bio 121 test 3

vernal pools

- Adapted to seasonal drying

secondary pollutants

Form when primary pollutants react with constituents of the atmosphere

methane

Fossil fuels, livestock, landfills Levels have increased 2.6 times since 1750

benthic zone

Habitats and ecosystems occurring on the ocean floor Mainly soft sediments; some areas are rock habitats occur on the ocean floor.

reclamation

Restoration of mined areas to pre-mining conditions

swamps

Shallow water in forested areas

overburden

Soil and rock that is removed After extraction, each strip is refilled with the overburden

aphotic zone

permanently dark layer of the oceans below the photic zone

thermal inversion

A layer of cool air forms beneath warm air Dense, cool air resists mixing Inversions trap pollutants in cities surrounded by mountains

alloy

A metal is mixed, melted, or fused with another metal or nonmetal substance Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon

acid deposition

Acid deposition is the deposition of acid or acid-forming pollutants from the atmosphere on the Earth's surface. As with ozone depletion, this is a global problem that we have had some success in solving. Acid deposition can take place by any form of precipitation—acid rain, fog, gases, or the deposition of dry particles. Acid deposition is one form of atmospheric deposition, which occurs when any solid or liquid material from the atmosphere is dropped onto the Earth. Acid deposition occurs as a result of burning fossil fuels and releasing sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, which react with water and oxygen in the atmosphere to form low pH acids.

reservoirs

Artificial lakes created by dams Store water for human use Only a few major rivers remain undammed In remote regions (Canada, Alaska, Russia, Africa)

temperatures continue to rise

Average surface temperatures (both land and ocean) have risen by about 1.1°C in the past 100 years. In the United States, temperatures in most areas have risen by more than 1 full degree Fahrenheit in just the past two decades Future changes in temperature are predicted to vary from region to region. Polar regions, for example, are expected to experience the most severe warming. In the next 20 years, temperatures will rise 0.4C At the end of the 21st century, temperatures will be 1.8 to 4.0C higher than today's We will have unusually hot days and heat waves Polar areas will have the most intense warming Sea surface temperatures will rise Hurricanes and tropical storms will increase in power and duration

treating drinking water

Before reaching the tap, water from a reservoir or aquifer is: Treated with chemicals to remove particulate matter. Filtered by sand, gravel, and charcoal. Disinfected with chlorine. Tested for levels of 90 contaminants based on standards set by the EPA.

greenhouse gas concentrations are rising fast

CO2 has increased from 280 ppm (late 1700s) to >400 ppm The highest in 800,000 (possibly 20 million) years Burning fossil fuels transfers carbon from one reservoir (underground deposits) to another (the atmosphere) The main reason CO2 levels have increased Deforestation reduces the biosphere's ability to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere contributes to rising atmospheric CO2 Plants/trees store carbon in their tissues Combustion of fossil fuels transfers carbon from one reservoir (underground deposits) to another (the atmosphere). Forests, another reservoir, have been cleared, reducing the biosphere's ability to remove carbon dioxide.

climate change

Climate change is the fastest-developing area of environmental science Climate influences virtually everything around us Ecosystems Everyday weather Storms (intensity, frequency, location) Crop success Human health National security Economies Etc.

primary pollutants

Directly harmful or can react to form harmful substances (e.g., soot and carbon monoxide)

ozone hole

Decreased ozone levels over Antarctica Concerns of increased skin cancer, damage to crops and phytoplankton at the base of our food webs

solution mining

Dissolves and extracts resources via a narrow borehole

mountain removal mining

Entire mountaintops are blasted off "Valley filling": dumping rock and debris into valleys for coal in Appalachian Mountains of the eastern U.S. Degrades and destroys vast areas Pollutes streams Deforests areas Causes erosion, mudslides, flash floods, biodiversity loss

lakes and ponds

Eventually, water bodies fill in completely through the process of aquatic succession

photochemical smog

Forms when sunlight drives a chemical reaction between primary pollutants and atmospheric compounds Appears as a brownish haze Formed in hot, sunny cities surrounded by mountains Irritates eyes, noses, and throats Can lead to asthma, lung damage, heart problems, vulnerability to infections and cancer results when pollutants from automobile exhaust react amid exposure to light

air pollutants

Gases and particulate material added to atmosphere Can affect climate or harm people or other organisms

reclamation and reclamation act of 1977

Governments in developed countries require companies to reclaim (restore) surface-mined sites The U.S. Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (1977) mandates restoration Aims to bring a site to a condition similar to its pre-mining condition Involves removing structures, replacing overburden, replanting vegetation Even on restored sites, impacts may be severe and long-lasting Complex communities are simplified Forests, wetlands, etc., are replaced by grasses Essential symbioses are eliminated and often not restored Water can be reclaimed Moderate the pH Remove heavy metals

pelagic zone

Habitats and ecosystems occurring between the ocean's surface and floor In the open ocean, most primary productivity occurs in the top layer, called the photic zone. Microscopic phytoplankton constitute the base of the food chain. Pelagic habitats are found between the ocean surface and floor.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Halocarbons used as refrigerants, in fire extinguishers, in aerosol cans, styrofoam, etc. They stay in the stratosphere for a century Sunlight releases chlorine atoms that split ozone

thermohaline circulation

Interrupting the thermohaline circulation can trigger rapid climate change Global warming could melt Greenland's ice sheet Freshwater runoff into the North Atlantic would make surface waters less dense This could stop the NADW formation Europe would cool rapidly Some evidence shows circulation in this area is slowing Others say there will not be enough runoff to cause a shutdown this century

multiple strategies needed

Just 15 strategies can eliminate 1 billion tons of carbon per year by 2050 if deployed on a large scale 7 of the 15 would stabilize CO2 emissions Environmental scientists advocate breaking down the problem into smaller, more manageable strategies, such as the 15 identified here: Just 15 strategies can eliminate 1 billion tons of carbon per year by 2050 if deployed on a large scale 7 of the 15 would stabilize CO2 emissions

enhancing indoor air quality

Keys to alleviating indoor air pollution include: Using low-toxicity materials Monitoring air quality Keeping rooms clean Providing adequate ventilation People in developed nations can: Limit use of plastics and treated wood Limit exposure to toxic substances (pesticides, etc.) Test homes and offices for radon and mold spores Use CO detectors Keep rooms and air ducts clean and free of mildew and other biological pollutants

criteria pollutants

Known to pose substantial risk to human health Carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, lead, and all nitrogen dioxides and tropospheric ozone EPA compiles data for these pollutants into a list called the Air Quality Index (AQI)

la nina

La Niña events are the opposite of El Niño events; unusually cold waters rise to the surface and extend westward, causing winds blowing to the west to strengthen. ENSO cycles occur every 2-8 years. Scientists are studying whether changes in air and sea temperatures are increasing the frequency and strength of these cycles.

convective circulation

Less dense, warmer air rises Creates vertical currents Rising air expands and cools and releases moisture Cool air descends and becomes denser Falling dry air creates arid climates

ferrel cells and polar cells

Lift air and create precipitation at 60 degrees latitude north and south Conditions at the poles are dry

longline fishing

Longline fishing involves setting out extremely long lines (up to 80 km long) with hundreds or thousands of baited hooks spaced between their lengths.

mesosphere

Low air pressure

mining methods and impacts

Mining provides jobs and money for communities It provides raw materials for products we use Mining has environmental and social impacts Large amounts of material are removed during mining, disturbing lots of land Different mining methods are used to extract different minerals The method used depends on economic efficiency

mountaintop removal mining

Mineral extraction by removing 100 vertical meters from hill and mountain tops

nitrous oxide

Nitrous oxide Auto emissions, feedlots, chemical manufacturing, and synthetic nitrogen fertilizers Levels have risen 20% since 1750

non point sources

More diffuse, consisting of many small, widely spread sources (e.g., automobiles)

ocean absorption

Oceans hold 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere Oceans are absorbing less CO2 than we are adding to the atmosphere. Slows global warming but does not prevent it As oceans warm, gases like CO2 are less soluble, creating a positive feedback loop that accelerates warming The oceans hold 50 times more carbon than the atmosphere, but are absorbing less CO2 than we are adding to the atmosphere. As oceans warm, gases like CO2 are less soluble, creating a positive feedback loop that accelerates warming.

nitrogen oxides

NOx Formed when nitrogen and oxygen react at high temperatures in engines Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) - Foul-smelling red-brown gas Vehicles, electrical utilities, industrial combustion Contributes to smog, acid deposition, stratospheric ozone depletion

eutrophication

Nutrient pollution promotes algal growth, smothering corals

littoral zone

Nutrient-rich edge of a water body Rooted aquatic plants grow in this shallow part a shallow zone in a freshwater habitat where light reaches the bottom and nurtures plants

tropospheric ozone

O3 ): a colorless gas A secondary pollutant created from sunlight, heat, nitrogen oxides, volatile carbon-containing chemicals A major component of photochemical smog Participates in reactions that harm tissues and cause respiratory problems Most frequently exceeds EPA standards

salt marshes

Occur along coasts at temperate latitude Tides wash over gently sloping, sandy, or silty substrates Have salt-tolerant plants Filter pollution and stabilize shorelines Provides critical habitat for birds and commercial fish and shellfish species occur where the tides wash over gently sloping sandy or silty substrates. Water from rising and falling tides flows in and out of salt marshes through channels called tidal creeks. Salt marshes provide biodiversity, filter pollutants, and stabilize shorelines.

sinkholes

Occur when aquifers lose water; the land above can't support strata, and the surface sinks As aquifers lose water, they become less able to support overlying strata, causing the land surface to subside. This can cause buildings to lean or large areas of land to suddenly collapse, creating sinkholes.

north atlantic deep water

One part of the thermohaline circulation is the NADW North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW) Warm water from the Gulf Stream flows across the Atlantic Ocean, warming Europe Water cools, becomes saltier, and sinks Creating a region of downwelling The region of downwelling near Western Europe is called the North Atlantic Deep Water (NADW). Scientists are concerned that an influx in fresh water from melting glaciers in Greenland could disrupt this flow.

solution to louisiana

One proposed solution is to divert water from the river into coastal wetlands. The Atchafalaya River delta has benefited from this change and is now gaining land mass. The Tourist Opportunities and Revived Economies of the Gulf Coast States Act (RESTORE Act), passed following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill, created a comprehensive restoration plan

limnetic zone

Open portion of the lake or pond where sunlight allows photosynthesis a zone of open water in lakes and ponds

ozone levels

Ozone Levels have risen 36% in the troposphere due to photochemical smog The Montreal Protocol has reduced halocarbons (CFCs)

smelting

Process in which a desired metal is separated from the other elements in an ore mineral. A metal is mixed, melted, or fused with another metal or nonmetal substance Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon

climate

Patterns of atmospheric conditions across large geographic regions over long periods of time (years or longer)

tides

Periodic rising and falling of the ocean's height due to the gravitational pull of the moon and sun

point sources and non point sources

Point sources Discrete locations of water pollution Factories, sewer pipes, oil tanker Non-point sources Multiple inputs of pollution over large areas Farms, city streets, neighborhoods

air pollution worse in industrializing nations

Polluting factories and power plants Increasing numbers of cars Nations emphasize economic growth, not pollution control People burn traditional fuels (wood and charcoal) Coal burning, more cars, power plants, factories India has 12 of the 25 most polluted cities on Earth Causes over 1.2 million premature deaths/year in China Beijing, China, 2013 "airpocalypse" China is reducing pollution (closing factories, using cleaner fuels, raising efficiency standards, etc.)

garbage patches

Predicting the Oceans' "Garbage Patches" Nikolai Maximenko at the International Pacific Research Center at the University of Hawaii at Manoa studies ocean currents In 2008, he partnered with Peter Niiler of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography Combined data from the Global Drifter Program with satellite altimetry and wind currents Produced a more detailed map of surface ocean currents Simulation results revealed that oceanic debris accumulates in portions of five subtropical gyres Simulation results also predicted the fate of debris from the 2011 tsunami in northern Japan

purse seining

Purse seining deploys large nets around schools of fish at the surface. Floating buoys suspend the nets in the upper water column.

marine and costal ecosystems

Regions of ocean water differ greatly, with certain zones supporting more life than others depending on characteristics such as: Topography Temperature Salinity Nutrients Sunlight

sulfur dioxide

SO2 Colorless gas with a strong odor Coal emissions from electricity generation, industry Can form acid deposition

point sources

Specific spots where large quantities of pollutants are discharged (e.g., power plants)

also mine nonmetallic minerals and fuels

Sand and gravel provide fill and construction materials Phosphates provide fertilizer Limestone, salt, potash, etc., are also mined "Blood diamonds" substances are mined for fuel

freshwater marshes

Shallow water Plants (shrubs and grasses) grow above the surface

placer mining

Sifting through sand and silt in riverbeds for minerals using a sluice with running water

zone of saturation

Spaces are filled with water (all water)

acid drainage

Sulfide in newly exposed rock reacts with oxygen and rainwater, producing sulfuric acid Sulfuric acid leaches toxic materials from rock Flows into streams, killing fish and other organisms Pollutes groundwater used for drinking and irrigation Although acid drainage is natural, mining greatly accelerates it by exposing many new rock surfaces at once

strip mining

Surface layers are removed to expose and extract horizontal mineral deposits

ocean currents

Surface winds and heating also create vertical currents in seawater. Upwelling pulls cold, deep, nutrient-rich water to the surface. Surface currents that converge create downwellings, which transport warm surface water to deeper waters, providing an influx of dissolved oxygen and "burying" carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

industrialized fishing facilitites overharvesting

Technology advances in the 20th century along with massive ships brought commercial fishing to unimagined levels of harvesting and initiated the fishery collapses we have observed today. Technology advances in the 20th century along with massive ships brought commercial fishing to unimagined levels of harvesting and initiated the fishery collapses we have observed today.

