a body cavity

life cycle of ferns

1. Fern Sporophyte 2. Sorus with sporangia 3. Spores 4. Germinating spores 5. Young prothallus 6. Prothallus gametophyte 7. Antheridium 8. Archegonium and egg 9. Sperm 10. Young sporophyte

Describe the carbon cycle, human impacts on this cycle and Global Climate Change.

1. Release of carbon into the biosphere 2. Uptake of carbon from the atmosphere There are many ways by which carbon is releases into the environment. But only one way by which it is uptaken from the atmosphere, that is, by photosynthetic activity of plants. Modes of carbon release - 1. Burning of fossil fuels release CO2 into the atmosphere 2. Animal and microbial respiration 3. Death of living organisms release carbon into soil 4. Death of marine organisms release carbon into ocean. It is called dissolved organic carbon and can also seep to sediments locates beneath oceans. Impact of human activity on carbon cycle - 1. Burning of fossil fuels increase more CO2 release 2. Deforestation leads to less CO2 uptake 3. Hunting of animals add to soil carbon pool 4. Pollution of water bodies may kill marine life, adding to oceanic carbon pool 5. Smoke from rail engines and heavy industries release more CO2 into environment Impact on climate change - 1. More CO2 into atmosphere increases glob temperature 2. Deforestation leads to loss of biodiversity 3. Soil structure declines, more soil erosions, draughts and floods 4. Water and air quality declines 5. Marine life threatened 6. Agriculture also affected (loss of soil beneficial organisms, rainfall patterns affected, soil quality declines)

Approximately _____ percent of the Earth's water is salt water.

98

cladogram

A branching diagram that illustrates taxonomic relationships based on the principles of cladistics.

eukaryote

A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

gastrovascular cavity

A central digestive cavity with a single opening that functions as both mouth and anus; characteristic of cnidarians and flatworms.

mutation

A change in a gene or chromosome.

Where is fossilization most likely to occur: a flood plain or a tropical rain forest? Why? Why is the fossil record biased?

A flood plain -The fossil record is not a random sample of past life but instead is biased toward aquatic organisms and those living in the few terrestrial habitats conducive to fossil formation. -Another reason for bias in the fossil record is that organisms with hard body parts such as bones and shells are more likely to form fossils than are those with soft body parts. Also, rocks of different ages are unequally exposed at Earth's surface; some rocks of certain ages are more accessible to paleontologists for fossil study than are rocks of other ages.

polyp

A hydralike animal; the sessile stage of the life cycle of certain cnidarians.

medusa

A jellyfish-like animal; a free-swimming, umbrella-shaped stage in the life cycle of certain cnidarians

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

keystone species

A species that influences the survival of many other species in an ecosystem

mold

A type of fossil formed when a shell or other hard part of an organism dissolves, leaving an empty space in the shape of the part.

prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

species

According to the biological species concept, one or more populations whose members are capable of interbreeding in nature to produce fertile offspring and do not interbreed with members of other species.

exoskeleton

An external skeleton provides protection and sites of attachment for muscles. -composed of chitin and protein, -helps prevent excessive loss of moisture -supports the underlying soft tissues. -presents a barrier to diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide through the body wall necessitating the evolution of specialized respiratory systems for gas exchange. -A disadvantage outgrow -a net metabolic loss, -temporarily vulnerable to predators.

monocot

An angiosperm that has only one seed leaf. -palms, grasses, orchids, irises, onions, and lilies -class Monocotyledones -mostly herbaceous plants with long, narrow leaves that have parallel veins (the main leaf veins run parallel to one another -flowers usually occur in threes -Monocot seeds have a single cotyledon, or embryonic seed leaf; endosperm, a nutritive tissue, is usually present in the mature seed.

pseudocoelomate

An animal having a pseudocoelom (nematodes)

Describe and draw the asexual and sexual reproduction cycles in Ascomycota and Basidiomycota

