BIO 111 Ch. 1-7

methyl

-CH3

carboxyl

-COOH; acts as an acid

amino

-NH2; acts as a base

hydroxyl

-OH; alcohol

phosphate

-OPO3 (2-)

sulfyhydryl

-SH; can react, forming a "cross-link" that helps stabilize protein structure

proteins

1+ polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific 3D structure

carbonyl

> C = O; ketoses; ketone and aldehyde

ocean acidification

CO2 dissolved in sea water forms carbonic acid; decreases pH

How does diversity relate to evolution?

Diversity refers to the variation of life forms in different ecosystems. Evolution creates the diversity of life on Earth.

solution

a liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of substances

cellulose

a major component of the tough wall of plant cells; polymer of glucose

lysosome

a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

a nucleic acid made of nucleotides with chromosomes containing genetic material; controls the development and maintenance of organisms

hydrolysis

a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction; a water molecule is gained, and a bond is broken

plasma membrane

a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell; made of proteins and phospholipids

molecular formula

a shorter abbreviation (i.e. H2)

starch

a storage polysaccharide of plants; made up of glucose monomers; simplest form of starch is amylose

compound

a substance consisting of 2+ elements in a fixed ratio

element

a substance that cannot be broken down to any other substances by chemical reactions

tonicity

ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water

proton pump

actively transport hydrogen ions out of a cell against their concentration gradient; main electrogenic pump of plants, fungi, and bacteria

sodium-potassium pump

actively transport sodium out and potassium in; major electrogenic pump of animal cells

base pairing

adenine/thymine, guanine/cytosine, uracil/adenine

hydrophobic

afraid of water

transport proteins

allow the passage of hydrophilic substances across the membrane; is specific for the substance it moves

cell wall

an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells, fungi, prokaryotes, and some unicellular eukaroyotes from animal cells

acid

any substance that increases the H+ concentration of a solution; pH < 7

base

any substance that reduces the H+ concentration of a solution; pH > 7

matter

anything that takes up space and has mass

evaporative cooling

as a liquid evaporates, its remaining surface cool

3 domains

bacteria, archaea, and eukarya

carrier proteins

bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the membrane; undergo a subtle change in shape that translocate the solute-binding site across the membrane

organization of biology (largest to smallest)

biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, organisms, organs, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules

nucleic acids

blueprint for proteins and through the actions, for cellular activities

peripheral proteins

bound to the surface of the membrane

taxonomy

branch of biology that names and classifies species into groups

peroxisome

break down hydrogen peroxide by converting it to water

6 major functions of transmembrane proteins

can transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, and attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

What are the 4 classes of large biological molecules?

carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

ribosome

carry out protein synthesis in the cytosol (free ribosomes) and on the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

isotonic

causes no net movement of water into or out of the cell

hypotonic

cell gains water

pinocytosis

cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes

hypertonic

cell loses water

endocytosis

cell takes in macromolecules by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane

plasmodesmata

channels between adjacent plant cells; water and small solutes (and sometimes RNA and proteins) can pass from cell to cell

eukaryotic cell

characterized by having DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope, membrane-bound organelles, and cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus; much larger than prokaryotic cells

ionic bond

chemical bond resulting from the attraction between oppositely charged ions

essential elements

chemical element required for an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce; carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen

adhesion

clinging of 1 substance to another; H2O to plant cell walls

golgi apparatus

consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the ER; manufactures certain macromolecules; sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles

hydrocarbon

consists only of hydrogen and carbon

fats

constructed from 2 types of smaller molecules (glycerol and fatty acid)

nucleus

contains most of the cell's genes and usually the most visible of organelles

hormonal proteins

coordination of an organism's activities

plasmolyzed

cytoplasm shrivels and plasma membrane pulls away from cell wall; when cell loses water to a hypertonic environment

radioactive isotopes

decay spontaneously; unstable

tertiary structure

determined by interactions among various side chains; overall shape of a polypeptide

osmosis

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

passive transport

doesn't require ATP

taxonomic classification of organisms (largest to smallest)

domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

inductive reasoning

draw conclusions through repeating specific observations; lead to important generalizations

nucleotide

each polynucleotide is made up of monomers; consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and 1+ phosphate groups

scanning electron microscope (SEM)