VOCs pollute indoor air

The most diverse group of indoor air pollutants Fumes from plastics and oils to perfumes, paints, cleaners, adhesives, and pesticides; "new car smell" Health implications are unclear for low concentrations Formaldehyde leaking from pressed wood and insulation

upwelling

The rising of cold, deep water to the surface Rich in nutrients High primary productivity and lucrative fisheries

reduce emissions

There is no "magic bullet" for stopping climate change, but there are many smaller changes that can add up: Encouraging recycling, reuse, and composting. Using cogeneration to maximize power plant efficiency. Sustainably managing croplands and rangelands. Preserving and restoring forests.

intertidal zones

This area is periodically submerged and exposed by tides Between the farthest reaches of the high and low tides Organisms spend part of their time submerged in water and part of their time exposed to sun and wind

reduced air pollution US pollutant emissions

Total emissions of the six monitored pollutants have declined 72% since the Clean Air Act of 1970 Despite increased population, energy consumption, miles traveled, and gross domestic product Federal policies and technology Cleaner-burning engines and catalytic converters Reduced SO2 emissions Clean coal technologies

un framework

U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 - A plan to voluntarily reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by 2000 This voluntary approach did not succeed

substances are mined for fuel

Uranium is used in nuclear power Coal, petroleum, natural gas, oil sands, oil shale, methane hydrate are not minerals (they are organic)

ocean currents

Vast, riverlike flows of water that are driven by differences in density, heating, cooling, gravity, and wind and the Coriolis effect Vast, riverlike flows of water called currents are driven by differences in density, heating, cooling, gravity, and wind.

groundwater

Water beneath the surface held in pores in soil or rock 20% of the Earth's supply of fresh water Groundwater is water beneath the surface that resides within pores in soil or rock. Any water that does not evaporate, flow into waterways, or get taken up by organisms will infiltrate into groundwater. Groundwater can remain underground for thousands of years at a time. Groundwater may occur in unconfined aquifers above impermeable layers or in confined aquifers under pressure between impermeable layers.

saltwater intrusion

When groundwater is over-extracted in coastal areas, saltwater from the ocean can intrude into inland aquifers. This does not happen normally, because it is being "pushed back" by fresh groundwater flowing toward the sea. Coastal regions in California, Florida, India, and the Middle East now have coastal wells drawing up saline water instead of fresh water.

smog

a general term for a mixture of air pollutants Industrial smog Cities suffer from a specific type of smog that can accumulate as a result of fossil fuel combustion, especially over areas with heavy automobile traffic Burning coal or oil releases CO2, CO, soot, mercury, sulfur

sick building syndrome

building-related illness caused by an unknown pollutant

living organisms pollute indoor air

can cause allergies, asthma, and other respiratory ailments Tiny dust mites Fungi, mold, and mildew spores Airborne bacteria

solutions in electricity generation transportation

carbon capture and storage Automobile is highly inefficient Solutions Drive fuel-efficient, hybrid, or electric cars Drive less and use mass transit Live near your job, so you can bike or walk

irrigation

for agriculture is the main contributor to unsustainable water use Worldwide, roughly 15-35% of water withdrawals for irrigation are thought to be unsustainable

transpiration

release of water vapor by plants

industrial smog

results from fossil fuel combustion

precipitation

return of water to Earth's surface in the form of rain/snow

climate varies for several reasons

solar output milankovitch cycles ocean absorption ocean thermohaline circulation el nino southern oscillation

strip mining vs subsurface mining

strip mining: overburden is removed from mining siteused to extract resources that are near the surfacedestroys large areas of wildlife habitat subsurface mining: used to extract resources that are deep undergroundone of the most dangerous occupations in the United Statessafety requires good ventilation systems both: generates acid drainageused to extract coal

coriolis effect

the apparent north-south deflection of air currents of the convective cells Results in curving global wind patterns Global wind patterns helped sailing ships travel the oceans

driftnetting

the use of long nets that span large expanses of water and target species that traverse open water in large schools.

greywater

the used water from showers and sinks and can be used in some places for watering.

thermosphere

top layer

atmospheric layers

troposphere stratosphere mesosphere thermosphere

international climate negotiations

un framework convention kyoto protocol

atmospheric deposition

when any solid or liquid material from the atmosphere is dropped onto the Earth. The wet or dry deposition of pollutants (mercury, nitrates, organochlorines, etc.)

rock

A naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals or organic matter A solid, aggregate of minerals or non-minerals does not have a specific chemical composition

water supplies houses industry and agriculture

70% of our water use is for agriculture Crop irrigation, watering of livestock 20% goes to industry, 10% for residential use Consumptive use Water is removed from ground or surface water and is not returned (e.g., irrigation) Nonconsumptive use Only temporarily removes, water (Electricity generation at hydroelectric dams) The majority of our freshwater use (about 70%) is for agriculture. Industry accounts for about 20%. Residential use accounts for about 10%. The increased demand for irrigation has led to consumptive use of aquifers and surface waters, where we remove water but do not return it. Nonconsumptive use, such as with hydroelectric dams, either does not remove or only temporarily removes water from a source.

oceans pt 2

96.5% water, the rest consisting of ions from dissolved salts The salts arise from runoff that carries salts and sediments from continents into the oceans. Surface water is Warmer and is less dense affected by wind, storms, sunlight, and temperature Deeper water is colder, more dense, sluggish unaffected by winds, storms, sunlight, and temperature Continental shelves sit below the shallow waters bordering the continents. These shelves drop off at the shelf-slope break. The continental slope angles steeply downward toward the deep ocean basin.

tributary

A smaller river flowing into a larger river

flodplain

Areas nearest to the river's course that are flooded periodically Soils are fertile as a result of frequent deposition of silt Good areas for agriculture Frequent flooding and deposition of soil makes floodplain soils especially fertile. Agriculture thrives in flood plains, and riparian forests near riversides are especially rich in species.

volcanoes exert environmental impacts

Ash blocks sunlight Sulfur emissions lead to sulfuric acid Block radiation and cool the atmosphere Large eruptions can decrease temperatures worldwide

global wind patterns

Atmospheric cells interact with Earth's rotation to produce global wind patterns As Earth rotates, equatorial regions spin faster

greenhouse gases warm the lower atmosphere

Carbon dioxide contributes most to the greenhouse effect It is less potent, but far more abundant, than other gases The major type of human-caused emissions

Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)

Carbon-containing chemicals emitted by vehicles and a wide range of solvents, industrial processes, and household chemicals acetone, formaldehyde, methane, propane, octane Can react to produce secondary pollutants, as occurs in urban smog

recycle metals from e waste

Electronic waste (e-waste) from computers, printers, cell phones, etc., is rapidly rising Cell phones can be refurbished and resold in developing countries Or their parts can be dismantled or refurbished Today, only 10% of cell phones are recycled

surface impoundments

Excavated depressions such as ponds, pits, or lagoons into which liquid hazardous wastes are drained and stored. Store slurries of tailings Accidents release pollutants into the environment store liquid hazardous waste shallow depressions are lined with plastic and clay water containing waste evaporates the reside of solid hazardous waste is then transported elsewhere underlying clay layer can crack and leak waste and rainstorms cause overflow contaminating nearby areas

halocarbons

Human-made compounds made from hydrocarbons with added chlorine, bromine, or fluorine In 1970's, industry produced >1 mil tons/yr of CFCs

forestry

Increased CO2 may spur higher timber growth, but warming temperatures also increase the rates of invasive species, fires, pest and disease outbreaks Moderate warming may increase agricultural output in some temperate areas, but increased droughts will diminish yields for many. Increased CO2 may spur higher timber growth, but warming temperatures also increase the rates of invasive species, fires, and disease outbreaks.

starving the louisiana coast of sediment

Louisiana's vital coastal wetlands Support biodiversity Protect the coast from storms Mississippi River sediments: Keep soil levels high, water stable, and plants healthy Wetlands are shrinking Dams stop sedimentation Levees prevent water from spreading into the delta Louisiana is losing 75 km2 of coastal wetlands each year due to a loss of sediments entering the Mississippi River delta. The primary cause of this loss is the roughly 2000 dams throughout the Mississippi River basin as well as levees that prevent flooding.

minerals are nonrenewable resources in limited supply

Many minerals are rare and could become unavailable Once known reserves are mined, minerals will be gone Indium, used in LCD screens, might last only 30 more years Gallium (for solar power) and platinum (fuel cells) are also scarce

groups advancing climate change efforts

Mayors from more than 1000 cities have signed on to the U.S. Mayors Climate Protection Agreement, committing to policies that "meet or beat" Kyoto Protocol guidelines. The most aggressive is California, which has a goal to cut greenhouse gas emissions 25% by 2020 and has established a cap-and-trade program. Many governors, mayors, university presidents, and corporate leaders have pledged action to support the Paris Accord. Many businesses, utilities, universities, and governments are seeking carbon-neutrality, a condition where no net carbon is emitted. Carbon offsets are voluntary payments paid by a producer that is unable to reduce its emissions and given to another institution that can. For example, a coal plant could buy offsets that would fund a reforestation project. In principle, these offsets could help incentivize a reduction in carbon emissions.

wetlands can aid wastewater treatment

Microbes "polish" treated wastewater Remove plant nutrients Cleansed water is released into waterways Or percolates underground The U.S. has over 500 artificial or restored wetlands Releasing wastewater effluent can help restore marshes Nutrients increase marsh grass growth Increased organic matter offsets natural soil compaction

Acid drainage does not normally occur in areas before mines are built but tends to happen after the mine has been in operation for many years. What causes acid drainage

Mining exposes unweathered rock surfaces that react with water and the atmosphere to generate acids.

ambient air pollution

Over history, the atmosphere has changed Human activity is now changing the amount of some gases CO2, methane (CH4), ozone (O3) Greenhouse gas emissions may be our worst problem Outdoor (ambient) air pollution Has recently decreased owing to government policy and improved technologies in developed countries Developing countries and urban areas still have significant problems

carbon offset and carbon neutrality

Payment to another entity to reduce the greenhouse emissions that one is unable to reduce oneself The payment offsets one's own emissions Popular among utilities, businesses, universities, governments, and individuals trying to achieve... Carbon-neutrality In which no net carbon is emitted Businesses are using carbon offsets to become more sustainable But they can also directly reduce their carbon footprint Pearson Education became carbon-neutral in 2009 12% savings: energy-efficient buildings, computer servers, vehicles, reductions in business travel 47% savings: buying clean, renewable energy 41% savings: forest preservation projects around the world

ozone layer depletion has stopped growing

Phasing out ozone-depleting substances in 1987 worked—the Antarctic ozone hole stopped growing

reduce smog

Pollution control technology Vehicle inspection programs Financial incentives to replace aging vehicles Restricting driving Cleaner-burning fuels Cleaner industrial facilities Close those that can't improve Pollution indicator boards

bogs

Ponds covered in thick floating mats of vegetation

solutions to depletion of fresh water

Population growth, expansion of irrigation, and industrial development have doubled our use of fresh water over the past 50 years. Pollution contaminates water Biodiversity loss damages ecosystem services Climate change will worsen water conditions Changed precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Droughts Rising ocean levels (saltwater intrusion) Addressing water shortages means either increasing supply or reducing demand.

zone of aeration

Pore spaces are partly filled with water (water & air)

positive radiative forcing

Positive radiative forcing - heating effect caused by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This figure shows the amount of radiative forcing caused by various greenhouse gases, based on the change in concentration of these gases in the Earth's atmosphere since 1750. gases differ in ability to warm troposphere and surface

sediment pollution

Sediment in rivers can impair aquatic ecosystems Clear-cutting, mining, clearing land for housing, and cultivating farm fields expose soil to erosion It dramatically changes aquatic habitats Impairs organism respiration Fish may not survive Cloudy water blocks sun, killing rooted plants Solutions Adopt sustainable soil practices Avoid large-scale disturbance of vegetation Maintain riparian vegetation to trap sediments Sediments are eroded soils carried to rivers by runoff and transported long distances. Clear-cutting, mining, and clearing land for development have all increased rates of erosion, creating sediment pollution.

will emission cuts hurt the economy

Since the U.S. has high resource use and per capita emissions, policymakers often assume that restrictions on emissions will harm the economy. The United States was able to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 14% from 2007-2016, while the economy continued to grow. Economic vitality does not need higher emissions Germany, England, and France cut emissions while keeping a high standard of living Industrialized nations gain from developing and marketing new technologies Renewable energy has actually been an economic boon for countries like China and Germany. The future belongs to nations willing to act now

6 major pollutants

State and local agencies monitor and report to the EPA emissions of six major pollutants Carbon monoxide Sulfur dioxide Nitrogen oxides Volatile organic compounds Particulate matter Lead

watershed

The area of land drained by a river and its tributaries

acid deposition

The deposition of acid, or acid-forming pollutants from the atmosphere on the Earth's surface From automobiles, electric utilities, industrial facilities can take place by any form of precipitation (acid rain, fog, gases, or the deposition of dry particles)

solar radiation

The sun supplies most of our planet's energy, with the atmosphere absorbing or reflecting most of it before it even reaches the surface. As Earth's surface absorbs solar radiation, the surface temperature increases and emits infrared radiation. The sun supplies most of our planet's energy, with the atmosphere absorbing or reflecting most of it before it even reaches the surface.

water table

The upper limit of groundwater held in an aquifer Boundary between the two zones

aquatic systems

The water cycle creates a web of interconnected aquatic systems What happens in one system affects other systems Precipitation forms rivers, which carry water to oceans and lakes Rivers interact with ponds, wetlands, and coastal systems Groundwater exchanges water with rivers, oceans, and lakes Exchanges water, organisms, sediment, pollutants

subsurface mining

Tunneling deep underground to extract minerals

effects of human activities on aquatic systems

Water is a limited, but renewable, resource as long as we use it sustainably People are withdrawing water at unsustainable rates Surface and groundwater are being depleted One-third of the world's people are affected by shortages The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water, creating areas that do not have adequate local water supply. Water is one of our most precious resources and is renewable. People are withdrawing water at unsustainable levels and depleting many sources of surface water and groundwater. The construction of engineered waterways like dams and canals has altered an estimated 60% of the world's largest rivers. Climate change will worsen water conditions Changed precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Droughts In addition to overwithdrawing water, people can affect aquatic ecosystems by introducing toxic substances and disease-causing microorganisms. Despite major improvements in recent decades, the World Commission on Water recently concluded that half of the world's major rivers remain "seriously depleted and polluted, degrading and poisoning the surrounding ecosystems, threatening the health and livelihood of people who depend on them."

freshwater systems

Water may seem abundant, but drinkable water is rare Fresh water - relatively pure, with few dissolved salts Most is tied up in glaciers, ice caps, and aquifers The majority (97.5%) of Earth's water resides in the oceans and is too salty to drink or use for irrigation. Only 2.5% is considered fresh water, water that is relatively pure and free from salts. lakes, rivers, streams, and inland wetlands

american use of mined materials

We don't notice how many mined resources we use The average American uses 37,000 lb of new minerals and fuels every year This level of consumption shows the potential for recycling and reuse A child born today is predicted to use 3 million lb of minerals over his/her life

lead

a heavy metal that can enter the atmosphere as a particulate pollutant In leaded gasoline and metal smelting Bioaccumulates and damages the nervous system Banned in gasoline in developed countries, but not in developing countries

what leads to uncertainty in our ability to predict how long a mineral resource will last?