Ascomycota -haploid mycelia of opposite mating types both produce coenocytic sexual hyphae. -Plasmogamyoccurs as hyphaeof the two mating types fuse and nuclei are exchanged. -Dikaryotic hyphae form and produce asci. -Hyphae form an ascocarp. -Karyogamy occurs in each ascus. Two haploid nuclei fuse, forming a diploid zygote nucleus. -Meiosis occurs, forming four haploid nuclei. -Mitosis produces eight haploid nuclei. -Each nucleus becomes incorporated into an ascospore. -When released, ascospores germinate and form new haploid mycelia. -In asexual reproduction, hyphae produce haploid conidia that can develop into new mycelia. *Basidiomycete -Basidiospores germinate and form primary mycelia. -Plasmogamy of primary mycelia occurs with the fusion of two (n) hyphae of different mating types. -Fast-growing secondary mycelium is produced, composed of dikaryotic (n + n) hyphae. -Basidiocarps periodically develop from secondary mycelium. -Basidia form along gills of basidiocarps. In each basidium karyogamy occurs, producing a zygote nucleus. -Meoisis occurs, producing four haploid nuclei that become basidiospores. -Basidiospores forming

3 types postzygotic barriers

Barriers that prevent the hybrid zygote from becoming a fertile adult Generally, the embryo of an interspecific hybrid spontaneously aborts -hybrid inviability -hybrid sterility -hybrid breakdown

What characteristics are used to classify Zygomycota, Ascomycota and Basidiomycota? List some common examples of each.

Basidiomycetes assexual spores are generally not found. And sexual organs are absent. Reproduction by vegetative and fragmentation method. In basidiomycota spores are produced externally, on the end of specialised cells called Basidia. Mycelium is branched and septate. common example is mushroom. Ascomycetes are commonly known as sac fungi. Mycelium is branched and septate. In ascomycota asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on special mycelium called conidiophores. Conidia on germination produce mycelium. Sexual spores are called ascospores produced endogenously inside the ascus. Common examples are penicillium, yeast. Zygomycota, like all true fungi, produce cell walls containing chitin. They grow primarily as mycelia, or filaments of long cells called hyphae. Unlike the so-called 'higher fungi' comprising the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota which produce regularly septate mycelia, most Zygomycota form hyphae which are generally coenocytic because they lack cross walls or septa. There are, however, several exceptions and septa may form at irregular intervals throughout the older parts of the mycelium or are regularly spaced in two sister orders of Zygomycota, the Kickxellales and Harpellales.

how does cephalization influence the ability of an animal to have an active predatory life style?

Bilateral symmetry and cephalization are adaptations for locomotion. The head end of the animal meets its environment first and is best equipped to capture food or respond to danger.

What are abiotic and biotic factors in an ecosystem?

Biotic factors are living parts of ecosystem and abiotic factors are non-living parts of an ecosystem

endoskelton

Bony and/ or cartilaginous structures within the body that provide support. -Phylum deuterostomes, subgroups echinoderms and chordates -calcium carbonate keep the surface of the animal free of debris.

How does the bottleneck effect alter the genetic biodiversity of a population? How does this affect conservation efforts for endangered species (think of the cheetah or California condor)?

Bottleneck effect is a phenomenon wherein the numbers is a population is reduced to a small handful, which severely deteriorates the richness of the gene pool, and rarely represents the actual genetic makeup of the initial population. This means that there is smaller variation among the surviving individuals. It can occur due to several reasons including natural calamities, disease, hunting, etc. Once the calamity has passed, the remaining individuals would start breeding and the population would increase gradually. However, this population would lack genetic variability, thereby making it difficult for them to survive in the wild in the longer term. Hence, conservation programs require a minimum number of individuals to be present in order to start and continue the successful conservation of the species.

setae

Bristlelike structures that aid in annelid locomotion. (annelids) alternating contraction of its longitudinal and circular muscles setae consist mainly of chitin.

what is the significance of choanocytes in terms of the evolution sponges? what is the function of choanocytes in sponges?

By cooperatively moving their flagella, choanocytes filter particles out of the water and into the spongocoel, and out through the osculum. This improves both respiratory and digestive functions for the sponge, pulling in oxygen and nutrients and allowing a rapid expulsion of carbon dioxide and other waste products.

Describe this in terms of the acquisition of mitochondria and chloroplasts in Domain Eukarya.

