BIO 105
Breast cancer is staged using a scale from
0 to 4 including subcategories in some stages.
Identify the lab equipment you will use in this simulation by moving the labels to the correct item
1. Electrophoresis buffer 2. Micropipette tips 3. Electrophoreses chamber 4. Ethidium bromide 5. DNA Samples 6. Micropipette 7. Chamber lid 8. Masking tape 9. Gel casting tray 10. Gel comb 11. Hot liquid agarose
Place the following discoveries in chronological order to explain how scientists determined the function of DNA.
1. Griffith showed the presence of a genetic "transforming factor" that could be transferred from cell to cell 2. Avery indicated that because DNAse inactivated "the transforming factor", the genetic component of cells was most likely DNA 3. Hershey and Chase confirmed that DNA was the genetic material of cells
The following graphic shows the major steps of gene expression. Place the following descriptions of the steps in the correct order.
1. Located in the nucleus, DNA serves as the template for gene expression. 2. The genetic information is transcribed from DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. The genetic information is transcribed from DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA. 3. mRNA, an intermediate molecule, leaves the nucleus to the ribosome. mRNA, an intermediate molecule, leaves the nucleus to the ribosome. 4. In the cytoplasm, mRNA and its codons are translated at the ribosome and specify a tRNA carrying specific amino acids. 5. The amino acids bind together to form a growing protein chain that eventually breaks off from the ribosome.
Stage 3 breast cancer has ______ subcategories.
3 breast cancer subcategories are 3A, 3B, and 3C.
When examining an adult human body, there are estimates that the body is composed of ____________ cells, and each cell has a ____________ role and function. To continue to maintain the cell number, the cells in the body have to ____________ . In order to do so, they need to make a ____________ of the genetic information, the instructions for everything. To make a copy of the genetic material in the ____________ , replication of ____________ cannot begin until ____________ bonds between complementary bases are broken. After the bonds are broken between the two strands, each of the strands acts as a ____________ for the construction of a new daughter strand. The end result of DNA replication are ____________ sets of identical DNA. ____________ is a technique that utilizes the principles of DNA replication to produce many copies of a specific segment of DNA. PCR has many research and practical applications. It is routinely used in testing for ____________ , as well as in the fields of forensics, studies of ancestry, and paternal testing.
30 trillion specific divide copy nucleus DNA hydrogen template two Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) genetic diseases
If a parent cell has 48 chromosomes, how many chromosomes will each daughter cell have after mitosis and cytokinesis occurs?
48 chromosomes
Most human enzymes function best at a pH very close to
7.4
In order for cancer to develop, which of the following events must occur? Select all that apply.
A cell malfunctions and unregulated cell division occurs. Genetic mutation causes a cell to lose its normal genetic programming and control mechanisms.
Which of the following is seen in both the DNA replication process and the PCR process?
A double-stranded DNA molecule is replicated to create two double-stranded DNA molecules.
What is a proto-oncogene?
A gene that encodes proteins that typically speed up the cell cycle. A gene that, if mutated, can lead to cancer. A gene that is part of growth and development signaling pathways in a cell.
In gel electrophoresis, how are the DNA samples added to the wells?
A micropipet is used.
Select the methods by which cancer, or the risk of cancer, is detected in the body.
A minor surgical procedure may extract tissue to look for cancer cells. A variety of X-ray technologies may be used to capture images of the body to find tumors. A simple blood test may be used to detect changes in blood chemistry, the presence of abnormal proteins, or disease-fighting antibodies.
Which of the following describes how physicians stage a patient diagnosed with breast cancer? Select all that apply.
A numerical staging system describes the degree to which cancer has spread. Staging helps describe where cancer has spread and whether it is affecting other parts of the body. Staging helps describe where a cancer is located.
Select the descriptions of cancer immunotherapy.
A process that convinces the body that cancer cells are foreign invaders Use of the immune system to find and destroy cancer cells
PCR: Similarities with DNA replication The polymerase chain reaction is a lab procedure that mimics the cellular process of DNA replication. Below is a list of characteristics used to describe the process. Determine which characteristics are similar to DNA replication and which characteristics are different.
A template strand is required Spare nucleotides DNA polymerase enzyme
Mitochondria are associated with the production of
ATP
Complete the following paragraph to determine the basic characteristics used to determine the stage of cancer.
After a general physician makes the initial diagnosis of cancer, the actual staging of cancer is done by an oncologist. Staging is the process of finding out how much cancer is in a person's body and where it's located. To determine the stage of cancer, the oncologist will answer the following questions using a variety of methods: 1) What is the size of the tumor? 2) What is the degree to which it has invaded nearby tissues? 3) Is the cancer present in nearby lymph nodes? 4) To what extent has the cancer metastasized to other organs of the body? By answering these questions, the doctors are able to give a patient a prognosis and a plan of treatment.
A virus called a bacteriophage was labeled with either radioactive proteins or radioactive DNA and was allowed to infect bacteria. From the results, it was concluded that the DNA, and not proteins, entered the bacterial cells and was the genetic material.
Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase
Complete the following paragraph to describe cells.
All life begins as one cell. For multicellular organisms, this single cell will undergo rapid cell division and divide over and over again until it becomes an adult body. As the cells divide, these replicates of the original cell will receive signals from the environment and turn on physiological pathways that instruct the cells to turn on certain sets of genetic instructions and turn off others. In doing so, the cells become specialized, which allows tissues and organs to form and have specific roles within the body.
Drag each term to its definition.
An agent known to cause DNA mutation, such as chemicals, radiation, or viruses. Choice mutagen An agent known to cause DNA mutation specifically associated with cancer. Choice carcinogen
The sister chromatids separate and become individual chromosomes that begin to move toward the poles of the cell.
Anaphase
During which phase of mitosis do the sister chromatids separate and head towards opposite poles of the cell?
AnaphaseCorrect
The function of mitosis is
Answer: Growth of the organism and tissue repair, To ensure that each new cell receives a complete set of genetic information, Asexual reproduction in some species.
Complete the following statements to demonstrate your understanding of how cancer affects the normal physiology of the body.