development of new extraction technologies changing rates of mineral recycling changes in product technologies that use minerals

blood diamonds

diamonds mined in war zones with profits used to fund a revolution or rebellion mined and sold to fund, prolong, and intensify wars in Angola and other areas Poor people are exploited for mine labor

solution mining

dissolves resources and extracts resources in place (in-situ recovery) Resources in a deep deposit are dissolved in a liquid and sucked out Water, acid, or other liquids are injected into holes Used for salt, lithium, boron, bromine, magnesium, potash, copper, uranium Less environmental impact than other methods Less surface area is disturbed But acids, heavy metals, uranium can accidentally leak or leach out of rocks and contaminate groundwater

trawling bottom

involves dragging weighted cone-shaped nets through the pelagic zone. Bottom-trawling works the same way, but targets the benthic zone.

oligotrophic lakes and ponds

low-nutrient and high-oxygen conditions lakes and ponds are low in nutrients and high in oxygen. Over time, the addition of nutrients can transition the lake or pond to

Why is coltan such a valuable mined resource?

panning of the various rivers in the Congo Coltan contains tantalite, which yields the element tantalum. Tantalum is required for microprocessors such as the ones in your cell phone.

adaptation

pursues strategies to cushion ourselves from the impacts of climate change. Includes seawalls, coping with drought and less water, etc. The pump systems installed at Miami Beach are an example of an adaptation strategy. Pursue strategies to minimize its impacts on us Includes seawalls, coping with drought and less water, etc. Both adaptation and mitigation are needed to deal with climate change, because even if we halted all emissions now, pollution already in the atmosphere would continue driving global warming until equilibrium was reached.

carbon pricing

strategies are designed to compensate the public for the external costs we all suffer from climate change resulting from greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon pricing removes the burden of paying for these impacts from the public and shifts it to the entities responsible for emissions. In theory, if producers are charged a price for emissions, they will have a strong economic incentive to devise ways to reduce emissions.

photic zone

zone (near surface) is high in primary production and animal populations around nutrient-rich upwellings Warm, shallow waters of continental shelves are the most productive and support the highest biodiversity Phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish, jellyfish, whales Predators include larger fish, sea turtles, and sharks

kyoto protocol

(1997) mandated signatory nations to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases to levels below those of 1990 (by 2008-2012) This treaty took effect in 2005 The United States was the only nation not to ratify it. In 1992, many nations signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which used a voluntary approach to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This failed, and emissions kept rising. In 1997, the Kyoto Protocol mandated signatory nations, by the period 2008-2012, to reduce emissions of six greenhouse gases to levels below those of 1990. The United States was the only nation not to ratify it. The United States did not ratify the Kyoto Protocol Treaty required industrialized nations to reduce emissions But it did not require industrializing nations (China and India) to reduce theirs Signatory nations have increased emissions 3.2% As of 2015, nations that signed the Kyoto Protocol had decreased their emissions by 12.0% from 1990. Factoring out economic conditions in some nations, only a 0.7% decrease was achieved.

desalination

(desalinization) Removal of salt from seawater Drawbacks Expensive Requires large inputs of fossil fuel energy Kills aquatic life at water intakes Generates concentrated salty waste Mostly found in wealthy oil-rich nations where water is extremely scarce Desalination or desalinization is the removal of salt from seawater or other water. Salt can be removed by heating and evaporating ocean water (distillation) or by filtering through membranes with tiny pores that trap the salt (reverse osmosis). Desalination is expensive, uses a lot of energy, and generates concentrated salty waste. Saudi Arabia gets most of its drinking water from desalination.

freshwater wetlands include marshes swamps bogs and vernal pools

- the soil is saturated with shallow, standing water Wetlands are extremely valuable for wildlife Provide important ecosystem services: Slow runoff, reduce flooding, recharge aquifers, and filter pollutants People have drained wetlands, mostly for agriculture People divert and withdraw water, channelize rivers, and build dams The U.S. has lost over half of its wetlands

stratosphere

11-50 km (7-31 mi) above sea level Drier, less dense, little vertical mixing Ozone layer - Blocks UV radiation

montreal protocol

196 nations agreed to cut CFC production in half by 1998 Later agreements deepened cuts, advanced timetables, and addressed other ozone-depleting chemicals Industry shifted to safer alternative chemicals We stopped the Antarctic ozone hole from getting worse CFCs will remain in the stratosphere for decades It can serve as a model for international environmental cooperation

clean air act

1963 Funds research for pollution control Sets standards for air quality, limits on emissions Allows citizens to sue parties violating the standards The EPA encourages standards for automobiles and other point sources of pollutants States are required to monitor air quality Develop, implement, and enforce regulations The EPA takes over enforcement if plans are inadequate

govt and environment

2007 - EPA could regulate CO2 as a pollutant 2009 - House of Representatives' cap-and-trade system did not pass the Senate 2013 - Climate Action Plan, which would: Jumpstart renewable energy development Modernize the electrical grid Finance clean coal and carbon storage efforts Improve automotive fuel economy Protect and restore forests Encourage energy efficiency Increase EPA regulation of power plants 2017 - Climate Action Plan was reversed by President Trump In 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that carbon dioxide was a pollutant that the EPA could regulate under the Clean Air Act. In 2009, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a cap-and-trade bill, but it did not pass the Senate. In 2013, President Obama used executive authority to start the Climate Action Plan, which would: Jumpstart renewable energy development Modernize the electrical grid Finance clean coal and carbon storage efforts Improve automotive fuel economy Protect and restore forests Encourage energy efficiency Increase EPA regulation of power plants This executive action was reversed by President Donald Trump in 2017. Many people disagree on what role the government should play. Should it mandate change through laws and regulations? Should no policies be implemented and private enterprise be allowed to develop its own solutions? Impose no policies and hope for solutions? Give private entities incentives to reduce emissions? Many businesses and politicians have opposed all government action They fear it will cost industry and consumers

fisheries

A 2003 study showed that oceans today contain about one-tenth the large fish and sharks they once did. Many fisheries have collapsed, including Atlantic cod and red snapper. Of all the human impacts on the ocean, overfishing may be the most pressing, as many fish stocks have been severely depleted. More than half of all marine fish populations are fully exploited, meaning any further harvesting would be unsustainable. Despite increased fishing efforts, global harvests leveled off after 1998. If current trends continue, the collapse seen in the cod industry in eastern Canada and New England may repeat for all the world's fisheries. Humans have overharvested the oceans since the 18th century, when Steller's sea cow went extinct due to overhunting. Technology advances in the 20th century along with massive ships brought commercial fishing to unimagined levels of harvesting and initiated the fishery collapses we have observed today. A 2003 study showed that oceans today contain about one-tenth the large fish and sharks they once did. Many fisheries have collapsed, including Atlantic cod and red snapper. Fishing fleets have been "fishing down the food chain," or shifting to smaller, less desirable species.

coral reefs

A mass of calcium carbonate composed of the skeletons of millions of tiny, invertebrate corals shallow corals live in the warm, clear water deep sea corals live at depths of 200-1,500 m Protect shorelines by absorbing waves Treasure troves of biodiversity Coral reefs are valuable ecotourism destinations A coral reef is a mass of calcium carbonate composed of the shells of tiny animals called corals. Coral reefs may be found in three areas: Extensions of a shoreline. A barrier island paralleling a shoreline. A ring around a submerged island called an atoll. Coral are related to jellyfish and can capture passing food with their tentacles. They also form symbiotic relationships with algae called zooxanthellae, which produce food through photosynthesis. Most corals are colonial and the surface of a reef will contain millions of densely packed individuals. Coral reefs host tremendous biodiversity because they provide shelter from waves and their complex physical structure produces many habitats.

flooding

A normal, natural process in which water spills over a river's banks In the long term, floods are ecologically beneficial and spread nutrient-rich sediment over large areas. In the short term, floods are damaging to the property of people who live in floodplains. Dikes and levees can make floods worse by forcing water to stay in channels, which then overflow a process that occurs when snowmelt or heavy water swells the volume of a river so it spills out over the river's banks. In the long term, floods are ecologically beneficial and spread nutrient-rich sediment over large areas. In the short term, floods are damaging to the property of people who live in floodplains. To protect against floods, levees are built along banks of waters to hold water in main channels.

coral bleaching

A process that occurs when zooxanthellae (symbiotic algae that produce food to help feed the corals) lose color and die, depriving the coral of nutrition Results from warmer water from climate change, pollution, and/or eutrophication Many coral reefs have fallen victim to "coral bleaching," a process that occurs when zooxanthellae lose color and die, depriving the coral of nutrition. Occurs when coral are stressed by increased water temperatures and elevated pollution levels. Elevated carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere can pollute ocean water and change its chemical properties. The oceans soaked up about a third of the excess carbon dioxide.

el nino southern oscillation

A systematic shift in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean Normally, winds blow westward "piling up" water in the western Pacific Deep, cold water rises and brings up nutrients, feeds fish and gives Peru and Ecuador rich fisheries Decreasing air pressure in the eastern Pacific triggers El Niño Suppresses upwelling on the America's Pacific coast Devastates fisheries and costs billions of dollars The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a systematic shift in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Under normal conditions, prevailing winds blow from east to west along the equator, forming a large convective loopin the atmosphere. This causes a "pile-up" of warm water to form near Indonesia, fueling storms in that region.

precipitation is changing

A warmer atmosphere speeds evaporation and holds more water vapor, and precipitation has increased worldwide by 2% over the past century. Overall, some regions are receiving above average amounts of rain and snow, while others receive less. A warmer atmosphere speeds evaporation and holds more water vapor, and precipitation has increased worldwide by 2% over the past century. Overall, some regions are receiving above average amounts of rain and snow, while others receive less. Precipitation will increase at high latitudes and decrease at low and middle latitudes Worsening water shortages in poor nations Some regions are receiving more rain and snow and other areas are receiving less In the U.S. Southwest, droughts have become more frequent and severe Harm agriculture, promote soil erosion, reduce water supplies, and trigger fires 2008 floods in Iowa and the Midwest heavy rains caused flooding Kill people, destroy homes, and inflict billions of dollars in damage

climate change debate

A wide diversity of impacts on the physical properties of our planet, its organisms and ecosystems, and human well-being have been observed. Scientists agree that increased greenhouse gases are causing global warming Increase in greenhouse gases due to the burning of fossil fuels Loss of carbon-absorbing vegetation due to deforestation Despite overwhelming evidence for climate change: Many in the U.S. deny what is happening People debate whether it is real and whether humans are to blame Think tanks and a few scientists question it The news media present both sides, despite the evidence of climate change Public debates over climate change are primarily the result of corporate interests, political think tanks, and a handful of scientists funded by fossil fuel industries. Scientists agree that today's global warming is a result of the increase in greenhouse gas concentrations in our atmosphere due to: Increase in greenhouse gases due to the burning of fossil fuels Loss of carbon-absorbing vegetation due to deforestation and other changes in land use. Despite overwhelming evidence for climate change: People debate whether it is real and whether humans are to blame Debates are primarily the result of corporate interests, political think tanks, and a handful of scientists funded by fossil fuel industries. The news media present both sides, despite the evidence of climate change "Climate skeptics" or "climate change deniers" generally only express doubt that humans are the cause. This side has been amplified by the media, which seeks to present two sides to every issue. The rise of Donald Trump to the U.S. presidency brought opposition to addressing climate change.

acid deposition impacts

Acid deposition has many detrimental effects on ecosystems • accelerated leaching of base cations (ions such as Ca2+, Mg2+, NA+, and K+, which counteract acid deposition) from soil • allowed sulfur and nitrogen to accumulate in soil, where excess N can encourage weeds • increased dissolved inorganic aluminum in soil, hindering plant uptake of water and nutrients • leached calcium from needles of red spruce, causing trees to die from wintertime freezing ACID DEPOSITION IN NORTHEASTERN U.S. FORESTS HAS ... • increased mortality of sugar maples due to leaching of base cations from soil and leaves • acidified hundreds of lakes and diminished their capacity to neutralize further acids • elevated aluminum levels in surface waters • reduced species diversity and abundance of aquatic life, affecting entire food webs

temperature inversion

Air generally becomes colder as altitude rises. Since warm air rises, vertical mixing results, and air pollution is carried away from its source. During temperature inversions, a layer of cool air becomes trapped beneath warm air, preventing any vertical mixing from occurring. The band of air where temperature rises with altitude is called the inversion layer, since the relationship is the inverse of normal. Temperature inversions often occur in valleys, as nearby mountains block morning sunlight, creating cooler air in their shadow. This traps pollution near the ground.

suns influence on weather and climate

An enormous amount of energy from the sun hits Earth 70% is absorbed by the atmosphere and Earth's surface heating the surfaces and evaporating water Air near Earth's surface is warm and moist

dam

Any obstruction placed in a river or stream to block the flow of water Erected to prevent floods, provide drinking water, allow irrigation, and generate electricity any obstruction placed in a river or stream to block its flow. Dams create reservoirs, artificial lakes that store water for human use. Dams help to prevent floods, provide drinking water, facilitate irrigation, and generate electricity. We have erected thousands of dams Dams provide a complex mix of benefits and costs. The Three Gorges Dam on China's Yangtze River is a good illustration of this complex mix. Cost $39 billion to build. Reservoir flooded 22 cities, farmland, and habitat, while displacing 1.24 million people. Deprived coastal marshes of sediment, causing them to erode away. Those who argue that the costs of dams outweigh their benefits promote the idea of dam removal. This would: Restore ecosystems. Reestablish fisheries. Revive river recreation, such as fly-fishing and rafting. Return shellfish and fish habitats in and around the mouths of rivers disrupted by the dam. Roughly 400 dams have been removed from the United States in the past decade.

groundwater can be depleted

Aquifers recharge slowly As aquifers are mined Water tables drop Freshwater wetlands dry up Water becomes harder and more expensive to get Saltwater intrudes into coastal aquifers Compacted soil loses porosity, making recharge harder Water mining, the withdrawal of water faster than it can be replenished, is taking place in many regions. Groundwater is depleted more easily than surface water because it is recharged so slowly. As aquifers are mined, water tables drop. The Ogallala Aquifer in the Great Plains has been drawn down by more than 320 million liters. When groundwater is overextracted in coastal areas, saltwater from the ocean can intrude into inland aquifers. This does not happen normally, because it is being "pushed back" by fresh groundwater flowing toward the sea. Coastal regions in California, Florida, India, and the Middle East now have coastal wells drawing up saline water instead of fresh water.