Cell biologists hypothesize that mitochondria originated from aerobic bacteria. Studies of mitochondrial DNA suggest that it is a remnant from the mitochondrion's past, when it was an independent organism. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) sequences from mitochondria closely match rRNAs found in purple bacteria, suggesting that ancient purple bacteria were the ancestors of mitochondria. Chloroplast evolution is more complex given that there were probably several endosymbiotic events . Molecular evidence supports the view that incorporation of an ancient cyanobacterium within a host cell, known as primary endosymbiosis, resulted in the chloroplasts in today's red algae, green algae, and land plants. (The host cell was eukaryotic because mitochondria almost certainly evolved before chloroplasts.) Biologists hypothesize that these chloroplasts, which are enclosed by two external membranes (known as the outer and inner chloroplast membranes; , later provided other eukaryotes with their chloroplasts during secondary endosymbiosis.

microevolution

Change in allele frequencies in a population over generations.

cartilaginous fish

Chondrichthyes is taxonomic superclass of the phylum Chordata

Fungus phylums

Chytridiomycota (chytrids or chytridiomycetes) Allomyces, Zygomycota (zygomycetes) Black bread mold. Microsporidia are classified with the zygomycetes, Glomeromycota (glomeromycetes), Ascomycota (ascomycetes) Yeasts, powdery mildews, molds, morels, truffles, Basidiomycota (basidiomycetes or club fungi)Mushrooms, bracketfungi, puffballs, rusts, smuts

basidium

Club-shaped, reproductive structure in which club fungi produce spores

What is a dikaryon? What advantages are there to a dikaryotic state?

Dikaryon is a cell with two genetically different haploid nuclei. In dikaryon stage of fungi, two haploid cells coexist in a dikaryon (single cell). Advantages: If there are any harmful or deleterious mutations in one haploid nucleus, these are compensated by the other haploid genome (masking of deleterious alleles) .

Explain the process by which fungi acquire their nutrients. In what ways are fungi well adapted to their environment?

Due to the absence of photosynthetic pigments, fungi are heterotrophs, they use organic compounds as a carbon source. They may be saprophytic . They obtain or derive their nutrients from decaying organic matter or decomposing organic materials derived from plants. They may also obtain their nutrients by parasitic means like infecting plants or animals. There different ways by which different fungus adapt to their environment such as physical development and toxic development. One way in which the fungus are adapted to the environment is by increasing the surface area of the gills present in them as it reproduces more spores which causes more of them being dispersed which leads to the better survival of the fungi. Another way for adaptation to the environment is by increasing the spore wall thickness that are dispersed which helps in the more protection for the spore allowing them to survive better. This may be essential at the time of drought. There is an another way for better adaptation which is by developing toxins to preventing animals and other organisms to eat them.

mycorrhizae

Ecological relationship between the mycelium of a fungus and the roots of certain plants

amniotic egg

Egg that contains an amnion and other membranes that surround and protect the developing embryo and keep it moist; the evolution of the amniotic egg was one of the adaptations that allowed animals to become completely terrestrial.

basidiocarp

Elaborate fruiting body of a dikaryotic mycelium of a club fungus.

Eukaryotic Supergroups Cladogram

Excavata, Chromalveolata, Rhizaria, Archaeplastida and Unikonta

Be able to describe a food web and determine which trophic level each organism is at/trophic level

Food Web: Food web is a diagrammatic representation of many food chains which are interlinked. Hence they are larger than the food chains. Example is the attached food web. Food Web has animals at different tropic levels based on their food habits whether they are producers, consumers or decomposers. Producers are autotrophs that are capable of producing their own food by photosynthesis. Example Plants Consumers demend on producers and other consumers for their food. They are further divided into a. Herbivores: They are plant eating animals. Ecample Goat, Rabbit etc b. Carnivore: These are animals that eat other herbivorous animals. Example Wolf, Snake, Frog etc c. Omnivores: These are animals that eat both plants and animals. Example Man Decomposers: These are organisms that are involved the decomposition of waste and dead materials thereby releasing inorganinc materials into the ecosystem for recycling. Food web has these organisms arranged at different levels called tropic levels. There are 4 Trophic levels. The same is explained below with respect to the attached example Level 1. Primary Producers: These are organisms that produce there own food by means of photosynthesis. Example Grass, Bean Plants Level 2. Primary Consumers: (Herbivore)These organisms feed on the producers example Rabbit, Dragon fly, Level 3. Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores that feed on herbivores. Example Fox, snake, fish, wolf, man Level 4. Tertiary Comsumers: These are who eat other carnivores. Example: Man, Snake, Hawk . Decomposers are not usually listed in the food web but it is with these decomposers that the cycle gets completed

directional selection

Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

Niche

Full range of physical and biological conditions in which an organism lives and the way in which the organism uses those conditions

karyogamy

Fusion of two haploid nuclei to form a diploid nucleus. Occurs in many fungi, and in animals and plants during fertilization of gametes

Does genetic drift have a more drastic effect on large or small populations?