As a tumor forms and grows, the tumor will take up space and start to press against the surrounding tissues and organs. By blocking channels like ducts, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels, this overcrowding disrupts the normal operations of the surrounding organs because it prevents the ability to transport materials. In other instances, the disruption of normal operations of an organ can lead to a change in the chemical composition of the body's fluid. By disrupting the operation of the organs or by changing the body's fluids, these impacts prevent the body from functioning regularly or achieving homeostasis. Over time, the reduction in function of the organ will cause the organ system to shut down and death may occur.
Which of the following best explains the main difference in Avery's experimental design compared to Griffith's experimental design?
Avery added DNase to S strain bacteria to see what happens if DNA was not able to be present.
Which of the following was Avery able to conclude after his experiments?
Avery concluded that it was likely DNA that was the genetic material of cells.
How did the experimental design of Avery differ from the experimental design of Griffith?
Avery repeated Griffith's experiments, but added DNase to the bacteria before infection of mice. The mice lived, which suggested that DNA was the genetic material of cells.
Which tumor-suppressor gene produces proteins that active at G1 checkpoint to look for breaks in DNA strands?
BRCA1
Which of these are usually targeted by the immune system?
Bacteria and viruses
Why is it possible to detect the presence of cancer cells or a tumor using a blood marker test?
Because cancer cells produce more abnormal proteins than more specialized, healthy cells
Complete the following paragraph concerning the regulation of cell growth.
Billions of new cells are produced every day to repair damaged tissues or replace worn out cells. The production of cells is closely regulated by a variety of hormones and genetic mechanisms within the cell to ensure that only the correct type and number of new cells are produced. Unregulated cell division is a hallmark of cancer. The generalized loss of control over cell reproduction exhibited by cancer cells is the result of accumulated abnormalities and is reflected in several aspects of cell behavior that distinguish cancer cells from their normal cells. Although there are many different forms of cancer, it is presumed that cancer is a disease caused by the combined effects of both genetic and environmental factors.
Which of these might be a result of tumor invasion of an organ?
Blocked ducts Restricted airways Compression of important areas of the brain
________________ may disrupt the calcium homeostasis by causing bone to break down, releasing excess calcium into the blood, and blood calcium levels to _____________ .
Bone cancer rise
How are DNA replication and PCR related?
Both allow for copies of DNA to be made.
Complete the following paragraph concerning how cancer cells can spread throughout the body.
Both capillaries and lymphatic vessels are part of the transport system of the body. Capillaries carry nutrients and oxygen to cells and also remove waste materials. Lymphatic vessels are responsible for removing excess fluid from the tissues and participate in the immune response. If a malignant tumor comes into contact with the transport system of the body, this allows for the movement of cancer cells from one area of the body to other locations in the body. The spreading of cancer cells to new areas in the body is called metastasis. These cancer cells will undergo angiogenesis and form new tumors in a different location.
Select all of the following examples of how cancer can disrupt organ function.
Brain cancer may place pressure on areas of the brain that regulate bodily functions and disrupt their regulation. Cancer in the bone marrow may prevent white blood cells from forming, reducing the ability of the immune system, and leaving the body open to infection. Blood is re-routed and nutrients are directed to the tumors in the breast, leaving fewer resources for normal cells.
A physician orders a diagnostic mammogram for a 42-year-old woman. Which of these most likely happened before this decision was made?
CBC, blood marker, or blood chemistry values were abnormal. Abnormal tissue was noted on a routine screening mammogram.
Which characteristic of cancer is detectable using a blood marker test, which examines blood protein?
Cancer cells are less specialized than normal cells and produce abnormal proteins as a result.
How does cancer that starts out in one location in the body end up in others?
Cancer cells can move in the body using the body's own transport systems.
Which of the following are ways to differentiate between cancer cells and normal cells? Select all that apply.
Cancer cells continue to divide even when they come into contact with other cells. Cancer cells are not regulated because they have lost the ability to control cell division.
Drag each description to the type of cell it describes to identify differences between cancer and normal cells. Cancer cells Normal cells
Cancer cells: are indistinct in shape. differ in appearance from cells around them. often have an irregular shape. Normal cells: are distinct in shape and size depending on tissue type. look just like the cells around them. have a regular shape.
Drag each description to the type of cell it describes to identify differences between cancer cells and normal cells. Cancer cells Normal cells
Cancer cells: have relatively larger nuclei. may have nuclei of more than one size. look relatively darker under a microscope. Normal cells: look relatively lighter under a microscope. have relatively smaller nuclei. have nuclei with the same size and shape.
Choose the explanations of how cancer affects the normal physiology of the body.
Cancer in tissues like bone, which help to regulate blood calcium, can contribute to an increase in blood calcium and lead to coma or death. Tumors in organs can block vessels and ducts, disrupting organ function. Cancer interferes with the body's maintenance of homeostasis.
Drag each example of a physiological disturbance caused by cancer to the explanation of that disturbance.
Cancer interferes with the body's ability to maintain a balanced internal environment. Homeostasis Cancer takes up space, blocking ducts, blood and lymph vessels, or even blocking airways. Organ function Cancer can increase blood calcium, which causes coma or death. Body chemistry
Complete the following paragraph to describe how cancer influences the physiology of the body.
Cancer is a disease that begins with changes in the body at the cellular level due to abnormal cells dividing in a disorderly manner. Each cell operates a biological factory and is specialized to carry out a specific set of instructions. When the genetic programming of a small group of cells becomes faulty, the cells start to lose their specialization. With no genetic control, the cells start to divide uncontrollably and the cells undergo more rounds of division than they normally would, making cells prone to replication errors. As the number of cancer cells increases, they may spread and invade nearby tissues and organs, disrupting their physiological processes and their ability to survive.
Select two of the following challenges that transcription must overcome.
Converting the instructions within DNA into an RNA copy that can be read by ribosomes Transferring information from within the nucleus to the ribosomes that exist outside of the nucleus
The entire cell physically divides into two daughter cells.
Cytokinesis
The stage of the cell cycle during which the cytoplasm divides to form two cells is called
Cytokinesis
Avery's addition of DNase to Griffith's experimental design led to the mice not dying after the addition of both heat-killed S strain and live R strain bacteria. This meant that the lack of DNA inhibited the transformation process from occurring. From these results, Avery was able to conclude that it was likely that BLANK was the genetic material of cells.