rising seas threaten southern florida

At least six times a year, saltwater intrusion will bubble up from the ground and flood the streets, sidewalks, and lawns of Miami, with Miami Beach being the most affected. The floods are a relatively new phenomenon, the result of rising sea levels caused by global climate change. The world's oceans rose 20 cm in the 20th century as warming temperatures expanded seawater and caused glaciers and ice sheets to melt. All coastal cities are facing challenges from flooding and increased storms that arise from the sea level increase. Southern Florida lies on flat, porous limestone, making it especially vulnerable to flooding from the ocean. Miami alone has more than $400 billion in assets located just meters from the ocean. Despite these challenges, Miami Beach is currently undergoing a building boom, and its state-level leaders are largely in denial about climate change. Local leaders, including county commissioners and mayors, have worked to build up dunes, raise building foundations, shift development inland, and stop subsidizing insurance for low-lying coastal areas. Miami itself has raised some roadways 3 feet and is spending $400 million to install a system of pumps to remove floodwater. Coastal areas around the world will face challenges from rising sea levels Superstorm Sandy in 2012 was a wake-up call Affected New York, New Jersey, and other states Tourists think the Maldives Islands are a paradise Rising seas due to global climate change could submerge them Flood areas, erode beaches Damage coral reefs Residents have evacuated the lowest-lying islands Small nations do not cause climate change Yet they suffer

paris accord

At the 2015 conference in Paris, nations made many strong commitments: The U.S. planned to issue new regulations on coal-fired power plants and switch to natural gas. China pledged to cut back on coal power and establish a cap-and-trade program. Brazil promised to halt deforestation. India agreed to slow its emissions growth, reforest its land, and develop alternative energy. 2009 - Copenhagen conference ended in discord 2010 - Cancun's meeting was more productive Developed nations agreed to transfer clean energy technology to developing nations Agreed help tropical nations reduce forest loss China and India will reduce emissions (in principle) Most of these plans and promises have not come to pass 2011, 2012 & 2013 meetings failed to design a new treaty agreed to a "road map" toward a deal in 2015 but will not come into force until 2020 Most scientists were disappointed that waiting until 2020 would mean a "lost decade" while climate changes intensify The Paris conference was successful, in part, because each nation brought its own set of solutions to the negotiation table. The pledges made at Paris, if upheld, would bring the world only partway to a goal of limiting global warming to 2°C. President Trump plans to withdraw from the accord by 2020.

weather

Atmospheric conditions within small geographic areas, over short time periods (hours, days, weeks or shorter)

greenhouse gases

Atmospheric gases with 3 or more atoms in their molecules tend to absorb infrared radiation given off by the Earth's surface, then re-emit it back downward. These are called greenhouse gases and include Water vapor (H2O) Ozone (O3) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Nitrous oxide (N2O) Methane (CH4), h Halocarbons (including CFCs

biodegradable wastes

Biodegradable materials Human waste, animal manure, paper pulp, yard wastes (grass clippings, leaves) decrease dissolved oxygen in water Wastewater Humans release biodegradable wastes From toilets, showers, sinks, dishwashers, washing machines, industrial cleaning processes, storm water runoff Developed nations treat wastewater Many developing nations don't treat wastewater Human wastes, animal manure, pulp from paper mills, and yard waste are all considered biodegradable pollution. These also lower oxygen levels in water as the material is decomposed. Wastewater is water affected by human activities and includes water from toilets, sinks, dishwashers, and washing machines

troposphere

Bottom layer (11km, 7mi) Contains the air we breathe Responsible for Earth's weather

burning fossil fuels produces acid rain

Burning fossil fuels releases sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides These compounds react with water, oxygen, and oxidants to form sulfuric and nitric acids

ocean acidification

Caused by increased CO2 Organisms can't build their exoskeletons As carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere rise, the oceans absorb more CO2. This makes seawater more acidic, a phenomenon referred to as ocean acidification. As seawater becomes more acidic, carbonate ions become less available and calcium carbonate dissolves, jeopardizing marine animals that produce shells. Globally, ocean chemistry has already decreased by 0.1 pH unit (a 26% increase in acidity). As carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere rise, the oceans absorb more CO2. This makes seawater more acidic, a phenomenon referred to as ocean acidification. As seawater becomes more acidic, carbonate ions become less available and calcium carbonate dissolves, jeopardizing marine animals that produce shells. Globally, ocean chemistry has already decreased by 0.1 pH unit (a 26% increase in acidity). Oceans have already decreased by 0.1 pH unit They will decrease 0.15 to 0.35 more units - enough to kill most coral reefs, which will be catastrophic Coral reefs are habitat for marine species, are tourism destinations, and protect coastlines Coral reefs face two additional risks from global warming Warmer waters are contributing to the phenomenon of coral bleaching. Stronger storms physically damage reefs.

central case study: mining for cell phones

Cell phones and other high-tech products contain tantalum Coltan: columbite + tantalum Most tantalum from the Congo goes to China ~<50 years left of tantalum resources, based on extraction at current rates, demonstrating the need for increased recycling We mine and process mineral resources for countless products

atmospheric blocking pattern

Changes in jet stream can cause extreme weather events Warming in the Arctic has weakened the intensity of the Northern Hemisphere's polar jet stream a high-altitude air current that blows west to east in a curving pattern that wanders north and south As the jet stream slows down, its north and south loops become longer, forming an atmospheric blocking pattern an atmospheric pattern that blocks eastward movement of weather systems This causes all weather patterns to be held in place for longer periods of time A 2012 study revealed a potential explanation for the increase in extreme weather. Warming has been greatest in the Arctic, weakening the intensity of the Northern Hemisphere's polar jet stream. The jet stream is a high-altitude air current that blows west to east in a curving pattern that wanders north and south. As the jet stream slows down, its north and south loops become longer, forming an atmospheric blocking pattern because it blocks the eastward movement of weather patterns. This causes all weather patterns to be held in place forlonger periods of time.

societal

Climate change can contribute to humanitarian, geopolitical, and national security problems. Economies and infrastructure may be weakened. Oil and gas flows can be disrupted. People in some affected regions may become refugees or turn to terrorism

economics

Climate change is expected to widen the gap between the rich and poor People with less wealth and technology will suffer most people with less wealth rely more heavily on resources likely to be disrupted It will cost 1-5% GDP on average globally Poor nations will lose more than rich ones social cost of carbon is estimated to be somewhere between $10 and $350 per ton The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change predicts it will cost 5-20% of GDP by 2200 Investing 1% of GDP starting now could help to avoid many of these costs

carbon monoxide

Colorless, odorless gas Produced primarily by incomplete combustion of fuel From vehicles and engines, industry, waste combustion, residential wood burning Prevents blood hemoglobin from binding with oxygen Poisoning causes headaches, fatigue, nausea, heart and nervous system damage, possibly death CO

circulation systems

Convective air currents contribute to broad climate patterns. Near the equator, solar radiation sets in motion a pair of convective cells called Hadley cells. The rapid rising and expansion of air due to intense sunlight gives rise to tropical rainforests. The now-dry air diverges and moves north and south, before cooling and descending at around 30 degrees latitude, producing subtropical deserts. Ferrel cells and polar cells lift air and create precipitation around 60 degrees latitude north and south, causing air to descend at 30 degrees latitude and at the poles. This creates another band of moist ecosystems around the 60 degree latitude. The Hadley, Ferrel, and polar cells interact with Earth's rotation to produce bands of wind patterns that alternate directions. The Coriolis effect deflects objects to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and the left in the Southern, resulting in curving wind patterns.

hadley cells

Convective cells near the equator Surface air warms, rises, and expands As it expands and cools it releases moisture Causing heavy rainfall near the equator Giving rise to tropical rainforests Currents heading north and south are dry Giving rise to deserts at 30 degrees

economically valuable metals from ore include

Copper Iron Lead Gold Aluminum Tantalum Used to manufacture electronics

carbon tax

Critics say cap-and-trade systems are not effective Carbon tax Governments charge polluters a fee for each unit of greenhouse gases they emit Polluters have a financial incentive to reduce emissions European nations, British Columbia, and Boulder, Colorado, have carbon taxes However, polluters pass costs on to consumers Fee-and-dividend Funds from the carbon tax (fee) are passed to taxpayers as tax refunds (dividends) a type of green tax on the emission of carbon dioxide or the carbon content of fossil fuels. A downside is that these fees, when applied to producers, often get directly passed along to the customers. An alternative is the fee-and-dividend approach, where the government transfers the carbon tax, or "fee," into a tax refund, or "dividend," given to taxpayers. The fee-and-dividend approach is a type of revenue-neutral carbon tax, because there is no net transfer of revenue from taxpayers to the government. cap-and-trade system is where industries and utilities compete to reduce emissions for financial gain. Over time, this cap is lowered to ensure that total emissions decrease.

global climate change

Describes modifications in Earth's climate Changes in temperature, precipitation, frequency and intensity of storms across the world, etc. Global warming An increase in Earth's average surface temperature This is only one aspect of climate change The Earth's climate varies naturally, but disruptive changes are unfolding rapidly, with human activities accelerating them Earth's climate has varied naturally through time Today's climate change is happening at an extremely rapid rate Today's changes are due in large part to human fossil fuel combustion and deforestation Understanding climate change requires understanding how our planet's climate works

el nino and la nina

El Niño refers to the large-scale ocean-atmosphere climate interaction linked to a periodic warming in sea surface temperatures across the central and east-central Equatorial Pacific. La Niña episodes represent periods of below-average sea surface temperatures El Niño and La Niña episodes typically last nine to 12 months Some prolonged events may last for years Their frequency can be quite irregular but El Niño and La Niña events occur on average every 2 to 8 years. Typically, El Niño occurs more frequently than La Niña.

carbon capture and sequestration

Electrical generation The largest source of U.S. CO2 emissions Strategies to reduce fossil fuel use: Conservation, efficiency, cleaner or renewable energy, more efficient appliances Carbon capture Removes CO2 from power plant emissions Carbon storage (sequestration) Storage of carbon underground (under pressure in deep salt mines, depleted oil and gas deposits, or other underground reservoirs) Currently, we can't store enough CO2 to make a difference

market mechanisms can be used to address climate change

Emissions trading programs Seek to harness the economic efficiency of the free market to achieve public policy control pollution Businesses have flexibility in how they meet the goals Polluters choose how to cut their emissions They are given financial incentives to reduce them

factors influencing nonrenewable resource availability

Estimating how long a reserve will last is hard New discoveries, technologies, consumption patterns, and recycling affect mineral supplies As minerals become scarcer, prices rise Discovery of new resources New extraction technologies Changing social and technological dynamics Changing consumption patterns Recycling

carbon footprint

Everyone has a carbon footprint that expresses the amount of carbon we are responsible for emitting. This can be reduced by: Choosing energy-efficient products. Eating less meat. Living near your work to reduce commuting times. Cutting back on waste. Getting engaged politically. The amount of carbon we are responsible for emitting People may take many steps to decrease their footprint

proxy indactors

Evidence about climate in the ancient past is vital for providing a baseline against which we can measure changes to the climate today Proxy indicators Types of indirect measurements that serve as substitutes for direct measurement of past climate Ice caps, ice sheets, and glaciers hold clues to Earth's climate history Trapped bubbles in ice cores provide a timescale of: Atmospheric composition, greenhouse gas concentrations, temperature, snowfall, solar activity Frequency of fires and volcanic eruptions Other indicators include: Pollen preserved in sediment, tree rings, pack-rat middens, coral reefs Climate scientists drill into ice caps, ice sheets, and glaciers to analyze the tiny bubbles of atmosphere that collected as the ice formed. Glaciers in Antarctica have provided information dating back 800,000 years. Based on air bubbles trapped in mile-thick ice cores (and other paleoclimate evidence), we know that during the ice age cycles of the past million years or so, carbon dioxide never exceeded 300 ppm. Before the Industrial Revolution started in the mid-1700s, the global average amount of carbon dioxide was about 280 ppm.  Other proxy measurements include sediment cores drilled below bodies of water, tree rings, packrat middens in arid regions, and the isotope concentration of samples from coral reefs. Data from the EPICA (European Project for Ice Core in Antarctica) ice core reveals changes across 800,000 years Climate scientists drill into ice caps, ice sheets, and glaciers to analyze the tiny bubbles of atmosphere that collected as the ice formed. Glaciers in Antarctica have provided information dating back 800,000 years. Based on air bubbles trapped in mile-thick ice cores (and other paleoclimate evidence), we know that during the ice age cycles of the past million years or so, carbon dioxide never exceeded 300 ppm. Before the Industrial Revolution started in the mid-1700s, the global average amount of carbon dioxide was about 280 ppm.  Other proxy measurements include sediment cores drilled below bodies of water, tree rings, packrat middens in arid regions, and the isotope concentration of samples from coral reefs.

current and future trends and impacts

Evidence that climate has changed (been disrupted) is everywhere We cannot blame any single weather event on climate change but extreme weather is part of a pattern backed by an immense volume of scientific data Climate change has already had numerous impacts on the physical properties of our planet, on organisms and ecosystems, and on human well-being Flooding in the Miami area Multiyear droughts in Texas and California Unprecedented heat waves and cold snaps Climate change has already had numerous impacts on the physical properties of our planet, on organisms and ecosystems, and on human well-being. Flooding in the Miami area Multiyear droughts in Texas and California Unprecedented heat waves and cold snaps

open pit mining

Excavating a giant hole in the landscape to remove widely spread mineral deposits

benthic zone

Extends along the bottom of the water body Home to many invertebrates

some pollution from natural sources

Fires generate soot and gases Volcanoes release particulate matter, sulfur dioxide Winds send huge amounts of dust aloft, even across oceans Humans make impacts worse Farming, grazing and mining cause erosion, desertification Fire suppression and encroachment into fire-prone ecosystems

conclusion

Geologic processes shape Earth's terrain and form the foundation for living systems We depend on minerals and metals to make our products Mineral resources are mined by various methods Contribute to material wealth but cause extensive environmental damage (habitat loss, acid drainage, etc.) Restoration and regulations help minimize the environmental and social impacts of mining Recycling and sustainable use prolong mineral resources

greenhouse effect

Greenhouse effect Certain gases (greenhouse gases) in the atmosphere tend to absorb infrared radiation given off by the Earth's surface, then re-emit it back downward The re-warming of the lower atmosphere and the Earth's surface by the emitting of infrared energy by these gases is called the greenhouse effect. Atmospheric gases having three or more atoms in their molecules tend to absorb infrared radiation given off by the Earth's surface, then re-emit it back downward. These are called greenhouse gases and include water vapor (H2O), ozone (O3), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and halocarbons. The re-warming of the lower atmosphere by the emitting of infrared energy by these gases is called the greenhouse effect.

bottled water

Groundwater is being withdrawn for bottled water An average American drinks 30 gallons/year People drink bottled water for portability, convenience They think it tastes better or is healthier but it is no better than tap water Energy costs are 1000 to 2000 times more than those of tap water Manufacturing the bottle Transporting the product 1.5 million tons of plastic waste generated annually 75% of bottles (30-40 billion/yr) are thrown away and not recycled Bottled water has become a booming business, with $160 billion in annual sales. People buy bottled water for convenience and taste, even though blind taste tests have shown no preference. Bottled water has major ecological impacts, with energy costs 1000-2000 times greater than tap water and 1.5 million tons of plastic waste generated annually.