Genetic drift happens in population of all size but effect is stronger in small population because the effects of random chance with genetic inheritance produce more dramatic shifts in allele frequency.

How does genetic drift change the allelic frequency of a population?

Genetic drift is the change in allele frequency of a population due to sampling error from generation to generation. It decrease genetic diversity within a population.

cone

Gymnosperms produce seeds borne exposed (unprotected) on a stem or in a cone. In other words, an ovary wall does not surround the ovules of gymnosperms. Pine, spruce, fir, hemlock, and ginkgo are examples of gymnosperms.

endosperm

In angiosperms, a nutritive tissue, is usually present in the mature seed.

septa

In annelids, the partitions that separate the segments.

Why are only inherited variations important in the evolutionary process?

In biology, evolution is the change in the inherited traits of a population from generation to generation. Skills and things that are learned are not passed on genetically to their offspring.

Why are only inherited variations important in the evolutionary process

In biology, evolution is the change in the inherited traits of a population from generation to generation. This occurs because organisms with advantageous traits pass on more copies of these heritable traits to the next generation.

embryo

In plants the fertilized egg develops into a multicellular embryo (young plant) within the female gametangium. Thus, the embryo is protected during its development.

mantle

In the mollusk, a fold of tissue that covers the visceral mass and that usually produces a shell.

How does intermediate disturbance increase biodiversity?

Intermediate disturbance is neither too rare nor too frequent. There is a strong relation between the disturbance and species diversity so if the disturbances are too rare or too frequent it does not favor the increase in biodiversity because the species can be destroyed in both the cases. At low level of disturbances the species richness decreases as competitive exclusion {the inevitable elimination from a habitat of one of two different species with identical needs for resources} increases, whereas at high levels all species are at risk of going extinct. In both the conditions there is a loss of biodiversity by one or the other mean. But when the disturbance is intermediate it maximizes the species diversity because species which thrive at both early and late successional stages can coexist. We know that the declination can be a result of ecological disturbances or interspecific competition or both which further creates imbalance in ecosystem. low disturbance leads to decreased diversity and high disturbance causes an increase in species movement but during intermediate disturbances, the species richness can reach its maximum.

mesoglea

Jellylike layer between the epidermis and gastrodermis in cnidarians - viscous mesoglea that gives firmness to the body.

Provide an example of a K-selected and an r-selected species. How does each species type contribute to biodiversity?

K-selected species are elephant,people,tortoise,their offsprinf are few but long lived. r-selected species are mice,rabbits,weeds and bacteria, having a lot of offspring but a short life expectancy. R and K-selection constrain the range of viable species through the colonization-competition tradeoff with strong r-selection favoring colonizers and strong k-selection favoring competitors,but the level of disturbance also affects the success of species.

What supergroups are kingdom plantae, fungi and animalia in?

Kingdom fungi and Animalia is placed in Supergroup Unikonta, while plants are placed in Archaeplastida.

phloem

Living vascular tissue that carries sugar and organic substances throughout a plant

megaspore

Megasporangia produce megasporocytes (also called mega- spore mother cells). When megasporocytes undergo meiosis, they form haploid megaspores, each of which develops into a female gametophyte that produces eggs in archegonia. The development of male gametophytes from microspores and of female gametophytes from megaspores occurs within their respective spore walls, using stored food provided by the sporophyte. As a result, and unlike the gametophytes of other seedless vascular plants, the male and female gametophytes are not truly free-living. Fertilization is followed by the development of a new sporophyte.

eudicot

Member of a clade consisting of the vast majority of flowering plants that have two embryonic seed leaves, or cotyledons. -include oaks, roses, mustards, cacti, blueberries, and sunflowers -either herbaceous (such as a tomato plant) or woody (such as a hickory tree) -class Eudicotyledones -Eudicots are more diverse and include many more species (at least 200,000) than the monocots -Their leaves vary in shape but usually are broader than monocot leaves, with netted (finely branched) veins -Flower parts usually occur in fours or fives or multiples thereof -endosperm is usually absent in the mature seed, having been absorbed by the two cotyledons during seed development

microspore

Microsporangia are sporangia that produce microsporocytes (also called microspore mother cells), which undergo meiosis to form microscopic, haploid microspores. Each microspore develops into a male gametophyte that produces sperm cells within antheridia.