electron beam scans the surface of the specimen and shows topography; 3D images; uses electromagnets

valence electrons

electron in the outermost shell

electron shell

electron's state of potential energy

trace elements

element indispensable for life but required in extremely small doses

kinetic energy

energy of motion

potential energy

energy that matter has because of its location or structure

microscopy

examination of minute objects by means of a microscope, an instrument which provides an enlarged image of an object not visible with the naked eye

phospholipid bilayer

exist as a stable boundary between two adjacent aqueous compartments

ion channels

facilitate the diffusion of ions

aquaporins

facilitate the passage and diffusion of water

desmosomes (anchoring junctions)

fasten cells together into strong sheets; only in animal cells

intermediate filaments

fibers with diameters in a middle range; support cell shape and fix organelles in place

products

final molecules of a chemical reactions

turgid

firm

electron microscopy (EM)

focuses a beam of electrons through a specimen or onto its surface

double helix

form of native DNA

disaccharides

formed when a dehydration reaction joins 2 monosaccharides (i.e. sucrose, lactose, and maltose)

secondary structure

found in most proteins; consists of coils and folds in the polypeptide chain

chloroplast

found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis; enveloped by a double membrane; contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules; grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells

chitin

found in the exoskeleton of arthropods; provides structural support for the cell walls of many fungi

centrifuge

fractionate/separate cells into their component parts

Why can carbon bond to 4 other atoms?

has 4 valence electrons

unsaturated fats

have 1+ double bonds; typically plant and fish fats

channel proteins

have a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as a tunnel

experimental control

holding constant the variables that an experimenter isn't interested in measuring

surface tension

how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a liquid

membrane selectivity

how the membrane adapts to its environment

Van der Waals interactions example

hydrogen bonding

carbohydrates

include sugars and the polymers of sugars

subatomic particles

includes neutrons, protons, and electrons

experimental variables

independent, dependent, and controlled

transmembrane proteins

integral proteins that span the membrane

chemical bonds

interactions that usually result in atoms staying together

thermal energy

kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms or molecules; thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another

endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

lacks ribosomes; synthesizes lipids; metabolizes carbohydrates; detoxifies drugs and poisons; stores calcium ions surface is studded with ribosomes; distributes transport vesicles; membrane factory for the cell

vacuole

large vesicles derived from the ER and Golgi; only in plant cells

hydrophilic

likes water

flaccid

limp

cohesion

linking together of like molecules; often by hydrogen bonds

steroids

lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of 4 fused rings

states of matter

liquid (water), solid (ice), gas (vapor)

flagella

long cellular appendage that's specialized for locomotion

polymer

long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks linked together by covalent bonds

primary structure

long, unique chain sequence of amino acids; determined by inherited genetic information

denaturation

loss of a protein's natural structure due to alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other environmental factors

cell

lowest level of organization that can perform all activities required for life; has a membrane

scientific process

make observations, form hypotheses, test them (revise the hypothesis or make a new one), reject or accept the conclusion

chemical reactions

making and breaking of chemical bonds

saturated fats

maximum number of hydrogen atoms possible and no double bonds; typically, animal fats

natural selection

mechanism for evolutionary adaptations of organisms to their environments

tight junctions

membranes of neighboring cells are pressed together, preventing leakage of extracellular fluid

glucose

most common monosaccharide

cilia

motile cilium is specialized for locomotion or moving fluid past the cell; primary cilium is usually nonmotile and plays a sensory and signaling role

contractile and motor proteins

movement is main function

electrons

negative charge; 1+ electrons move around the nucleus of an atom

anion

negatively charged ion

nucleoside

nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine) + sugars

neutrons

no charge; found in nucleus of an atom

prokaryotic cell

no nucleus; lacks organelles; single chromosome is coiled into an oval shape

structural formula

notation used to represent atoms and bonding (i.e. H - H)

mass number

number of protons and neutrons

atomic number

number of protons in the nucleus

dehydration reaction

occurs when 2 monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule

isotopes

one of several forms of an element; same number protons but different number of neutrons - different atomic mass

characteristics of life

order, evolutionary adaptation, regulation, reproduction, respond to their environment, growth and development, process energy

amino acids

organic molecules with amino and carboxyl groups

Producers (Autotrophs)

organism that make their own food (i.e. plants)