household demands

Households Install low-flow faucets, showerheads, washing machines, and toilets Capture and store rain runoff from roofs Xeriscaping - replacing exotic plants with native plants adapted to local precipitation patterns Industry and municipalities Shift to processes that use less water Recycle wastewater for irrigation and industrial uses Fix leaky pipes, and retrofit homes with better plumbing Audit industries, and promote conservation Water use can be reduced in households by installing low-flow faucets, showerheads, washing machines, and toilets. Using alternative sources of water for gardening and lawn care also helps to reduce a home's footprint. Rainwater harvesting is the process of collecting rainwater with a rain barrel. Graywater Xeriscaping Industry can save water by shifting to processes that use less of it. Municipalities can recycle treated municipal wastewater for irrigation or fix leaks in pipes to reduce water loss.

how climate models work

How Do Climate Models Work? Models are increasingly vital for society Help predict what conditions will confront us in the future How do scientists create a climate model? A long series of mathematical equations are added to the model The equations are integrated with data on Earth's landforms, hydrology, vegetation, and atmosphere Earth's surface is divided into layered grid Models that incorporate both natural and anthropogenic factors predict observed climate trends best

why louisiana wetlands are disappearing

Human activities promote wetland losses Withdrawal compacts land and lowers soil levels dams prevent sediments from reaching the delta; they are instead deposited in reservoirs. levees prevent normal flooding, instead directing water directly out to the Gulf, where the sediments are deposited instead. Canals fragment wetlands and increase erosion Oil spills destroy vegetation The salt marshes in the delta normally compact over time, but this is offset by inputs of sediments from the river. The dams prevent sediments from reaching the delta; they are instead deposited in reservoirs. The levees prevent normal flooding, instead directing water directly out to the Gulf, where the sediments are deposited instead. Diverting the Mississippi River Can restore the wetlands Will cost millions

Can Acid Mine Drainage Reduce Fracking's Environmental Impact

Hydraulic fracturing injects water laden with drilling chemicals into layers of deep shale rock Along with natural gas, fracking wells pull up wastewater Water mixed with dissolved salts, toxic metals, radioactive radium isotopes Release of the wastewater pollutes the streams In parts of Pennsylvania, active hydraulic fracturing operations are very near streams affected by acid mine drainage Dr. Vengosh and his team developed a process to treat the wastewater using acid mine drainage Removed most pollutants Resulting water can be reused in drilling applications Topography created by tectonics shapes climate Alters patterns of rain, wind, currents, heating, cooling, which .... Affect rates of weathering and erosion and the location of biomes, which ... Affect evolution and extinction

montreal protocol

In 1987, an international treaty called the Montreal Protocol was signed. Countries agreed to cut CFC production in half by 1998. Additional agreements were passed, adding more halocarbons to the restricted list. Phasing out and replacing these chemicals has stabilized the ozone hole. The ozone layer is expected to recover fully sometime after the year 2060. The Montreal Protocol is now considered to be a model for solving global environmental problems. Phasing out and replacing these chemicals has stabilized the ozone hole. The ozone layer is expected to recover fully sometime after the year 2060. The Montreal Protocol is now considered to be a model for solving global environmental problems.

should we regulate greenhouse gases as air pollutants?

In 2007, the Supreme Court ruled that the EPA has the legal authority to regulate carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases as air pollution. In 2011, the EPA introduced carbon emission standards for cars and light trucks. In 2015, the EPA launched the Clean Power Plan, where states were given options to reduce emissions of coal plants. This plan is in the process of dismantling as of 2017, due to an executive order from President Trump.

municipal sewer systems

In populated areas, municipal sewer systems carry wastewater to wastewater treatment plants Primary treatment Removes suspended solids Secondary treatment Water is stirred and aerated Aerobic bacteria degrade organic pollutants Further treatment may remove particular pollutants Clarified water is treated with chlorine (or ultraviolet light) Effluent: treated wastewater Is piped into rivers or the ocean May be used for lawns, irrigation, or industry In rural areas, septic systems separate solids and oils from water in a septic tank, then the water travels downhill through gravel-filled trenches where it can be naturally decomposed. In urban areas, treatment facilities will perform primary treatment and physically remove contaminants in settling tanks or clarifiers. Secondary treatment stirs and aerates wastewater so bacteria can naturally decompose the wastes in it. The effluent is treated to kill bacteria and returned back to rivers, lakes, or the ocean. The remaining biosolids can be used as fertilizer.

indoor air pollution in developed world

In workplaces, schools, and homes Causes greater health effects than outdoor pollution The poor in developing nations burn wood, charcoal, dung, and crop wastes in buildings with little to no ventilation Increased pneumonia, bronchitis, lung cancer, allergies, sinus infections, cataracts, asthma, emphysema and heart disease In developed nations, cigarette smoke and radon are the primary indoor health risks Cigarette smoke Causes eye, nose, and throat irritation Lung cancer kills 160,000 people per year in the U.S. Radon A radioactive gas resulting from natural decay of rock, soil, or water that can seep into buildings the second-leading cause of lung cancer New homes are being built to be radon resistant

pathogens and waterborne diseases

Inadequately treated sewage and animal waste from feedlots Biological pollution causes more human health problems than any other type of water pollution >1 billion people don't have safe water 2.6 billion don't have adequate sewer or sanitation facilities Solutions Disinfecting drinking water and treating wastewater Public education to encourage personal hygiene Government regulations protecting food Disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria and parasites, can enter drinking water supplies from improperly treated sewage. Biological pollution by pathogens causes more human health problems than any other type of water pollution. The U.N. estimates that 3800 children die daily of cholera, dysentery, and other waterborne diseases.

kelp forests

Kelp is large brown algae growing from the floor of continental shelves along temperate coasts Can grow to 200ft (61m) tall, forming "forests" Provide shelter and food for organisms Absorb wave energy and protect shorelines from erosion Kelp serves as food, thickeners in cosmetics, paints, paper, and soaps Along many temperate coasts, large brown algae called kelp grow from the floor of the continental shelves, reaching toward the sunlit surface. Dense stands form underwater "forests," which provide food and shelter for many animals.

lakes and ponds are ecologically diverse systems

Lakes and ponds Bodies of standing surface water They have several zones Lakes and ponds are bodies of standing surface water. The shallow area along the edges where aquatic plants can grow is called the littoral zone. The benthic zone extends along the bottom. The limnetic zone is the upper layer of water that is shallow enough to receive sunlight and allow photosynthesis by phytoplankton. The profundal zone is between the benthic and limnetic zones and lacks photosynthesis.

oil pollution

Large spills are infrequent but can be devastating Other sources Natural seepage, boat leakage, road and parking lot runoff Spills during transport and leakage during extraction Large oil spills are infrequent, but their impacts around the spill site are staggering. The Exxon Valdez ran aground in 1989, causing an ecological disaster along the Alaskan coast. The Deepwater Horizon was an offshore oil platform that exploded in 2010, spilling oil that washed ashore throughout the Gulf of Mexico region.

acid deposition impacts

Leaches nutrients from topsoil Changes soil chemistry Converts toxic metal ions (aluminum, zinc, etc.) into soluble forms that pollute water Affects surface water and kills fish Damages crops and forests Erodes stone buildings, corrodes vehicles, erases writing on tombstones

marine reserves protect ecosystems

Management was based on maximum sustained yield Number of fish that can be harvested without reducing future catches Despite management, stocks have plummeted It is time to rethink fisheries management Ecosystem-based management Shift the focus away from species and toward the larger ecosystem Protecting ocean areas helps species recover Protect 20-50% of the ocean as no-take areas

mangroves

Mangrove forests occur at tropical and subtropical latitudes Salt-tolerant trees with unique roots Roots curve up for oxygen and down for support Habitat for fish, shellfish, birds Protect coastlines from storms Filter pollutants, stabilize soils, protect coral reefs Produce food, medicine, tools, and wood 50% of mangroves have been destroyed for resorts or shrimp farms trees that are salt tolerant, with roots that grow upward to gather oxygen and others that grow down to support the tree like stilts. Fish, shellfish, snakes, and other organisms thrive among the roots in the water, while many birds feed and nest in the tree foliage.

marine reserves pt 2

Marine protected areas (MPAs) Established along the coastlines of developed countries Still allow fishing or other extractive activities Marine reserves Areas where fishing is prohibited Leave ecosystems intact, without human interference Improve fisheries: young fish disperse into surrounding areas Many commercial and recreation fishers do not support reserves Reserves work: species density, biomass, size, and diversity all increased 1-2 years after establishment Fisheries managers use surveys and fish population studies and monitor catches to regulate the timing, scale, and techniques used in harvests. The goal is to establish a maximum sustainable yield for each fish stock and to not exceed that level. Despite these efforts, fish stocks have continued to crash. This suggests that an ecosystem-based management system is needed. Marine protected areas (MPAs) restrict some human activities (like oil drilling), but allow fishing and other extractive activities. About 3% of the ocean waters have this designation. Marine reserves are areas of the ocean where fishing is prohibited. Commercial and recreational fishers dislike these areas, but scientists argue that they can serve as production factories for fish for surrounding areas. A 2001 data review revealed that marine reserves, on average, provided the following benefits: 23% increase in species density 91% increase in organism density within the reserve 192% increase in total biomass 31% increase in average organism size Mortality and habitat damage are also reduced, and larvae of species inside the reserve "seed the seas" when they spread to areas outside the reserve.

measuring health impacts of mexico citys air pollution

Measuring the Health Impacts of Mexico City's Air Pollution Many studies confirm that Mexico City residents show poorer lung function than people from less polluted areas Respiratory problems and emergency room visits become more numerous when pollution is severe Studies have also linked increased death rates with pollution intensity Infant mortality was significantly higher after strong pollution episodes

Melting ice has far-reaching effects

Melting snow and ice exposes darker, less-reflective bare ground or surface water This (lower albedo) reduces the Earth's capacity to reflect light, creating a positive feedback loop and more melting Arctic warming is thawing permafrost Permafrost (permanently frozen ground) Destabilizing soil, buildings, etc., and releasing methane the release of underground methane, further intensifies warming, a positive feedback loop. Melting of Greenland's Arctic ice sheet is accelerating Warmer water is melting Antarctica's coastal ice shelves Interior snow is increasing because of more precipitation As snow and ice melt, less reflective surfaces (bare ground or surface water) are exposed. This reduces the Earth's capacity to reflect light, creating a positive feedback loop. The loss of Arctic sea ice has led to the opening of new shipping lanes and many countries jockeying for position to claim regions of the Arctic for oil and mineral extraction. Arctic warming is also thawing permafrost (permanently frozen ground), causing the release of underground methane, which further intensifies warming. The entire West Antarctic ice shelf is potentially on its way to an unstoppable collapse. This would create a 3-m rise in sea levels. The ice sheet in Greenland is also melting, and Arctic sea ice is thinning. Nations are rushing to exploit underwater oil and mineral resources made available by newly opened shipping lanes Many tropical mountaintop glaciers have disappeared, and the few that remain are shrinking. One out of six people worldwide live in regions that depend on mountain meltwater as a source of fresh water. The remaining 25 of 150 glaciers in Glacier National Park will be gone by 2030, reducing summertime water supplies to millions Mountaintop glaciers are disappearing Glaciers on tropical mountaintops have disappeared The remaining 25 of 150 glaciers in Glacier National Park will be gone by 2030 Reducing summertime water supplies to millions

aerosols/particulate matter warm or cool surface

Microscopic droplets and particles They may have either a warming or a cooling effect Soot particles ("black carbon aerosols") cause warming by absorbing solar energy. Most other aerosols (such as sulfur) reflect solar energy and have a cooling effect. may have either a warming or a cooling effect Soot (black carbon aerosols) causes warming by absorbing solar energy Sulfate aerosols from volcanic eruptions reduce sunlight reaching Earth's surface and cool the Earth Sulfate aerosols from fossil fuel combustion may slow global warming, at least in the short term

mountaintop removal reshapes ridges and can fill valleys

Mine blasting cracks foundations and walls Floods and rockslides affect properties Coal dust and contaminated water cause illness Lung cancer, heart and kidney disease, pulmonary disorders, hypertension, death The poor people of Appalachia suffer while we benefit from coal-produced electricity Critics argue that valley filling violates the Clean Water Act In 2010, the EPA introduced rules to limit damage

weighing issues: restoring mined areas

Mining has severe environmental impacts, and restoring a mined site to a condition similar to its state before mining is costly and difficult How much do you think we should require mining companies to restore a site after a mine is shut down? What criteria should we use to guide restoration? Should we require complete restoration? No restoration? Explain your recommendations

agriculture consequences

Moderate warming may increase agricultural output in some temperate areas, but increased droughts will diminish yields for many. Hunger is increasing in many developing nations Moderate warming may increase agricultural output in some temperate areas, but increased droughts will diminish yields for many. Increased CO2 may spur higher timber growth, but warming temperatures also increase the rates of invasive species, fires, and disease outbreaks.

how to mine metals

Most minerals must be processed after mining After the ore is mined, rock is crushed, and the metals are isolated by chemical or physical means The material is processed to purify the metal alloy smelting

groundwater pollution

Most pollution control measures have focused on surface waters, but groundwater is also vulnerable to pollution. Groundwater, unlike rivers, retains contaminants until they decompose. Chemicals break down much more slowly in aquifers due to the lack of sunlight and microbes. Over withdrawal of groundwater concentrates the pollutants that are present. Certain chemicals, such as aluminum, fluoride, nitrates, and sulfates, occur naturally in groundwater due to its contact with rocks. Human sources include leaking underground storage tanks and the leaching of solvents and pesticides through soil. More than one-third of the underground tanks housing radioactive waste at the Hanford Nuclear Reservation in Washington are leaking into groundwater supplies.

agriculture demand

Most water is used in agriculture "Flood and furrow" method floods fields, but plants use only 40% of the water applied Use efficient irrigation methods Low-pressure spray irrigation sprays water downward Drip irrigation systems target individual plants Match crops to land and climate Don't grow cotton, rice, or alfalfa in arid areas Use selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less water Since agriculture makes up the majority of water demand, it is the most logical place to start conserving. Lining irrigation canals to prevent leaks. Leveling fields to minimize runoff. Moving from inefficient irrigation methods, like "flood and furrow," to more efficient ones, like drip irrigation. Eliminating water-intensive crops from arid regions. Almond trees grown in California's central valley use 10% of all water consumed by the state. Most water is used in agriculture "Flood and furrow" method floods fields, but plants use only 40% of the water applied Use efficient irrigation methods Low-pressure spray irrigation sprays water downward Drip irrigation systems target individual plants Match crops to land and climate Don't grow cotton, rice, or alfalfa in arid areas Use selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less water

ocean currents affect earths climate

Movement of ocean water affects global climate Thermohaline circulation A worldwide current system (like a global conveyor belt) Warmer, lower-salinity water moves along the surface Colder, saltier, denser water moves below the surface The thermohaline circulation is a worldwide current system in which warmer, lower-salinity water moves along the surface and colder, saltier (denser) water moves horizontally below the surface. This moves warm water in the Gulf Stream to the Atlantic Ocean near Europe, where heat is released and the cooler water sinks. The thermohaline circulation is a worldwide current system in which warmer, lower-salinity water moves along the surface and colder, saltier (denser) water moves horizontally below the surface. This moves warm water in the Gulf Stream to the Atlantic Ocean near Europe, where heat is released and the cooler water sinks.