Describe the basic body plan of a mold.

Mold consists of Hyphae which are long, branching multicellular filaments of cells. Mold grows rapidly and can reproduce sexually or asexually. These are usually found in moist or humid environments. Mycelium: Mold colonies consists of masses of hyphae which is collectively termed as mycelium. Septa are cross-walls hyphae that may form compartments and contain pores. These crosswalls separate cytoplasm and nuclei into cells. Coenocytic are aseptate, multinucleated hyphae.

ecdysis

Molting -nemadtoda and arthropoda

cotyledon

Monocot seeds have a single cotyledon, or embryonic seed leaf -A "seed leaf" which develops as a part of the seed. It provides nutrients to the developing seedling and eventually becomes the first leaf of the plant.

tetrapod

Most modern biologists classify the tetrapods and Amniota

gene flow

Movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population

animal characteristics

Multicelled eukaryotes Heterotrophic Specialized body cells embedded in extracellular matrix Diverse body plans Movement during one part of their life cycle Most have nervous system/muscles for rapid response to environment Diploid, sexually reproducing with large nonmotile egg and tiny flagellated sperm Embryonic development -most with the presence of HOX genes

stabilizing selection

Natural selection that favors intermediate variants by acting against extreme phenotypes

archaea

One of two prokaryotic domains, the other being Bacteria.

define coevolution and pollination syndrome. How had the evolution of angiosperms influenced the evolution of insects?

One reward for the animal pollinator is food. Pollen grains are a protein-rich food for many animals. -Some nectars contain alkaloids such as nicotine to prevent animal pollinators from drinking all the nec- tar in a single visit. (Nicotine is poisonous.) Thus, pollinators are encouraged to visit multiple flowers, and each flower has multiple pollinator visitors. -Plants pollinated by insects often have blue or yellow petals. The insect eye does not see color the same way the human eye does. Most insects see well in the violet, blue, and yellow range of visible light but do not perceive red as a distinct color. So, flowers pollinated by insects are not usually red. -Insects see ultraviolet radiation as a color called bee's purple. -Insects have a well-developed sense of smell, and many insect-pollinated flowers have a strong scent that may be pleasant or foul to humans.

autotrophs

Organisms that make their own food

alternation of generations

Plants have a clearly defined alternation of generations in which they spend part of their lives in a multicellular haploid stage and part in a multicellular diploid stage .1 The haploid portion of the life cycle is called the gametophyte generation because it gives rise to haploid gametes by mitosis. When two gametes fuse, the dip- loid portion of the life cycle, called the sporophyte generation, begins. The sporophyte generation produces haploid spores by the process of meiosis; these spores represent the first stage in the gametophyte generation. Let us examine alternation of generations more closely. The haploid gametophytes produce male gametangia, known as antheridia (sing., antheridium), in which sperm cells form (FIG. 27-3a). Gametophytes also produce female gametangia, known as archegonia (sing., archegonium), each bearing a sin- gle egg (FIG. 27-3b). Sperm cells reach the female gametangium in a variety of ways, and one sperm cell fertilizes the egg to form a zygote, or fertilized egg. The diploid zygote is the first stage in the sporophyte genera- tion. The zygote divides by mitosis and develops into a multicel- lular embryo, the young sporophyte plant. Embryo development takes place within the archegonium; thus, the embryo is pro- tected as it develops. Eventually, the embryo grows into a mature sporophyte plant. The mature sporophyte has special cells called sporogenous cells (spore-producing cells, also called spore mother cells) that divide by meiosis to form haploid spores. All plants produce spores by meiosis, in contrast with algae and fungi, which may produce spores by meiosis or mitosis. The spores represent the first stage in the gametophyte genera- tion. Each spore divides by mitosis to produce a multicellular gametophyte, and the cycle continues. Plants therefore alternate between a haploid gametophyte generation and a diploid sporo- phyte generation.

tagmata

Prominent body regions in arthropods

List and describe the different supergroups. Provide a representative protist example of each clade.