DNA
Based on the structure and arrangements of nucleotides in the __________ molecule, the molecule is an information molecule. It stores instructions and is read to produce proteins that direct cellular reproduction, produce new cellular components, and initiate cellular reproduction.
DNA
_______ is one of the features common to all known forms of life; it is the blueprint that guides the growth, development, behavior, and reproduction of all organisms.
DNA
DNA consist(s) of two long strands composed of four types of nucleotides. A nucleotide is composed of a five-carbon sugar that is attached to a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base. In the case of the nucleotides in DNA, the sugar is deoxyribose attached to a single phosphate group, and the nitrogenous base may be either adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine. The nucleotides are covalently linked together in a strand through the sugars and phosphates, which thus form a backbone of alternating sugar-phosphate groups. The three-dimensional structure of DNA, the double helix, arises from the chemical and structural features of its two polynucleotide chains. The two DNA strands are held together by hydrogen bonding between the bases on the different strands; therefore, all the bases are on the inside of the double helix, and the sugar-phosphate backbones are on the outside.
DNA four nucleotide phosphate group deoxyribose thymine. covalently double helix, hydrogen inside outside.
Why does DNA flow toward the positive side of the gel chamber?
DNA has a negative charge and is attracted by the positive side.
Place the following discoveries in chronological order to explain how scientists determined the structure of DNA. DNA has nitrogenous bases that show complementary base pairing. toggle-button DNA has nitrogenous bases that show complementary base pairing. DNA is a double helix molecule that consists of a sugar-phosphate backbone and rungs of nitrogenous bases. toggle-button DNA is a double helix molecule that consists of a sugar-phosphate backbone and rungs of nitrogenous bases. DNA consists of nucleotides strung together in a repeating pattern to form a three-dimensional structure. toggle-button DNA consists of nucleotides strung together in a repeating pattern to form a three-dimensional structure.
DNA has nitrogenous bases that show complementary base pairing. toggle-button DNA has nitrogenous bases that show complementary base pairing. DNA consists of nucleotides strung together in a repeating pattern to form a three-dimensional structure. toggle-button DNA consists of nucleotides strung together in a repeating pattern to form a three-dimensional structure. DNA is a double helix molecule that consists of a sugar-phosphate backbone and rungs of nitrogenous bases. toggle-button DNA is a double helix molecule that consists of a sugar-phosphate backbone and rungs of nitrogenous bases.
Which of the following conclusions could be drawn from the experiments of Hershey and Chase?
DNA is the genetic material of cells. or DNA, not protein, is the genetic information of cells.
What step occurs after DNA helicase breaks hydrogen bonds to separate DNA strands?
DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to the leading strand continuously and to the lagging strand discontinuously in fragments.
A process that determines the precise order of nucleotides in a segment of DNA is called
DNA sequencing.
What conclusions was Avery able to gain from his experiments?
DNA was likely to be the genetic material of cells.
Within the cell, the information needed to make proteins is stored within BLANK
DNA, genes, or gene
Which of the conclusions could Hershey and Chase draw from their experiments?
DNA, not protein, is the genetic information of cells.
Within the cell, gene expression follows a certain patterned order. What is that pattern?
DNA; RNA; protein
Complete the following sentence: Within our cells, _____ stores the instructions for making _____.
DNA; proteins
Which of these is an oncogene associated with cancer?
ERBB2
Complete the following statements to demonstrate your understanding of how enzymes function under specific conditions.
Enzymes, which carry out all our chemical reactions, work best within specific temperature and pH ranges. For most enzymes, the optimal conditions are related to our body temperature at 37⁰C and our pH level of 7.4. Conditions outside these ranges can cause an enzyme to lose its shape and its ability to bind to a substrate. If conditions are not restored to optimal conditions, the enzymes of the body do not function correctly because they are denatured, potentially leading to organ failure and possible death.
When comparing the percentage of nitrogen bases of DNA from any species, the amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine.
Erwin Chargaff
Match each researcher with their contribution to the discovery of the structure of DNA. Erwin Chargaff Rosalind Franklin James Watson and Francis Crick
Erwin Chargaff --> Investigated the nitrogen bases of DNA to determine that the ratio of A and T were the same and the ratio of C and G were the same Rosalind Franklin ---> Used X-ray crystallography to determine that DNA had a helical and repetitive structure James Watson and Francis Crick ----> Synthesized previous findings by other researchers to come up with the model of DNA as a double stranded helix composed of sugars, phosphates, and nitrogen-bases.
In the DNA isolation lab, DNA was isolated from blueberries.
False
Organisms produced as a result of mitosis exhibit a great deal of genetic variation.
False
The electrophoresis buffer is poured over the agarose gel because it charges the DNA samples so they can travel more readily across the chamber.
False
Performed the first experiment suggesting that pneumonia-causing bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information through a process known as transformation.
Frederick Griffith
Match each researcher with their contribution to the discovery of the function of DNA as the genetic material of the cell.
Frederick Griffith: Experimented by infecting mice with bacteria to determine that a "transforming factor" was able to transmit genetic information between cells. Oswald Avery: Experimented by infecting mice with bacteria or bacteria treated with DNase to suggest that DNA was the genetic material of cells. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase: Experimented by injecting radioactively labeled viruses into bacteria to determine that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material of cells.
____________ , which are segments of DNA, contain the instructions needed to make ____________ such as proteins or RNA molecules that regulate protein production. The series of events from gene to ____________ is complex and highly ____________ within each cell. It consists of two major steps, transcription and ____________ , to overcome several challenges that need to be addressed before a trait can be expressed. Together, these steps are known as ____________ .
Genes functional products protein regulated translation gene expression
There are several known mutations associated with breast cancer risk. How might an individual's risk of developing breast cancer be assessed using this information?
Genetic testing can compare the cancer genes in an individual's DNA to the DNA sequence of the normal (non-mutated) genes, such as BRCA1 and BRCA2.
Select all of the following components of Griffith's experimental design that are true.
Griffith infected mice with heat-killed encapsulated bacteria and live, unencapsulated bacteria. Griffith infected mice with encapsulated bacteria and unencapsulated bacteria.
Which of the following statements describing components of Griffith's experimental design is true?