pollution from natural sources

Natural processes, some worsened by human activity, can also pollute the air. Fires occur naturally, but are worsened by human encroachment into fire-prone ecosystems and the suppression of fires in areas where they are part of the natural ecology. Volcanic eruptions release particulate matter and sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. Short-term effects of these include grounding planes, damaging car engines, and causing respiratory illnesses. Long-term effects such as global cooling can occur if sulfur dioxide reacts with water and oxygen to form aerosols that block sunlight in the stratosphere. Winds sweeping over arid terrain can send huge amounts of dust aloft. This is worsened by unsustainable farming and grazing practices that strip vegetation from the soil, as well as desertification.

aphotic zone

Not enough life penetrates this deep Not enough light to support autotrophs, producers

aphotic zone

Not enough light penetrates this deep to support photosynthetic autotrophs Organisms in the very deep are adapted to continuous cold, dark, and extremely high water pressure Deep-sea hydrothermal vents of volcanic origin on mid-oceanic ridges have abundant life Tubeworms and others get energy from chemicals emitted from hydrothermal vents Most organisms scavenge carcasses or detritus, are predators, or get food from mutualistic bacteria

nutrient pollution

Nutrient pollution from fertilizers, farms, sewage, lawns, golf courses leads to eutrophication and hypoxia Excess nitrogen and phosphorus in water boosts algal and aquatic plant growth Spreading algae cover the surface, decreasing sunlight Bacteria eat dead plants, reducing dissolved oxygen Fish and shellfish die Solutions include treating wastewater, reducing fertilizer application, and using phosphate-free detergents Planting vegetation decreases nutrient flow into water Nutrient pollution from fertilizers and other sources causes eutrophication and hypoxia in surface waters. Algae is fertilized, causing it to overgrow and block out sunlight needed by underwater plants. As algae die off, bacteria decompose them and deplete oxygen levels. Eutrophication is a natural process, but human inputs from farms, golf courses, lawns, and sewage can dramatically increase its rate. A "dead zone" of very-low-oxygen waters has formed in the Gulf of Mexico due to nutrient flow from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers. Excessive nutrient concentrations can lead to harmful algae blooms, which are population explosions of algae that produce powerful toxins. If the algae produce a red pigment that discolors the water, it is called a red tide. Human wastes, animal manure, pulp from paper mills, and yard waste are all considered biodegradable pollution. These also lower oxygen levels in water as the material is decomposed. Human activities dramatically increase the rate at which eutrophication occurs Harmful algal blooms (red tides) Excessive nutrients increase marine algae, which release powerful toxins Kill organisms and people, decreases tourism, fishing Nutrient pollution from fertilizers and other sources causes eutrophication and hypoxia in surface waters. Algae is fertilized, causing it to overgrow and block out sunlight needed by underwater plants. As algae die off, bacteria decompose them and deplete oxygen levels. Eutrophication is a natural process, but human inputs from farms, golf courses, lawns, and sewage can dramatically increase its rate. A "dead zone" of very-low-oxygen waters has formed in the Gulf of Mexico due to nutrient flow from the Mississippi and Atchafalaya rivers. Excessive nutrient concentrations can lead to harmful algae blooms, which are population explosions of algae that produce powerful toxins. If the algae produce a red pigment that discolors the water, it is called a red tide. Human wastes, animal manure, pulp from paper mills, and yard waste are all considered biodegradable pollution. These also lower oxygen levels in water as the material is decomposed.

ocean thermohaline circulation

Ocean water exchanges heat with the atmosphere Currents move energy from place to place affects regional climates moves warm, tropical water north Greenland's melting ice sheet could disrupt this flow The thermohaline circulation of the oceans moves warm, tropical water north, where the heat is released near Western Europe. Freshwater input from Greenland's melting ice sheets may disrupt this flow.

ocean acidification

Oceans absorb excess CO2 Lowers the pH of seawater Reduces carbonate ions and dissolves calcium carbonate in coral shells/skeletons occurs as the ocean becomes more acidic from absorbing carbon dioxide, making it difficult for shell-forming animals to use carbonate (CO32−) ions to produce shells. Shells also start to erode faster than they are made once the concentration hits a certain level.

modern fishing

Oceans contain only one-tenth of the large-bodied animals they once held Overfishing has caused many fisheries to collapse, destroying fishing economies Groundfish (e.g., cod, haddock, halibut, flounder) stocks collapsed Bans in the 1990s by the U.S. and Canada have helped restore fisheries A slow path to recovery Red snapper stocks have been overfished and depleted in the Gulf of Mexico Current populations are only 3% of historic levels

tailings

Ore that is left over after metals have been extracted Pollute soil and water Contain heavy metals or chemicals (cyanide, sulfuric acid)

climate change affects organisms and ecosystems

Organisms are adapted to their environments They are affected when those environments change In the spring, plants are leafing, insects are hatching, birds are migrating, and animals are breeding earlier. Plants and animals are shifting their ranges toward cooler areas (higher in elevation or latitude). 20-30% of species will be threatened with extinction Rare species will be pushed out of preserves Many biological phenomena that rely on temperature have been modified due to global warming. In the spring, plants are leafing, insects are hatching, birds are migrating, and animals are breeding earlier. Many animals are expanding their ranges toward cooler areas (higher in elevation or latitude). Organisms are adapted to their environments They are affected when those environments change Global warming modifies temperature-dependent phenomena (e.g., timing of migration, breeding) Species will move toward the poles or up in elevation 20-30% of species will be threatened with extinction Rare species will be pushed out of preserves More CO2 may increase plant growth, but... Droughts, fire, and disease will decrease plant growth Fewer plants means more CO2 in the atmosphere

ozone depletion

Ozone in the troposphere is a pollutant in photo-chemical smog Ozone in the lower stratosphere absorbs the sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation UV radiation can damage tissues and DNA Ozone-depleting substances Human-made chemicals that destroy ozone Halocarbons

emptying the oceans

People are overharvesting marine species Threatens the balance and functioning of marine and coastal ecosystems Half of the world's marine fish populations are fully exploited 28% of fish populations are overexploited and heading to extinction With current trends, populations of all ocean species we fish for will collapse by 2048

effects of human activities on waterways

People divert water from rivers and lakes to farm fields, homes, and cities for our needs People also engineer waterways Dams, levees, diversion canals Dikes and levees - long, raised mounds of earth along the banks of rivers hold water in channels For supplies, transportation, and flood control What we do in one part of the aquatic system affects other parts Water is one of our most precious resources and is renewable. People are withdrawing water at unsustainable levels and depleting many sources of surface water and groundwater. The construction of engineered waterways like dams and canals has altered an estimated 60% of the world's largest rivers. Artificial rivers called aqueducts or canals channel water from rivers and lakes to homes and farms. The Colorado River, for example, is diverted to provide water for Denver, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, and farmland throughout the Imperial Valley.

milankovitch cycles

Periodic changes in Earth's rotation and orbit around the sun Alter the way solar radiation is distributed over Earth These cycles modify patterns of atmospheric heating Trigger climate variation Glaciation Cold temperatures and ice sheets Over thousands of years, the Earth wobbles on its axis, varies in its tilt, and experiences changes in the shape of its orbit in regular long-term cycles called Milankovitch cycles. These changes all naturally vary the Earth's climate. Natural increases in carbon dioxide concentrations have periodically warmed Earth's temperature during ice age cycles over the past million years or more. The warm episodes (interglacials) began with a small increase in sunlight due to a tiny wobble in Earth's axis of rotation or in the path of its orbit around the Sun. That little bit of extra sunlight caused a little bit of warming. As the oceans warmed, they outgassed carbon dioxide—like a can of soda going flat in the heat of a summer day. The extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere amplified the initial warming.

toxic chemicals

Pesticides, petroleum products, synthetic chemicals Toxic metals (arsenic, lead, mercury), acid rain, acid drainage from mines Effects include poisoning of animals and plants, alteration of aquatic ecosystems, and human health problems Solutions Issue and enforce more stringent regulations of industry Modify industrial processes Modify our purchasing decisions Many types of toxic chemicals have been released into water sources: Pesticides. Petroleum products. Heavy metals, like arsenic, lead, and mercury. Acid from acid precipitation and mining runoff. Disease-causing organisms, such as bacteria and parasites, can enter drinking water supplies from improperly treated sewage.

processing metals after mining ore

Processing minerals exerts environmental impacts Most methods are water- and energy-intensive Chemical reactions and heating to extract metals from ores emit air pollution and toxic wastes tailings surface impoundments

climate models

Programs that combine data from atmospheric and ocean circulation and interactions to simulate climate processes If a model accurately reconstructs past or current climate, it may accurately predict future climate. Modeling is difficult and imperfect because climate is complex and many feedback cycles are not known or clearly understood The efficiency of the model is tested by entering past climate data and running the model toward the present. Current models are imperfect because the Earth's climate system is complex, and many feedback systems are not known.

we can use minerals and metals sustainably

Recycling minerals addresses Finite supplies Environmental damage 35% of metals are currently recycled from U.S. solid waste 33% of our copper comes from recycled sources Recycling decreases energy use It also lowers greenhouse gas emissions Recycling keeps hazardous wastes out of landfills while conserving mineral resources Recycling reduces demand for virgin ores and reduces pressure on ecosystems

reducing demand

Reducing demand is harder politically It involves changing behaviors But offers better economic returns and causes less ecological and social damage Reducing demand is already paying off From 1980 to 2005, the U.S. population grew 31%, but water consumption decreased 5%

reducing smog

Reducing smog requires many steps at the state and federal level, since air pollution spreads so easily. Steps taken in California include: Restrictions on emissions from power plants, oil refineries, and other factories. Regular vehicle inspections for emissions levels. Improved technology on cars that reduce their emissions. Even though L.A. drivers now burn 2.7 times more gasoline, smog levels have decreased substantially since 1980. Ozone levels are still in excess of EPA standards. Since the passage of the 1970 Clean Air Act amendments, emissions of the six monitored pollutants have been reduced dramatically. This has occurred despite increases in population, energy consumption, miles traveled by vehicle, and gross domestic product. Technologies such as baghouse filters, electrostatic precipitators, and scrubbers physically remove airborne pollutants from smokestacks. Catalytic converters contain metals that react with hydrocarbons, CO, and NOx in vehicle exhaust and convert them to carbon dioxide, water vapor, and nitrogen gas. Leaded gasoline was also phased out, dramatically reducing its level in the atmosphere. The EPA estimates that between 1970 and 1990, clean air regulations and technological advances in pollution control saved 200,000 American lives. Even though L.A. drivers now burn 2.7 times more gasoline, smog levels have decreased substantially since 1980. Ozone levels are still in excess of EPA standards. Reducing smog requires many steps at the state and federal level, since air pollution spreads so easily. Steps taken in California include: Restrictions on emissions from power plants, oil refineries, and other factories. Regular vehicle inspections for emissions levels. Improved technology on cars that reduce their emissions. Overall, concentrations of criteria pollutants in ambient air across the United States have steadily fallen since 1980. While the air in most urban areas still violates at least one ambient air quality standard, air quality has shown great improvement since 1985.

strip mining

Removal of layers of soil and rock to expose the resource just below the surface For coal, oil sands, sand, gravel Overburden Destroys natural communities over large areas and triggers erosion

addressing acid deposition

Restrictions on power plants reduced NOx emissions, which significantly reduced nitrogen deposition. Overall, the pH of precipitation has improved significantly since the passage of the law.

a river may shift course over time

Rivers shape the landscape through which they run Carve out valleys as they change course Damming reduces river meandering Floodplain Areas nearest to the river's course that are flooded periodically Soils are fertile as a result of frequent deposition of silt Good areas for agriculture

rising sea levels may affect hundreds of millions of people

Runoff from melting glaciers and ice cause sea levels to rise As oceans warm, they expand Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years Along the U.S. coast, sea level is rising at varying rates This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion into aquifers, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years. This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Runoff from melting glaciers and ice cause sea levels to rise As oceans warm, they expand Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years Along the U.S. coast, sea level is rising at varying rates This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion into aquifers, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Worldwide, average sea levels have risen 24.1 cm in the past 135 years. This leads to more beach erosion, coastal flooding, saltwater intrusion, and a greater impact by localized rises in sea level called storm surges. Storm surge Temporary, localized rise in sea level caused by the high tides and winds of storms Cities will be flooded 53% of people in the U.S. live in coastal areas will have to invest in costly efforts to protect against high tides and storm surges Vulnerability to storm surges will increase Rising seas eliminate marsh grasses; dams stop sediment from replenishing deltas Cities will be flooded Currently more than half of the U.S. population (53%) lives in coastal counties, and 3.7 million Americans live within 1 vertical meter of the high tide line will have to invest in costly efforts to protect against high tides and storm surges South Florida is judged to be the most at risk, with 2.4 million people, 1.3 million homes, and 1.8 million acres vulnerable. Superstorm Sandy was not caused by global warming, but it was facilitated and strengthened by it, due to the increase in ocean temperatures and sea level rise around New York City. Multiple major storms have demonstrated the potential impacts that storm surges can have on metropolitan areas in the United States. In 2012, Superstorm Sandy caused $65 billion in damage, killed 160, and left thousands homeless. In 2017, Hurricanes Harvey and Irma devastated Houston and coastal cities from Miami to Jacksonville to Charleston. Hurricane Sandy ("Superstorm") demonstrated the impact that storm surges can have on metropolitan areas Superstorm Sandy was not caused by global warming, but it was facilitated and strengthened by it, due to the increase in ocean temperatures and sea level rise around New York City. Areas that will be most affected include: Densely populated, poor regions (e.g., Bangladesh) Storm-prone regions (e.g., Florida) Coastal cities (e.g., Houston) Areas with land subsidence (e.g., U.S. Gulf Coast) Pacific islands will have to be evacuated People from small island countries like the Maldives, most of which are less than 1 m above sea level, may become climate refugees as sea level rises. In 2009, the Maldives held an "underwater cabinet meeting" to bring attention to the plight of their country.

extreme weather the new normal

Scientific data summarized by the U.S. Climate Extremes Index Confirms that the frequency of extreme weather events (droughts, floods, hurricanes, tornadoes, etc.) has doubled in the United States since 1970 2012 saw a March heat wave, severe drought, and Superstorm Sandy. 2017 saw hurricanes Harvey and Irma. Insurers have recorded a doubling of losses in Europe and even higher rates across the rest of the world.