Protist chart

dikaryotic

Referring to a fungal mycelium with two haploid nuclei per cell, one from each parent.

ecology

Scientific study of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment

angiosperm seed

Seed coat—and carpel—is from the dominant sporophyte food supply from double fertilization—male and female gametophyte.

Compare/contrast species richness with species diversity. What is a high Shannon Diversity Index number (measure of species diversity) (Hs)?

Species richness is the number of different species present in an area. Species diversity is species evenness or distribution of different species. In both areas, total number of species are equal. But area A has more species diversity as compared to B because it has an even distribution of all the three species. Species richness of B is more for mango, A is more for dogs and A is more for butterflies. Shannon Diversity index is the proportion of one species with respect to total number of species in an area. For example, in area A, SD index for mango will be, Hs = 300/1000 = 0.3

Allopatric speciation

Speciation that occurs when one population becomes geographically separated from the rest of the species and subsequently evolves by natural selection and/or genetic drift

cnidocyte

Stinging cells characteristic of cnidarians

Why are supergroups used in domain eukarya?

Supergroups are used in domain Eukarya to resolve phylogenetic relationships between eukaryotes. Due to increased knowledge of molecular biology subgroups were formed. Members of each subgroup are believed to have been evolved from a common ancestor and thus more closely related.

how are animals divided

Symmetry Embryonic Tissue layers/level of organization Presence of Cephalization Embryonic development Segmentation Digestive system Support

supergroup

Systematic term that refers to the major groups of eukaryotes -Excavata, Chromalveolata, Rhizaria, Archaeplastida and Unikonta

How does the removal or addition of a tertiary consumer affect biodiversity and ecosystem health? A secondary consumer?

Tertiary consumers are the top predators, eating both the primary and secondary consumers indirectly they keep the balance in the ecosystem. If tertiary consumer are removed then there will increase in the primary and secondary consumers and if there is sudden increase or decrease in biodiversity or species it will eventually disturb the whole ecosystem be it terrestrial or aquatic ecosystem. ​If Tertiary consumers are added they will start predating on the primary and secondary consumers and will lead to the sudden fall in the species belonging to secondary and primary consumers this sudden fall will again affect the ecosystem and will lead to loss pf biodiversity.​Not only the Tertiary consumer but also if there is imbalance / addition / removal of any of the consumer can destroy the whole ecosystem because all the three consumers are dependent on each other. ​

Opisthokonts

The choanoflagellates, fungi, and animals are a monophyletic group -characterized by a posterior flagellum on motile cells

visceral mass

The concentration of body organs (viscera) located above the foot in mollusks.

hyphae

The branching, threadlike tubes that make up the bodies of multicellular fungi

cuticle

The earthworm's body is somewhat protected from drying by a thin, transparent cuticle secreted by the cells of the epidermis. -protects parasites

metanephridia

The excretory organs of annelids and mollusks into the coelom, and the other end opens to the outside of the body. that remove nitrogenous wastes from the coelomic fluid.

pistil

The female reproductive part of a flower

what are stomata? What is their purpose? In what lineage of plants did they first evolve?

The leaf epidermis contains minute openings, or stomata (sing., stoma), for gas exchange between leaf cells and the environ- ment; the stomata are evenly spaced to optimize this gas exchange. -Opening and closing of stomata affect carbon dioxide availability Stomata are adjustable pores that are usually open during the day when CO2 is required for photosynthesis and closed at night when photosynthesis is shut down The opening and closing of stomata are controlled by changes in the shape of the two guard cells that surround each pore. The guard cells' shape is determined by their rigid- ity. When water moves into guard cells from surrounding nonguard cells, the guard cells become turgid (swollen) and bend, producing a pore. When water leaves the guard cells, they become flaccid (limp) and collapse against one another, closing the pore. Under drought, plants may also close their stomata to limit the amount of water that evaporates from their leaves. However, this strategy introduces new dilemmas. Because plants must exchange gases through their stomata, closing them prevents plants from taking up carbon dioxide (CO2). -bryophyta

understand the path of water through the water vascular system of a sea star starting with the madreporite

The madreporite is located next to the central disk and takes in water. The water continues to the stone canal to the ring canal and into the radial canals, located in each arm. The radial canals carry water to the ampullae and provide suction to the tube feet. The tube feet work by attaching temporarily to surfaces and move in a wave, as one area attaches to the substrate, another releases.

what characteristics differentiates the tracheophytes from the non-tracheophytes? Why are the non-trachophytes generally, small and close to the ground?