Griffith injected mice with encapsulated bacteria, unencapsulated bacteria, and combinations of both to determine that a transforming factor could be transmitted between cells. Griffith infected mice with encapsulated bacteria and unencapsulated bacteria.
The first two experiments, ____________ transformation experiments and ____________ experiments using radioactive DNA and proteins, supported that ____________ , not proteins, was the genetic material. By the ____________ , the competition to describe the genetic materials structure began. DNA was first examined by ____________ analysis, a technique for determining the three-dimensional atomic structure of a molecule. The early x-ray diffraction results of Rosalind Franklin indicated that DNA was composed of ____________ strands of the polymer wound into a ____________ structure. The observation that DNA was ____________ was of crucial significance and provided one of the major clues that led to ____________ proposed structure of DNA. Only when this model was proposed did DNA's potential for ____________ and information encoding become apparent.
Griffith's Hershey-Chase's DNA 1950s x-ray diffraction two strands helical double-stranded Watson-Crick's replication
Place the following steps in order to describe the process of DNA replication.
Helicase breaks hydrogen bonds in nucleotides, separating DNA strands; DNA polymerase adds nucleotides continuously on the leading strand and discontinuously on the lagging strand; ligase seals together fragments of synthesized DNA.
Complete the following paragraph to differentiate between Stage 3A, Stage 3B, and Stage 3C breast cancer.
In Stage 3 breast cancer, the cancer has spread farther into the breast and surrounding tissues. Stage 3 is divided into three levels based on the size of the tumor and the degree in which the cancer has spread into the surrounding tissues and lymph nodes. Stage 3A: A) With a tumor in the breast, cancer is found in more than four nearby lymph nodes. B) It may also mean a breast tumor is larger than 5 cm, and the cancer has spread to less than four nearby lymph nodes. In Stage 3B: A tumor has spread to the chest wall behind the breast. In addition, the factors that contribute to assigning this stage include spread to the skin, causing swelling, inflammation, or ulcerated wounds. It may have spread to as many as nine lymph nodes near the breast. In Stage 3C: The cancer has spread to the area of the collar bone or to more than ten lymph nodes.
Which of the following choices describes Interphase?
Includes G1, S and G2 stages Occupies the majority of the cell cycle Results in an increase in cell size All of the above
Place the following steps in the correct order to represent the stages of mitosis.
Interphase Prophase
Which of the following is an example of a cancerous body tissue negatively influencing body chemistry?
Invasion of the connective tissue, namely bone, can elevate blood calcium and cause a coma or death.
Match each type of cell to the appropriate description of its lifespan. Is essentially immortal—can divide endlessly. Will eventually die—has a preset number of cell cycles.
Is essentially immortal—can divide endlessly. cancer cell Will eventually die—has a preset number of cell cycles. normal cell
How does radiation therapy work?
It uses the movement of energy to slow or stop cell division.
The first correct model of the structure of DNA, it was determined that the sugar and phosphate components of the nucleotides make up the helical strands of the DNA molecule, and the nitrogenous bases are located on the interior of the molecule.
James Watson and Francis Crick
Differences with DNA replication The polymerase chain reaction is a lab procedure that mimics the cellular process of DNA replication. Below is a list of characteristics used to describe the process. Determine which characteristics are similar to DNA replication and which characteristics are different.
Leading and lagging strands Enzyme helicase Temperature cycle to cause denaturing and annealing of DNA strands Specific DNA sequences are copied and not the entire genome
____________ , therefore, can easily disrupt the chemistry of the body.
Liver cancer
A scan that uses radio waves and magnets to generate detailed pictures of the body for screening and diagnosis is called a(n)
MRI
Which sort of imaging would be used to screen a high-risk patient for cancer?
MRI
During which phase of mitosis do the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell?
Metaphase
The mitotic spindle aligns the replicated chromosomes at the center of the cell.
Metaphase
During which phase of meiosis do the homologous chromosomes line up across from each other in the center of the cell?
Metaphase I
Identify the statements that are true of cells. Organisms are composed of one or more cells, and the life processes of metabolism and heredity occur in these cells. Cells routinely form from nonliving molecules. Correct Cells are the smallest living thing, the basic units of organization of all organisms. All living organisms derive from two cells and use metabolism in the cell to sustain life.
Organisms are composed of one or more cells, and the life processes of metabolism and heredity occur in these cells. Cells routinely form from nonliving molecules. Correct Cells are the smallest living thing, the basic units of organization of all organisms.
Nature of DNA replication Label the image below to describe the process of DNA replication. Answers may be used more than once.
Original DNA Molecule Complementary nucleotides Template strand Template strand Newly synthesized strand Newly synthesized strand
By expanding the bacterial transformation experiment, this scientist added an enzyme DNase, to show when present, transformation did not occur. This evidence strongly suggested that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation.
Oswald Avery
Select all of the following statements that accurately match each researcher with their contributions in determining that DNA is the genetic material of cells.
Oswald Avery experimented injecting mice with bacteria incubated with DNase to determine that it was likely DNA that was the transforming factor, not protein. Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase experimented with radioactively labeled viruses, allowing them to inject bacteria, and analyzing the resulting location of radioactive components to determine that DNA was the genetic material of cells.
The procedure that produces multiple copies of a gene of interest is called
PCR
A radioactive tracer measures cell activity in which type of imaging?
PET scan
A cell is the smallest unit of biological organization that has all of the characteristics of life. Which of the following are considered characteristics of life?
Passes on genetic information to offspring Acquires materials and energy to manufacture cellular components Adapts to changes in its environment
Which of the following correctly describes the process of angiogenesis? Select all that apply.
Promotes the growth of local capillaries to grow toward the tumor Allows for oxygen to reach the tumor Allows for nutrients to reach the tumor
During which phase do the chromosomes start to condense?
Prophase
Replicated chromosomes condense and attach to the mitotic spindle.
Prophase
Place the following steps in the correct order to represent the stages of transcription.
RNA polymerase identifies the gene to be expressed. RNA polymerase exposes the nucleotide bases of the gene by unwinding the double helix. RNA polymerase uses one strand of DNA, called the template strand, to produce a complementary RNA molecule. The RNA polymerase and the complementary RNA strand are released along with the DNA, reforming a double helix.