air quality has improved

Scientists, policymakers, industrial leaders, and everyday citizens have modified their actions to help reduce criteria pollutants The reduction in outdoor air pollution since 1970 is one of our greatest accomplishments

smog

Smog is a general term for a mixture of air pollutants that can accumulate as a result of fossil fuel combustion, especially over areas with heavy automobile traffic. Cities suffer from a specific type of smog called industrial smog. Industrial smog contains carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, mercury, and sulfur from burning fossil fuels. The sulfur can react with oxygen and water to form sulfuric acid in the atmosphere. America's worst industrial smog event occurred in Donora, Pennsylvania, in 1948. Donora is located in a small valley and experienced a temperature inversion that trapped smog from a steel and wire factory for days. London had a similar "killer smog" event in 1952 that killed between 4000 and 12,000 people. Most smog in urban areas today results largely from automobile exhaust.

sludge

Solid material resulting from treatment Is decomposed microbially Then landfilled, incinerated, or used as fertilizer

particulate matter

Solid or liquid particles small enough to be suspended in the air is classified by size Damages respiratory tissue when inhaled Can be a primary pollutant (dust and soot) or secondary pollutant (sulfates and nitrates

el nino southern oscillation

Systematic shifts in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Causes multiyear climate variability Multiyear climate variability also arises from the El Niño-Southern Oscillation. Systematic shifts in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean.

storm surge

Temporary, localized rise in sea level caused by the high tides and winds of storms Vulnerability to storm surges will increase Rising seas eliminate marsh grasses; dams stop sediment from replenishing deltas

excessive withdraws pt 2

The Aral Sea on the border of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in central Asia was once the world's fourth-largest lake. It is dying as a result of heavy irrigation used in industrial cotton farming near the rivers that feed the Aral Sea. The drying of the Aral Sea has led to the loss of 60,000 fishing jobs, blowing of pesticide-laden dust from the dry lake bed, and a loss of most cotton production. The effects of surface water depletion are very evident in the case of the Aral Sea on the border of Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. The drying of the Aral Sea has led to the loss of 60,000 fishing jobs, blowing of pesticide-laden dust from the dry lake bed, and a loss of most cotton production. The inland sea is dying as a result of heavy irrigation used in industrial cotton farming near the rivers that feed the Aral Sea.

clean air act of 1990

The Clean Air Act of 1990 established the Acid Rain Program to fight acid deposition. This program set up an emissions trading program for sulfur dioxide, allocating permits for SO2 pollution and allowing emitters to buy, sell, or trade these allowances. This created a strong economic incentive to reduce emissions. The cap-and-trade program successfully reduced SO2 emissions in the United States by 67%.

addressing acid deposition

The Clear Air Act (1990) established the Acid Rain Program to fight acid deposition an emissions trading program for sulfur dioxide Benefits outweighed costs 40:1 New technologies such as scrubbers have helped Policies and regulations have lowered U.S. emissions of sulfur dioxides 67% since 1989 Precipitation has become less acidic as air quality has improved under the Clean Air Act

bycatch

The accidental capture of non-target animals Kills millions of animals each year Driftnetting drowns dolphins, seals, sea turtles, and non-target fish Longline fishing kills turtles, sharks, and seabirds Bottom-trawling is likened to clear-cutting and strip mining (It destroys complex communities, e.g., reefs) Bycatch is the accidental capture of animals during industrial fishing. Up to 17% of all commercially harvested fish were captured unintentionally. Purse seining and driftnetting capture dolphins, sea turtles, and seals that end up drowning or dying of exposure on the deck of the ship. Longline fishing captures turtles, sharks, and albatrosses. In addition to bycatch, bottom-trawling can destroy entire benthic ecosystems.

radiative forcing

The amount of change in thermal energy that a given factor exerts on the Earth's temperature Positive forcing warms the surface Negative forcing cools the surface When all factors are considered, the Earth is experiencing net radiative forcing of 2.3 watts/m2 Earth is experiencing radiative forcing of 2.3 watts/m2 more thermal energy than it is emitting into space

hydrologic cycle

The flow of liquid/gaseous/solid water through environment evaporation transpiration precipitation infiltration the movement of water through the biosphere Water is renewed and recycled as it passes through the water cycle. Precipitation falling from the sky sinks into the ground or acts as runoff to surface water bodies. Rivers interact with ponds, wetlands, and coastal aquatic ecosystems. Underground aquifers exchange water with surface waters. These interactions create a web of interconnected freshwater and marine aquatic ecosystems.

greenhouse gas concentrations are rising

The greenhouse effect is natural Greenhouse gases have always been in the atmosphere Greenhouse effect has kept the planet warm enough to support life We are concerned with the anthropogenic (human-generated) intensification of the greenhouse effect We have increased the concentration of these gases in the last 250 years beyond what we have ever experienced The greenhouse effect has been present throughout Earth's history and has kept the planet warm enough to support life. An anthropogenic (human-generated) intensification of the greenhouse effect has taken place over the past 250 years.

stream and river

The most prominent physical characteristic is current The area of land drained by a river system and all of its tributaries makes up that river's drainage basin or watershed. Over thousands or millions of years, the shifting course of a meandering river can carve out a flat valley. Areas near a river's course that are flooded periodically are within the river's floodplain. Frequent flooding and deposition of soil makes floodplain soils especially fertile. Agriculture thrives in flood plains, and riparian forests near riversides are especially rich in species. water flowing on the surface in a watercourse, where the water table is above the surface and that is in part supplied by groundwater

ozone and ozone holes

The primary ozone-depleting substances are halocarbons—synthetic compounds derived from hydrocarbons where hydrogen atoms are replaced by atoms of chlorine, fluorine, or bromine. One specific class of halocarbon, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), was produced in the 1970s for use in refrigerators, fire extinguishers, propellants for spray cans, and cleaners for electronics. CFCs are very nonreactive and were assumed to be safe for the environment. In the stratosphere, CFCs are broken down by UV radiation into chlorine and carbon atoms, which then split many ozone molecules. In 1985, researchers detected that an area of thinned ozone concentration, called the ozone hole, was forming every spring over Antarctica. High-altitude polar stratospheric clouds containing nitric acid were breaking down CFCs into chlorine, which was then being released in the spring when the sun broke up the clouds. Scientists were concerned that elevated UV levels could promote skin cancer and damage plant life. In 1985, researchers detected that an area of thinned ozone concentration, called the ozone hole, was forming every spring over Antarctica. High-altitude polar stratospheric clouds containing nitric acid were breaking down CFCs into chlorine, which was then being released in the spring when the sun broke up the clouds. Scientists were concerned that elevated UV levels could promote skin cancer and damage plant life.

During the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DR Congo), how did the exploitation of coltan and the coltan miners harm both the environment and the people that lived there?

The products of mining were seized from the miners. Endangered species were hunted for food. Erosion exacerbated the release of toxic metals such as mercury.

global warming potential

The relative ability of a greenhouse gas molecule to contribute to warming A measure of the ability of a gas to trap thermal energy in the atmosphere over a specified time Expressed in relation to carbon dioxide (potential 1) Methane is 84 times more potent than carbon dioxide Nitrous oxide is 264 times as potent as carbon dioxide relative ability of a greenhouse gas molecule to contribute to warming. A measure of the ability of a gas to trap thermal energy in the atmosphere over a specified time Values are expressed in relation to carbon dioxide, which is assigned a value of 1. Methane, for example, is 84 times more potent than carbon dioxide.

pollution and water pollution

The release of matter or energy that causes undesirable impacts on health and well-being of humans or other organisms Water pollution has many forms and can impact aquatic ecosystems and human health Chemical indicators pH, nutrient concentrations, dissolved oxygen concentration Physical indicators Temperature, turbidity (density of suspended particles in water) Biological indicators Presence of harmful microorganisms, species Water pollution includes any changes in the chemical, physical, or biological properties of water due to human activities. Many impacts of water pollution are not visible, such as pH, nutrient concentration, and dissolved oxygen, so they must be chemically monitored.

air pollution

The release of pollutants

physical makeup of the ocean is complex

The seafloor topography can be rugged and complex Underwater volcanoes Steep canyons and deep trenches The planet's longest mountain range is under water

downwelling

The sinking of warm, oxygen-rich water Provides oxygen for deep-water life

solar output

The sun varies in the amount of radiation it emits Scientists believe this has not had a significant effect on the Earth's average surface temperature, assigning it a value of only 0.05 watts/m2 of radiative forcing, which is less than any human-made causes

factors that influence earths climate

The sun, which provides light and warmth Without it, Earth would be dark and frozen It supplies most of Earth's energy The atmosphere, which prevents major temperature shifts from night to day Without it, Earth's temperature would be much colder It is a protective and buffering layer of gases The oceans, which shape climate by storing and transporting heat and moisture

atmosphere

The thin layer of gases around Earth Provides oxygen Transports and recycles water and nutrients Shields us from meteors and hazardous solar radiation Moderates climate

residence time

The time a pollutant stays in the atmosphere Pollutants with brief residence times exert localized impacts over short time periods Particulate matter automobile exhaust Pollutants with long residence times exert regional or global impacts Greenhouse gases Ozone destroyers

divert surface water for our needs

The world's largest diversion project is in China Goal is to move water from water-rich northern China to drier farms and cities in southern China 3 sets of massive aqueducts (1550 miles long) are being built Critics say not enough water can be moved The project will cause huge environmental damage It will displace hundreds of thousands of people World's largest dam On the Yangtze River Provides flood control, passage for boats, electricity $39 billion to build Flooded 22 cities Displaced 1.24 million people Submerged farmland, wildlife habitat, 10,000-year-old archaeological sites Eroding tidal marshes

nations cooperate to solve water disputes

There are fears that the unequal access to fresh water worldwide could lead to conflict between countries. A total of 261 major rivers cross national boundaries, making disagreements common. So far, many of the nations have cooperated to resolve these disputes. India, for example, has struck agreements with Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal to co-manage transboundary rivers.

oceans

This biome covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface Oceans hold 97% of surface water Oceans influence and are influenced by every system They receive all inputs, sediment, and pollutants Humans have polluted oceans with dumping of waste Phytoplankton and zooplankton are the dominant organisms Overfishing has depleted fish stocks The world's five oceans are all connected, making a single body of water that covers 71% of Earth's surface. Ocean water contains approximately 96.5% water by mass, with the rest consisting of ions from dissolved salts. The salts arise from runoff that carries salts and sediments from continents into the oceans. Sunlight does not penetrate ocean water deeply, so temperatures tend to decrease with depth. In the open ocean, most primary productivity occurs in the top layer, called the photic zone. Microscopic phytoplankton constitute the base of the food chain. Pelagic habitats are found between the ocean surface and floor. Benthic habitats occur on the ocean floor.

air quality and epa

Today, the EPA and state agencies monitor the concentration of six criteria pollutants that are known to pose substantial risk to human health. Each pollutant has an ambient air quality standard, which sets the maximum allowable concentration for each pollutant in the air. Four of the six include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, particulate matter, and lead. More than 4000 monitoring stations take hourly or daily air samples. These data are used to calculate the air quality index, a 0-500 scale measuring how healthy the air is that day for an area.

global fisheries

Total fisheries catch leveled off after 1998 Despite increased fishing effort Many fear a global decline in fisheries is imminent if conservation measures are not taken Humans have overharvested the oceans since the 18th century, when Steller's sea cow went extinct due to overhunting. A 2003 study showed that oceans today contain about one-tenth the large fish and sharks they once did. Many fisheries have collapsed, including Atlantic cod and red snapper. Fishing fleets have been "fishing down the food chain," or shifting to smaller, less desirable species.

aquifers

Underground reservoirs of sponge-like regions of rock, sand, gravel, or soil that hold groundwater Zone of aeration zone of saturation water table porous, spongelike formations of rock or sand. The upper border of the layer completely filled with water is the water table. Any area where water can infiltrate through the surface and reach the aquifer is a recharge zone. Confined aquifers are trapped between impermeable clay, while unconfined aquifers are not.

agriculture

Use efficient irrigation methods "Flood and furrow" method floods fields, but plants use only 40% of the water applied Low-pressure spray irrigation sprays water downward Drip irrigation systems target individual plants Match crops to land and climate Don't grow cotton, rice, or alfalfa in arid areas Use selective breeding and genetic modification to produce crops that require less water Since agriculture makes up the majority of water demand, it is the most logical place to start conserving. Lining irrigation canals to prevent leaks. Leveling fields to minimize runoff. Moving from inefficient irrigation methods, like "flood and furrow," to more efficient ones, like drip irrigation. Eliminating water-intensive crops from arid regions. Almond trees grown in California's central valley use 10% of all water consumed by the state.

placer mining

Using running water, miners sift through material in riverbeds Used for gold, gems Debris washes into streams They become uninhabitable for wildlife Disturbs stream banks Causes erosion Harms plant communities

case study: clearing air in LA and mexico city

Vehicles caused smog in Los Angeles from 1970s to 1990s Policies and technologies improved its air qualities Still has the nation's worst smog Mexico City is very polluted Traffic generates most pollution Topography, population increases make things worse Los Angeles and Mexico City have both dealt with severe smog pollution due to the vast amount of vehicle exhaust produced and their geographic location—inside wind-sheltered valleys. Mexico City is at a higher elevation, meaning it experiences more intense solar radiation, which worsens smog even further. Both cities have made significant improvements over the past two decades, helping to clear their air Changes made in Mexico City included: Shutting down an oil refinery. Pushing power plants to switch to natural gas. Removing lead from gasoline. Reducing the sulfur content of diesel fuel. These measures helped, but pollution continued to grow as the city's population and number of cars on the road grew. Catalytic converters were phased in for new vehicles, and regular emissions inspections were implemented. Alternatives to cars, including public transportation, ride-sharing, and bicycling, were also promoted. By 2010-2015, most pollutants had been reduced by more than 75%. Challenges still remain for both cities. Urban sprawl has increased the number of cars on the road. Average drivers spend three hours a day stuck in traffic, only traveling at average speeds of 13 mph. In 2016, a month of hot, windless weather in Mexico City brought back air conditions similar to those before reforms had taken place.

effects of human activities on aquatic ecosystems

Water is a limited, but renewable, resource as long as we use it sustainably People are withdrawing water at unsustainable rates People are adding toxic substances or disease-causing organisms In addition to overwithdrawing water, people can affect aquatic ecosystems by introducing toxic substances and disease-causing microorganisms. Despite major improvements in recent decades, the World Commission on Water recently concluded that half of the world's major rivers remain "seriously depleted and polluted, degrading and poisoning the surrounding ecosystems, threatening the health and livelihood of people who depend on them."