Consumer (Heterotrophs)

organisms that need to eat food to obtain their energy (i.e. animals)

evolution

organisms' adaptations to their environment

integral proteins

penetrate the hydrophobic core

Energy is used to:

perform work

polynucleotide

polymer consisting of many nucleotide (DNA/RNA) monomers in a chain

polysaccharides

polymers composed of many sugar building blocks through dehydration reaction; have storage and structural roles

protons

positive charge; found in nucleus of an atom

cation

positively charged ion

gene expression

process of converting information from a gene to a cellular product

defensive proteins

protection against disease; creates antibodies

gap junctions (communicating junctions)

provide cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

chemical equilibrium

reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate; relative concentrations of reactants and products don't change

concentration gradient

region along which the density of a chemical substance increases or decreases; no work must be done to move substances down the concentration gradient

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

releases free energy when its phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed

active transport

requires ATP; moves substances against their concentration gradients

receptor proteins

responses of cell to chemical stimuli

quaternary structure

results when a protein consists of multiple polypeptide chains

experiment

scientific test under controlled conditions that involve 1+ factors being manipulated to see the effects if those changes

enzymatic proteins

selective acceleration of chemical reactions

cytosol

semi-fluid portion of the cytoplasm

Stanley Miller's experiment

sent an electrical charge through a flask of a chemical solution of methane, ammonia, hydrogen and water; created organic compounds including amino acids

monosaccharides

simple sugars; simple carbohydrates; molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O; serve as major fuel for cells and as raw material for building molecules

mitochondria

sites of cellular respiration; a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP; enveloped by a double membrane; contain free ribosomes and circular DNA molecules; grow and reproduce somewhat independently in cells

atoms

smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element

selective permeability

some substances can cross more easily than others

phagocytosis

some types of cells can engulf another cell; forms a food vacuole

enzymes

specialized macromolecules that speed up chemical reactions; make or break down polymers

reactants

starting molecules of a chemical reaction

fluid-mosaic model

states that a membrane is a fluid structure with a "mosaic" of various proteins embedded in it; proteins aren't randomly distributed in the membrane

storage proteins

storage of amino acids

glycogen

storage polysaccharide in animals; stored primarily in the liver and muscle cells

covalent bond

strong chemical bond where 2 atoms share 1+ pairs of valence electrons

organic chemistry

study of carbon compounds

biology

study of life

solute

substance that is dissolved into

buffer

substances that minimize changes in concentrations of H+ and OH- in a solution

monomers

subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer

molecular mass

sum of the masses of all the atoms in a molecule

structural proteins

support is main function

cell fractionation

takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another; enables scientists to determine the functions of organelles

calorie

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1-degree C

specific heat

the amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1g of that substance to change temperature by 1-degree C

osmoregulation

the control of solute concentrations and water balance, is a necessary adaptation for life in such environments

solvent

the dissolving agent (liquid) of a solution

heat of vaporization

the heat a liquid must absorb for 1g to be converted to gas

lipids

the one class of large biological molecules that doesn't include true polymers; don't mix well with water

diffusion

the tendency for molecules to spread out evenly into the available space (i.e. more concentrated to less concentrated)

microtubules

thickest of the 3 components of the cytoskeleton; shapes the cell; guides movement of organelles; separating chromosomes during cell division; control the beating of flagella and cilia

middle lamella

thin layer between primary walls of adjacent cells; only in plants

microfilaments

thinnest component; bear tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell

facilitated diffusion

transport proteins speed the passive movement of molecules across the plasma membrane; requires no energy

exocytosis

transport vesicle will migrate to the membrane, fuse with it, and release their content outside the cell; secretory cells use this to export their products

RNA (ribonucleic acid)

unique nucleic acids that are essential to protein synthesis

transmission electron microscope (TEM)

used to look at the internal structure of a specimen

deductive reasoning

uses general premises to make specific predictions

independent variable

variable that's being manipulated or changed in an experiment; reveals effects on dependent variable

dependent variable

variable whose value is measured during an experiment; influenced by the independent variable

4 of water's properties

versatile solvent, co/adhesion, ability to moderate temperature, expansion upon freezing

light microscopy (LM)

visible light is passed through a specimen and then through glass lenses; refract (bend) the light to magnify the image

Darwin

wrote "The Origin of Species"; showed evidence of natural selection and descent with modification