Which of the following statements describing Hershey and Chase's experimental design is true?
Radioactively labeled phosphate was added to viruses and allowed to infect bacteria. Viruses and bacteria are added to a blender to agitate and dislodge viruses from the bacteria. Viruses and bacteria are centrifuged together to allow viruses and bacteria to separate into different layers
Which of the following is/are true about cancer cells? Select all that apply.
Receive the correct signals for cell growth Lose their specialization Divide uncontrollably Undergo programmed cell death if there is a mutation
When examining the structure of DNA, a chemist used a process known as X-ray crystallography to determine that DNA was a double helix structure and highly repetitive.
Rosalind Franklin
Select all of the following statements that accurately match each researcher with their contributions in determining the structure of DNA.
Rosalind Franklin used X-ray crystallography to determine that DNA is both helical and repetitive in structure. James Watson and Francis Crick took contributions from other researchers and applied them to create a working model of DNA structure.
How does the DNA rate of travel differ for small DNA fragments and large DNA fragments?
Small fragments travel farther than large fragments.
Which stage of breast cancer is detected early and has not spread to any surrounding tissue?
Stage 0
Drag each stage of breast cancer to the description of that classification. Detected early; not invasive of surrounding tissues Cancer cells located in a very small area; has begun to invade surrounding tissues Considered to be invasive; tumor still entirely in the breast Beginning to affect more of the tissues of breast and surrounding tissues; sometimes swelling, inflammation or ulcers on the breast occur Fully metastasized; often referred to as incurable
Stage 0 Detected early; not invasive of surrounding tissues Stage 1 Cancer cells located in a very small area; has begun to invade surrounding tissues Stage 2 Considered to be invasive; tumor still entirely in the breast Stage 3 Beginning to affect more of the tissues of breast and surrounding tissues; sometimes swelling, inflammation or ulcers on the breast occur Stage 4 Fully metastasized; often referred to as incurable
Classify the stage of breast cancer pictured.
Stage 3
Which of the following statements concerning DNA replication is/are true? Select all that apply.
Starting off as a single cell with a combination of genetic information from both parents, copies of DNA are passed on from cell to cell in the bodies of multicellular organisms. Each of the parental strands of DNA acts as a template for the construction of a new daughter strand. There is complementary base pairing between the DNA strands: a cytosine on one strand is paired to guanine on the other side, resulting in daughter strands that are complementary to the template strand. The appropriate adjective to describe DNA replication is semiconservative since after replication, each new DNA double helix consists of one old strand and one newly synthesized strand.
Which of these outcomes is possible using genome editing?
Targeting genetic mutations to change nucleotides sequences, and as a result, reduce tumor size.
As new chromosomes reach the poles, the nuclear envelopes re-form, and the chromatin decondenses.
Telophase
During which phase does the nuclear membrane reform around the chromosomes?
Telophase
Match the following to differentiate between the template and daughter strands.
Template strand: Provides the blueprint for the production of a new complementary strand. Daughter strand: The newly synthesized complementary strand.
What is DNA isolation?
The extraction of DNA from viruses or cells.
Which of the following best describes the fate of information contained within a gene?
The information within genes can be used as instructions for making proteins through the processes of transcription and translation.
Which of the following states the overall goal of the PCR process?
The overall goal of PCR is to create millions of copies of a single gene of interest for further study.
Complete the following paragraph to describe how cells divide.
The process of cell division is a highly organized series of events that produces cells that are genetically identical to each other. During mitosis, a cell duplicates all of its contents, including its chromosomes, and splits to form two identical daughter cells. Because this process is so critical, the steps of mitosis are carefully controlled by a number of checkpoints to ensure that each new daughter cell contains the same genetic information. If a cell bypasses these regulations, the cell may not be able to stop continuously dividing and it is on its way to becoming cancerous.
Which of the following is most likely to occur when a tumor-suppressor gene is mutated?
The tumor-suppressor gene and resulting protein may lose their function and the ability to slow down the rate of the cell cycle.
Which of the following statements is true about the conclusions drawn from the experiments of Frederick Griffith? Proteins, not DNA, were the genetic material of cells. DNA, not protein was the genetic material of cells. There is a transforming factor that is able to be exchanged between cells. The percentage of proteins is equal to the percentage of DNA in the genetic material of cells.
There is a transforming factor that is able to be exchanged between cells.
Which of the following conclusions was able to be drawn from Griffith's experiments?
There is a transforming factor, thought to be protein, that is able to be exchanged between cells.
Select the characteristics of benign tumors.
They are localized to one tissue type. They have not invaded surrounding tissues. Their cells resemble those of the surrounding tissues.
Select the characteristics of malignant tumors.
They can invade other tissues. Their cells do not resemble each other. Their cells do not resemble the cells of their surrounding tissues.
Which of these is true concerning enzymes?
They function best under very specific conditions. Their activity is influenced by temperature.
Which of the following best states the overall goal of gene expression?
To take the genetic information within DNA and use it to create a protein or other gene product
Which of the following best describes the role of transcription in the cell?
Transcription creates an mRNA copy of a gene, allowing that information to be transported to the cytoplasm to be turned into a protein or other gene product.
Match each of the following steps with their descriptions to summarize how information within a gene is expressed as a protein.
Transcription: The process where information stored within genes is transferred to an RNA intermediary. Translation: The process where information within an RNA intermediary is turned into a protein.
Match the description for each of the major stages of gene expression listed below.
Transcription: Within the nucleus, an mRNA copy is made from a piece of DNA. Translation: Within the cytoplasm, mRNA attaches to a ribosome and is used to make a chain of amino acids.
Second step of gene expression Complete the following paragraph to describe the second step of gene expression. Not all answer choices will be used. a. (Click to select) Transcription Messenger RNA Translation Disassembles , the second step in gene expression, takes place in the (Click to select) cytoplasm protein disassembles ribosome . b. The (Click to select) ribosome messenger RNA transcription translation interacts with a specialized organelle called a (Click to select) nucleus start ribosome re-assembles that not only reads the sequence of mRNA bases, but it is also the site where the (Click to select) disassembles cytoplasm nucleus protein molecule can be built. c. When examining the RNA molecule, sequences of (Click to select) four three one two nitrogenous bases, called a (Click to select) re-assembles codon nucleus protein , usually code for (Click to select) one four two three particular amino acid. d. A type of RNA called (Click to select) re-assembles disassembles transfer RNA messenger RNA assembles the protein, one amino acid at a time, based on the corresponding mRNA codon being read by the ribosome. e. Protein assembly continues until the ribosome encounters a (Click to select) Start stop one dimensional disassembles codon, a sequence of bases that does not code for an amino acid, and the entire complex (Click to select) disassembles translation re-assembles transcription . f. Upon the release the protein, the protein molecule starts to bend into its (Click to select) one dimensional three-dimensional start stop shape and become functional.