The main difference between bryophytes and tracheophytes is that the bryophytes are nonvascular plants while the tracheophytes are the vascular plants. Furthermore, bryophytes include mosses, liverworts, and hornworts while tracheophytes include ferns, gymnosperms, angiosperms. Because they have no means for extensive internal transport of water, sugar, and essential minerals, bryophytes are typically small. They generally require a moist environment for active growth and reproduction, but some bryophytes tolerate dry areas.

species diversity

The number and relative abundance of species in a biological community.

seed

The plant structure that contains a young plant inside a protective covering

torsion

The twisting of the visceral mass characteristic of gastropod mollusks.

tracheid

The wood (secondary xylem) consists of tracheids, which are long, tapering cells with pits through which water and dissolved minerals move from one cell to another.

Provide evidence to support the hypothesis that fungi are more closely related to animals than plants

There are different evidence that supports that the fungi are more related to animals than plants. This include protein sequences synthetic pathways , cytochrome systems ,mitochondrial genetic material etc. Firstly the protein sequences of fungi homologous to those of animals. Fungi also display similarities with animals in the biosynthesis of polysaturated fatty acids. Two distinct pathways are recognized, leading to the production of alpha linolenic acid and gamma linolenic acid. The alpha linolenic acid is synthesized by some higher plants, The gamma linolenic acid is synthesized by animals whereas studies shows that out of thirty one fungal species all shows gamma linolenic acid. Fungi also show similarities in cytochrome system . Visible absorption of the cytochrome of fungi is compared. 45 fungal species have cytochrome is found similar to that of the mammalian where as they are not nearly similar to the cytochrome of green plants.

auricles

They have what appear to be crossed "eyes" and flapping lateral projections called auricles. The auricles actually serve as organs of chemoreception, which is important in locating food (plat)

Clitellum

These surfaces become glued together by the thick mucous secretions of each worm's clitellum, a thickened ring of epidermis. Sperm are then exchanged and stored in the seminal receptacles (small sacs) of the other worm. A few days later, each clitellum secretes a membranous cocoon containing a sticky fluid. As the cocoon is slipped forward, eggs are laid in it.

5 major mechanisms for evolution

They are: mutation, non-random mating, gene flow, finite population size (genetic drift), and natural selection.

What roles do fungi play in the environment?

They decompose dead animal and plant meterial so they are available for consumption for other organisms. Also some fungi have symbiotic relation with other organisms, these added influence of fungi make a Cornerstone of any big ecosystem.

floral structure

This cutaway view of an Arabidopsis flower shows the details of basic floral structure. Each flower has four sepals (two are shown), four petals (two are shown), six stamens, and one long pistil. Four of the stamens are long, and two are short (two long and two short are shown). Pollen grains develop within sacs in the anthers.

stomata

Tiny pores which dot the surfaces of leaves and stems of almost all plants, facilitate gas exchange.

homoplasy

a characteristic shared by a set of species but not present in their common ancestor.

what shared characteristics distinguish the vertebrates from the rest of the chordates

Vertebrates are further differentiated from chordates by their vertebral column, which forms when their notochord develops into the column of bony vertebrae separated by discs

sporophyte generation

When two gametes fuse, the diploid portion of the life cycle -The sporophyte generation produces haploid spores by the process of meiosis; these spores represent the first stage in the gametophyte generation. -forms haploid spores by meiosis each spore divides mitotically to form a multicellular haploid

distinguish fungi from organisms in the other two eukaryotic kingdoms

While the other two eukaryotic kingdom are autotrphic that is they produce their own food , but fungi are heterotrohic., unlike other eukaryotic kingdom, fungi are filamentous, the body of fungi consists of thread like structures called Hyphae. The main component of the body is chitin.

primary producer

first producer of energy-rich compounds that are later used by other organisms