Translation cytoplasm messenger RNA ribosome protein three codon one transfer RNA stop disassembles three-dimensional
____________ , the second step in gene expression, takes place in the cytoplasm. The ____________ interacts with a specialized organelle called a ____________ that not only reads the sequence of mRNA bases, but it is also the site where the ____________ molecule can be built. When examining the RNA molecule, sequences of ____________ nitrogenous bases, called a ____________ , usually code for ____________ particular amino acid. A type of RNA called ____________ assembles the protein, one amino acid at a time, based on the corresponding mRNA codon being read by the ribosome. Protein assembly continues until the ribosome encounters a ____________ codon, a sequence of bases that does not code for an amino acid, and the entire complex ____________ . Upon the release the protein, the protein molecule starts to bend into its ____________ shape and become functional.
Translation ribosome protein three codon one transfer RNA stop disassembles three-dimensional
Ethanol cannot be added to the test tube too quickly because it will break up the DNA precipitate.
True
Ethidium bromide is a dye that is used to stain the gel and allows the DNA to be viewed under UV light.
True
Failing to respond to the signals that control normal cell behavior and growth, cancer cells grow and divide in an uncontrolled manner, invading normal tissues and organs and eventually spreading throughout the body.
True
Gel electrophoresis is an important tool used in biotechnology for forensics and paternity test.
True
How do cancer cells get the oxygen and nutrients they require to continuously grow?
Tumors cause blood vessels to grow by releasing growth factors.
Select all of the following components that describe the experimental design of Hershey and Chase?
Viruses and bacteria are centrifuged together to allow viruses and bacteria to separate into different layers. Viruses and bacteria are added to a blender to agitate and dislodge viruses from the bacteria. Radioactively labeled phosphate was added to viruses and allowed to infect bacteria.
Arrange these steps to explain how cancer vaccines can be used to fight cancer cells directly. Begin with the first step at the top.
White blood cells are removed from an individual and stimulated to divide. White blood cells are exposed to a tumor antigen. White blood cells integrate the antigen and display this surface protein White blood cells are returned to the individual White blood cells present the tumor antigen to the cytotoxic T cells of the body's immune system Cytotoxic T cells attack tumor cells
Choose the summary of how the risk of cancer can be detected in the body.
White blood cells can be isolated from the blood and genetic testing can be carried out on the DNA isolated from those cells.
Which of the following best summarizes the process of translation?
Within the cytoplasm of the cell, an mRNA strand binds to a ribosome and its genetic information is used to create a long strand of amino acids called a polypeptide.
Which of the following best summarizes the process of transcription?
Within the nucleus of the cell, a copy of mRNA is made from a gene within a strand of DNA.
A computerized X-ray that takes pictures of the organs at different angles is called
a CT, or CAT, scan.
What is a CT scan?
a computerized X-ray that takes pictures of the organs at different angles
Which is more threatening to the human body?
a malignant tumor
Which type of tumor is capable of digesting protein in the tissues that surround it?
a malignant tumor
An invasive tumor that metastasized, whose cells do not resemble those of its surrounding tissue (or other cells in the tumor), is most likely
a malignant tumor.
Malignant tumors are.
a much greater threat to the human body than benign tumors.
Cancer begins with
a mutation that allows a cell to divide more quickly
What is PCR?
a process that makes multiple copies of a gene using technology that mimics gene replication
What is an MRI?
a scan that uses radio waves and magnets to generate detailed pictures of the body for screening and diagnosis
What is a PET scan?
a scan that uses sugar with a radioactive tracer to measure cell activity
Compare the appearance of cancer cells to normal cells.
a. Cell are immortal due to the presence of the enzyme telomerase that continues to lengthen the ends of the telomeres Cancer Cells Correct b. Look similar to surrounding cells since these cells are genetically identical Normal Cells Correct c. Appear as irregular shaped cells Cancer Cells Correct d. Have a fixed lifespan due to the length of the telomeres at the end of chromosomes Normal Cells Correct e. Appear as small, regular-shaped cells Normal Cells Correct f. Look different to surrounding cells due to large, dark nuclei Cancer Cells
A cell with a mutation that allows it to divide more quickly frequently.
accumulates more mutations as it rapidly divides.
Which of these chemotherapy drugs are mitotic inhibitors, which disrupt the cell cycle but do not directly interact with the cell's DNA?
alkaloids taxanes
Which class of chemotherapeutic drugs interferes with cell division by interfering with the spindle fibers in one way or another?
alkaloids and taxanes
Interfere with cell division but not directly with DNA
alkaloids, taxanes
This class of chemotherapeutic drug causes breaks in the structure of the DNA molecule, thus preventing cell division.
alkylating agents
Which class of chemotherapeutic drugs integrates into and breaks DNA at specific points?
alkylating agents
What is a mammogram?
an X-ray of the breast tissue and some surrounding tissue
ERBB2 is
an oncogene associated with cancer.
When a mutation causes a proto-oncogene to be in an active state without stimulation from a growth hormone, the gene has become
an oncogene.
What is brachytherapy?
another word for internal radiation
Interact directly with DNA
antimetabolites topoisomerase inhibitors alkylating agents
DNA is a double helix consisting of two strands orientated in an __________ configuration meaning the 5' to 3' direction of one strand runs counter to direction of the other strand.
antiparallel
A difference between cancer cells and normal cells is that cancer cells __________.
are less specialized and continue to divide because they no longer function as part of a tissue or organ.
Both stage 0 and stage 1 breast cancers
are located in a very small area.
Cancer cells lose specialization.
as they accumulate mutations.
Chemotherapy works by targeting the characteristics of fast-growing cancer cells. This means they target
attacking cells that are in the process of dividing,
As cancer cells accumulate mutations, they
begin to change faster, becoming distinctly unlike the cells in the surrounding tissue
A tumor that is localized and noninvasive with cells much like those in its surrounding tissue is most likely a
benign tumor.
In order to test the body's tissues for cancer, a doctor might perform a _________, during which they remove a small sample of cells from a tumor or the surrounding lymph nodes.
biopsy
Small samples of tissue are taken to testing for cancer during a process called
biopsy
Which of the following tests would a physician order for a patient who wants to determine their risk of breast cancer?
blood tests followed by DNA microarray blood tests followed by DNA sequencing
Liver cancer can easily disrupt
body chemistry, because it is an important metabolic organ involved in many chemical reactions.
Internal radiation is also known as
brachytherapy.
When cancer invades the body, the immune system
can indicate the presence of cancer by producing antibodies called immunoglobulins.
__________ starts with changes at the genetic level of individual cells, which may cause some cells to lose control and divide rapidly and uncontrollably.
cancer
All living things are made of
cells
Cancer is a disease that occurs at the __________ level of biological organization of living things.
cellular
The specialized structure that stores pigments, water, inorganic ions and maintains turgor pressure is the
central vacuole.
Alkylating agents are
chemicals that integrate into and break DNA at specific points.
can damage healthy tissues
chemotherapy radiation
The structure that easily distinguishes a plant cell from an animal cell is
chloroplasts
A tumor-suppressor gene is a gene that
codes for proteins that examine DNA during the cell cycle. can lead to a tumor if mutated. slows down the cell cycle.
At the end of mitosis, the daughter cells are described as clones. For this description to be appropriate, the daughter cells must __________.
contain a set of genetic instructions that are identical to each other and that of the parent cell.
The nucleotides along one side of a DNA molecule are connected to each other by __________ between phosphate groups and sugar molecules.
covalent bonds
Complete the following sentence. The overall goal of the PCR process is to:
create millions of copies of a gene of interest for further study.
The semi-fluid matrix that surrounds organelles in a cell is called the
cytoplasm
Mutations lead to genetic diseases Review the following statements about mutations. Which of the statements concerning mutations is false? a. In genetic diseases, like sickle cell disease, the cell machinery involved in translation does not make any determination as to whether the resulting protein has the correct structure for its function. b. If there are mutations in a hemoglobin gene, the ribosome in the cell will manufacture the protein using these instructions and will not change the amino acids even if it is incorrect. c. In sickle cell disease, a single mutation in the hemoglobin gene causes the normal glutamine amino acid to be replaced by a valine amino acid. d. Due to multiple mutations in the hemoglobin gene, these changes prevent the complex hemoglobin protein to fold correctly, resulting in the sickle cell shape of the red blood cells.
d. Due to multiple mutations in the hemoglobin gene, these changes prevent the complex hemoglobin protein to fold correctly, resulting in the sickle cell shape of the red blood cells.
Radiation therapy uses energy waves or particles to
damage DNA. slow cell division. stop cell division.
DNA sequencing is a process that
determines the order of nucleotides in a segment of DNA
If malignant tumors encounter resistance from surrounding tissues when they grow and invade, they
digest protein molecules in the surrounding tissues to allow for their expansion.
Which of these changes in blood chemistry are indications of cancer?
elevated blood calcium changes in ion concentrations changes in liver enzymes
In the DNA isolation process, detergent was used to
emulsify cellular and nuclear membranes.
It is important for the human body to maintain specific conditions because ______ are optimized to perform within a narrow range of temperature and pH.
enzymes
The process of __________ is when the information contained within the nucleotides of a DNA molecule is expressed as functional product called a protein.
gene expression
In the gel electrophoresis lab, you determined the ________ of three different DNA samples.
genotype
stage 4 breast cancer
has fully metastasized, spreading to organs outside the breast.
If left undetected and untreated, _________ levels of blood calcium may lead to a coma and death.
high
The stabilization of the internal environment around a specific set of conditions is referred to as
homeostasis
Which of the following terms refers to the body's ability to maintain balanced internal conditions?
homeostasis
calcium ______________, which refers to the maintenance of a stable concentration of calcium ions in the body's fluids, is critical for the function of all body organs.
homeostasis
Step 1: The ____________ bonds between the complementary base nucleotides of the double helix molecule are broken by ____________ exposing the nitrogenous bases. Step 2: The separation of the two parental strands of DNA creates a ____________ and each separated strand will act as a ____________ for making a new strand. Step 3: On the ____________ strand, the enzyme DNA polymerase ____________ adds nucleotides as it travels down the parental molecule. Step 4: On the ____________ strand, the ____________ makes short segments of DNA, called ____________ . Step 5: The fragments along the lagging strand are eventually connected together by a ____________ enzyme. The end result of DNA replication are two sets of ____________ DNA molecules, commonly called sister chromatids, which are separated and sent into new cells during cell division.
hydrogen helicase replication fork template leading continuously lagging DNA polymerase Okazaki fragments DNA ligase identical
The two strands of nucleotides in a DNA molecule are held together by
hydrogen bonds between nitrogenous bases.
Because it produces antibodies called immunoglobins in response to cancer, the ______ system can indicate cancer in the body.
immune
Alkylating agents
integrate into and break DNA
Antimetabolites
interfere with DNA replication because they mimic nucleotides used to build DNA
stage 2 breast cancer
invasive with some tumor growth.
Which of these are characteristics of cancer cells?
irregular shape variation in shape and size extra DNA
stage 3 breast cancer
is beginning to spread to more of the breast and surrounding tissues. cancer has spread to the cervical lymph nodes and/or the tissues surrounding the breast, such as the chest wall or skin
Stage 4 breast cancer.
is often called incurable. has spread to organs outside the breast. typically spreads to organs including the lungs, heart, brain, or liver.
A tumor associated with stage 2 breast cancer
is still located entirely in the breast.
When a tumor invades an organ,
it takes up space and causes negative physiological consequences.
The nucleus of a cancer cell is ______ compared to a normal cell.
larger
As cancer cells accumulate mutations, they become ______ specialized.
less
chemotherapy
less targeted good for metastatic cancers
A normal cell has a(n) ______ lifespan, while a cancer cell has a(n)_____ lifespan.
limited; unlimited
The _________________ , one of the largest organs in the body, is an important metabolic organ and regulates most chemical levels in the blood. It aids in the process of _____________ the nutrients in our diets into substances that the body can use, _________________ these substances, and _____________ many different chemicals to the body when needed.
liver converting stores supplies
When staging cancer, a ______ number indicates a less severe and less invasive cancer and a ______ number indicates a more severe and more invasive cancer.
lower higher
The digestive, cardiovascular, respiratory, and urinary systems play a major role in
maintaining homeostasis that allows the body to function properly.
An X-ray of the breast for screening or diagnostic purposes is called a(n)
mammogram
Cancer cells may develop the ability to migrate to other parts of the body and undergo the process of angiogenesis and form new tumors. This process is called __________ and represents a serious threat to the body.
metastasis
radiation
more targeted ineffective for metastatic cancers
When conditions like temperature and pH can fluctuate within the body, ______ feedback helps to return those conditions to their set point.
negative
Which of the following contribute to the maintenance of balanced internal conditions in the human body, also known as homeostasis?
negative feedback
Adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C) are the __________ building blocks for DNA; they are organized in different combinations to code for all of the proteins needed to accomplish everything the cell does.
nucleotide
The monomers that make up DNA molecules are called
nucleotides
Label the image below to describe how information is stored in the cell.
nucleotides of a gene DNA double helix nucleosome histones chromatin chromosome
A mutation in a proto-oncogene produces a(n)_____ that may cause cancer.
oncogene
Some ____________ in the body plan an important role in regulating the ______________ of the body's fluid by retaining the proper amounts of solutes.
organs chemical composition
Select all that apply Choose the tumor-suppressor genes often associated with cancer.
p53 BRCA1
Which structure surrounds the cytoplasm of the cell and separates the interior of the cell from the external environment?
plasma membrane
The ____________ is a procedure that mimics the cellular process of DNA replication. Unlike DNA replication, the process of PCR occurs in a three-step ____________ manner. ____________ is the unwinding of the double helix by ____________ to 95 degrees Celsius so the DNA molecule becomes ____________ stranded. This step replaces the enzyme ____________ . ____________ occurs when the DNA is cooled in the test tube to 50 degrees Celsius and ____________ bind to each of the single DNA strands. ____________ occurs when the DNA strands are reheated to 72 degrees Celsius for 60 seconds and ____________ adds complementary bases to each of the single strands. After 30-45 cycles, several ____________ copies of a specific DNA sequence are made and can be visualized through electrophoresis and staining with a dye.
polymerase chain reaction cyclic Denaturation heating single helicase Annealing primers Extension DNA polymerase million
Topoisomerase inhibitors
prevent DNA from unwinding and thus prevent it from being copied
The cell wall is a common feature to
prokaryotic and plant cells.
Contained within the genetic material are the instructions for regulating and manufacturing the ____________ that control cellular function, but, it was not until the ____________ that scientists began to perform a series of experiments that ultimately determined the genetic material and the basic structure of the molecule.
proteins twentieth century
Which type of gene typically interacts with growth hormones to increase the rate of cell division?
proto-oncogenes
Which cancer treatment is more targeted?
radiation
Chemotherapy and radiation are often used together because
radiation is precise but not effective in treating cancers that have spread, while chemotherapy is less precise but can effectively treat cancer that has spread.
Energy waves and particles are used to damage DNA in a cancer therapy called
radiation.
PCR is a technique used in the laboratory to ___.
rapidly producing (amplifying) millions to billions of copies of a specific segment of DNA or make millions of copies of a gene of interest.
Because they need oxygen and nutrients from the body to grow, tumor cells
release growth factors that cause capillaries to grow toward them.
What are the radioactive pellets used for internal radiation called?
seeds
In the DNA isolation process, the filtrate and reagents are kept in an ice bath because cold temperatures are required to
stabilize the DNA.
Cancer cells are capable of
stimulating blood vessels to grow toward them. moving through the circulatory system. moving through the lymphatic vessels.
This is a variation on internal radiation therapy, used for cancers such as thyroid, by which a radioactive substance is administered via injection or ingestion.
systemic radiation therapy
Chemotherapy functions to combat cancer because it
targets the characteristics of fast-growing cancer cells.
During the process of DNA replication, the _____ strand provides a blueprint for the production of a new complementary _____ strand, resulting in two new double-stranded DNA molecules.
template; daughter
Transcription can best be defined as
the process of creating a RNA intermediary in order to transport genetic information from the DNA of the nucleus to the ribosomes of the cytoplasm.
Translation is best defined as
the process of translating information within a mRNA molecule into a functional protein molecule.
"Seeds" is the term used to describe
the radioactive deposits used for internal radiation therapy.
Which of these defines the term chemotherapy in general?
the use of a drug to treat a disease
Which is the definition of radiation?
the use of energy waves or particles to damage DNA
Radiation does not work well to treat cancer once it has spread, but chemotherapy can be effective for metastatic cancer treatment, so
these therapies are often used together to maximize effectiveness.
The process of making an intermediary RNA copy of a gene is called?
transcription or transcribing
The process of translating information from mRNA molecules into functional proteins is called
translation
Chemotherapy can be defined as
treatment of a disease with a drug. drug used to treat cancer or to control or reduce the symptoms of cancer.
Which term describes an overgrowth of abnormal cells that serves no useful purpose?
tumor
Which of these can indicate cancer when found in the blood?
tumor cells more white blood cells than normal abnormal proteins
Select some of the consequences associated with the accumulation of mutations in cancer cells.
tumor growth loss of specialization change in appearance
Humans have 2 copies of the gene called p53, which is a ______ often associated with cancer.
tumor-suppressor gene
Which type of gene is responsible for preventing unregulated cell growth?
tumor-suppressor genes
Select the organ systems most closely associated with maintaining homeostasis in the human body.
urinary digestive cardiovascular respiratory
Which of these are defining features of systemic radiation?
use of radioactive compound bound to a targeting molecule use of targeting molecules (monoclonal antibodies) that interact via specific proteins on the surface of cancer cells use of specific radioactive elements, like iodine in the treatment of thyroid cancer