freshwater and human pops are unevenly distributed across earth

Water is unevenly distributed in space and time Different areas possess different amounts of water The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water creating areas that do not have adequate local water supply Climate differences and other factors have created varying amounts of groundwater, surface water, and precipitation across the Earth. The distribution of the human population does not match the distribution of water, creating areas that do not have adequate local water supply. Climate change will worsen water conditions Changed precipitation patterns Melting glaciers Droughts

surface water

Water on Earth's surface Comprises 1% of freshwater Vital for our survival and ecological systems Becomes groundwater by infiltration Surface water becomes groundwater by infiltration. Groundwater becomes surface water through springs, keeping rivers flowing and wetlands moist even in dry conditions. Water that falls from the sky or melts from snow or a glacier that flows over a land surface is called runoff. Runoff converges in low-lying areas, forming streams, which can merge into rivers, which eventually reach a lake or ocean. The area of land drained by a river system and all of its tributaries makes up that river's drainage basin or watershed. Over thousands or millions of years, the shifting course of a meandering river can carve out a flat valley. Areas near a river's course that are flooded periodically are within the river's floodplain. Frequent flooding and deposition of soil makes floodplain soils especially fertile. Agriculture thrives in flood plains, and riparian forests near riversides are especially rich in species.

legislation

Water pollution was worse decades ago The Federal Water Pollution Control Act (1972) Renamed the Clean Water Act in 1977 Made it illegal to discharge pollution without a permit Set standards for industrial wastewater Funded building of sewage treatment plants The situation is much better now The Great Lakes are much cleaner but still have issues Conditions improve when citizens push their government to take action Water pollution has been reduced greatly by the passage of the Clean Water Act of 1977, which set standards for contaminant levels in surface waters and funded construction of sewage treatment plants. Underfunding in recent years has led to an increase in documented violations, numbering more than 100,000 per year. The Great Lakes in North America are one of the biggest success stories: toxic chemical levels have been reduced by 71%, phosphorus by 80%, and chlorinated pollutants by 82%.

infiltration

Water soaks down through rock and soil to recharge aquifers

runoff

Water that flows over land Water merges in rivers and ends up in a lake or ocean

thermal pollution

Water that is too warm causes problems Warmer water holds less oxygen Cooling an industrial facility with water heats water, which heats a river when it is released Removing streamside cover raises water temperature Water that is too cold also causes problems Water at the bottom of reservoirs behind dams is colder When water is released, downstream water temperatures drop suddenly, killing aquatic organisms

water vapor

Water vapor The most abundant greenhouse gas Contributes most to the natural greenhouse effect But concentrations have not changed

we make worse or lessen impacts of natural hazards

We also face other natural hazards Floods, coastal erosion, wildfire, tornadoes, hurricanes Overpopulation People must live in susceptible areas We choose to live in attractive but vulnerable areas Coastlines, mountains, flood zones, fire zones Engineered landscapes increase frequency or severity of hazards Damming rivers, suppressing fire, clear-cutting, mining Changing climate through greenhouse gases changes rainfall patterns increases drought, fire, flooding, storms We can decrease impacts of hazards through technology, engineering, and policy (informed by geology and ecology) Building earthquake-resistant structures Designing early warning systems (tsunamis, volcanoes) Preserving reefs and shorelines (tsunamis, erosion) Better forestry, agriculture, mining (landslides) Regulations, building codes, insurance incentives discourage development in vulnerable areas Mitigating climate change may reduce natural hazards

polluting indoor air

We are exposed to many indoor pollutants, but the most diverse are VOCs that are released by: plastics, oils, perfumes, paints, adhesives, cleaning fluids, new furnishing, new carpeting, laser printers, and fax machines. The health effects of chronic VOC exposure are mostly unknown, because they exist in low concentrations and individuals are exposed to mixtures of many different types. Living organisms can also cause indoor air pollution. Tiny dust mites can worsen asthma and cause allergies. Fungi, mold, and mildew spores can cause allergies, asthma, and other respiratory ailments. Airborne bacteria can cause diseases. Any building-related illness caused by an unknown microbe is referred to as sick building syndrome. Living organisms can also cause indoor air pollution. Tiny dust mites can worsen asthma and cause allergies. Fungi, mold, and mildew spores can cause allergies, asthma, and other respiratory ailments. Airborne bacteria can cause diseases. Any building-related illness caused by an unknown microbe is referred to as sick building syndrome.

excessive water withdraws can drain rivers and lakes

We are withdrawing surface water at unsustainable rates Many major world rivers run dry before reaching the sea Colorado River in the southwestern United States, the Rio Grande along the U.S.-Mexico border, and China's Yellow River Reduced flow has consequences Drastically changes the ecology of the river and delta changes plant community and destroys fish and invertebrates The excessive withdrawal of surface water has led to many world rivers running dry before reaching the sea. Colorado River in the southwestern United States, the Rio Grande along the U.S.-Mexico border, and China's Yellow River This drastically alters the ecology of the river and delta. Artificial rivers called aqueducts or canals channel water from rivers and lakes to homes and farms. The Colorado River, for example, is diverted to provide water for Denver, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, San Diego, and farmland throughout the Imperial Valley.

direct measurements tell us about the present

We document daily fluctuations in weather Temperature, rainfall, wind speed, air pressure Ocean and atmospheric chemistry were first measured in 1958 Hourly air samples from Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii show that atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased from 315 ppm to over 400 ppm since 1958 By the time direct continuous observations began at Mauna Loa Volcanic Observatory in 1958, global atmospheric carbon dioxide was already 315 ppm. May 9, 2013, the daily average carbon dioxide measured at Mauna Loa surpassed 400 ppm for the first time on record. If global energy demand continues to grow and to be met mostly with fossil fuels, atmospheric carbon dioxide will likely exceed 900 ppm by the end of this century. In 1958, Charles Keeling began analyzing hourly air samples from a monitoring station at Hawaii's Mauna Loa Observatory. CO2 concentrations have increased from 315 ppm in 1958 to over 400 ppm today. By the time continuous observations began at Mauna Loa Volcanic Observatory in 1958, global atmospheric carbon dioxide was already 315 ppm. On May 9, 2013, the daily average carbon dioxide measured at Mauna Loa surpassed 400 ppm for the first time on record. Less than two years later, in 2015, the global amount went over 400 ppm for the first time. Monthly carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere (dark red line) from 1980-2017 showing the long-term increase along with the smaller ups and downs due to seasonal plant growth and decay. The light red line is the annual growth rate, or the amount by which carbon dioxide increased each year. NOAA Climate.gov graphic adapted from Figure 2.45a in State of the Climate in 2017. The graphs are overlaid on a photo of Dave Johnson Power Plant in Wyoming by Greg Goebel, used under a Creative Commons license. If global energy demand continues to grow and to be met mostly with fossil fuels, atmospheric carbon dioxide will likely exceed 900 ppm by the end of this century.

some mining in the ocean

We extract minerals (e.g., magnesium) from seawater Minerals are dredged from the ocean floor Logistical difficulties in mining have kept extractions limited, so far

photic zone

Well-lit top layer that supports many autotrophs / producers

aquifer

When groundwater is overextracted in coastal areas, saltwater from the ocean can intrude into inland aquifers. This does not happen normally, because it is being "pushed back" by fresh groundwater flowing toward the sea. Coastal regions in California, Florida, India, and the Middle East now have coastal wells drawing up saline water instead of fresh water.

impacts vary by region

Where we live will determine how we experience the impacts of climate change The Arctic has borne the brunt of climate change In the U.S. Global Change Research Program's2014 National Climate Assessment, scientists reported and predicted: Temperature increases (1.7-5.6C higher) Worse droughts and flooding Decreased crop yields Water shortages Health problems and diseases Higher sea levels, beach erosion, destroyed wetlands Changes to forests as a result of drought, fire, and pests More grasslands and deserts, fewer forests Undermining of Alaskan buildings and roads Predictions from two climate models Temperature increases will be much smaller if emissions are lowered

wetlands

a habitat that is inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil systems where the soil is saturated with water, often containing standing shallow water. Freshwater marshes consist of cattails and bulrushes that grow above the water's surface. Swamps also contain standing water but are in forested areas. Bogs are ponds covered in thick floating mats of vegetation. Wetlands can be seasonal, such as vernal pools that form in the snowmelt of early spring and dry up later in the summer. Wetlands provide many water-related ecosystem services including slowing runoff, reducing flooding, recharging aquifers, and filtering pollutants. Wetlands have been heavily impacted by human activities, including draining and filling for agriculture, withdrawing water for irrigation, and construction of dams.

mineral

a naturally occurring substance, representable by a chemical formula, that is usually solid and inorganic, and has a crystal structure

geoengineering

a risky idea that involves taking steps to directly alter the Earth's climate. Fertilize phytoplankton to draw carbon dioxide out of the air through photosynthesis. Design "artificial trees" that filter out carbon dioxide. Block sunlight before it reaches the Earth by injecting aerosols into the upper atmosphere or deploying mirrors.

ore

a rock that contains a large enough concentration of a mineral making it profitable to mine A mineral or grouping of minerals from which we extract metals

estuaries

a transition area between river and sea/ocean where rivers flow into the sea/ocean Salinity fluctuates daily due to the rise and fall of the tides Mixing fresh water with saltwater ' Shallow water nurtures plants that provide critical habitat for shorebirds and shellfish Estuaries create salt marshes at temperate latitudes and mangrove forests at more tropical latitudes 67% of all people live <100 miles of the ocean Estuaries are affected by development, pollution, habitat alteration, and overfishing bodies of water where rivers flow into the ocean, mixing saltwater with fresh water. Salinity fluctuates daily due to the tides and changes in river flow. Estuaries are sheltered from the heavy waves of the ocean and provide habitat for many plants, which provide food for shellfish, birds, and fish.

health

a warmer climate exposes us to many potential health hazards: More frequent heat waves. Respiratory ailments due to more photochemical smog. Expansion of tropical diseases, such as malaria and Zika virus into temperate latitudes. Disease and sanitation problems from flooding of sewage treatment plants. Injuries and drowning from worsened storms.

mitigation

aims to alleviate or reduce the severity of climate change by: reduce greenhouse gas emissions to lessen the severity of climate change Improving energy efficiency. Switching to clean and renewable energy sources. Preserving forests. Recovering landfill gases. Protecting soil quality. Pursue actions that reduce greenhouse gas emissions to lessen the severity of climate change Includes energy efficiency, renewable energy, protecting soil, preventing deforestation Both adaptation and mitigation are needed to deal with climate change, because even if we halted all emissions now, pollution already in the atmosphere would continue driving global warming until equilibrium was reached.

metal

an element that is shiny and that conducts heat and electricity well An element that is lustrous, opaque, and malleable and can conduct heat and electricity

Tsunamis

can follow earthquakes, volcanoes, or landslides - huge volumes of water are displaced by earthquakes, volcanoes, or landslides Can travel thousands of miles across oceans Damages coral reefs, coastal forests, and wetlands Saltwater contamination makes it hard to restore them Preserving natural vegetation (e.g., mangrove forests) decreases the wave energy of tsunamis

evaporation

conversion of liquid to gaseous water

open pit mining

creates immense holes Used with evenly distributed minerals Terraced, so workers and machines can move about Copper, iron, gold, diamonds, coal Quarries - Open pits for clay, gravel, sand, stone (limestone, granite, marble, slate) Huge amounts of rock are removed to get small amounts of minerals Habitat loss, Aesthetic degradation Acid drainage The world's largest open pit mine This Utah mine is 2.5 mi across and 0.75 mi deep; almost half a million tons of ore and rock are removed each day

el nino and la nina

el nino Usually warm ocean temperatures in Eastern Pacific Usually more intense effect than La Nina Summers in Ohio tend to be wetter and cooler Causes drier weather on West Pacific seaboards and wetter, humid weather in East Pacific La Niña Usually cold ocean temperatures in Eastern Pacific Usually follows El Nino but not always Summers in Ohio tend to be drier and warmer Causes wetter weather on the West Pacific seaboards and drier weather in East Pacific The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a systematic shift in atmospheric pressure, sea surface temperature, and ocean circulation in the tropical Pacific Ocean. Under normal conditions, prevailing winds blow from east to west along the equator, forming a large convective loopin the atmosphere. This causes a "pile-up" of warm water to form near Indonesia, fueling storms in that region. El Niño conditions are triggered when air pressure decreases in the eastern Pacific and increases in the western Pacific, weakening the equatorial winds, allowing warm water to flow eastward, and suppressing upwelling along the Pacific coast of the Americas. This can create storm activity in normally arid regions like California and drier conditions in Indonesia. La Niña events are the opposite of El Niño events; unusually cold waters rise to the surface and extend westward, causing winds blowing to the west to strengthen. ENSO cycles occur every 2-8 years. Scientists are studying whether changes in air and sea temperatures are increasing the frequency and strength of these cycles.

nets and plastic debris

fishing nets, plastic bags and bottles, fishing line, buckets, floats Mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles eat plastic and die Plastic trash is accumulating in gyres, ocean regions where currents converge North Pacific's Great Pacific Garbage Patch Congress passed the Marine Debris Research, Prevention, and Reduction Act in 2006 Minimize this harm by reducing, reusing, and recycling plastic Discarded fishing nets, fishing line, plastic bags and bottles, and other trash accumulate in regions of the ocean where currents converge called gyres. One such area is the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, an area in the southern Pacific where plastic outnumbers plankton by a 6-to-1 ratio.

dams increase supply

have increased supplies But most major rivers have already been dammed

eutrophic lakes and ponds

high-nutrient and low-oxygen conditions Eutrophication can also result from human-caused nutrient pollution high-nutrient, low-oxygen—conditions. Given enough plant growth, the water body may eventually fill in completely.

intertidal zones

intertidal littoral zone tides Intertidal ecosystems spread between the uppermost reach of the high tide and lowest limit of the low tide. Tides are the periodic rising and falling of the ocean's height at a given location due to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon. Intertidal organisms are exposed to sun part of the day, and covered in water the rest of the day. Rocky intertidal zones are highly diverse because environmental conditions such as temperature, salinity, and moisture change dramatically from the high to low reaches.

xeriscaping

is landscaping using plants adapted to arid conditions.

subsurface mining

miners work underground Accesses deep pockets of a mineral through tunnels and shafts up to 2.5 miles deep Zinc, lead, nickel, tin, gold, diamonds, phosphate, salt, coal The most dangerous form of mining Dynamite blasts, collapsed tunnels Toxic fumes and coal dust Collapsed tunnels cause sinkholes

mining

the act of extracting ores or coal etc from the earth In the broad sense, it is the extraction of any nonrenewable resource Fossil fuels, groundwater, and minerals In relation to minerals, it is the systematic removal of rock, soil, or other material To remove the minerals of economic interest Because minerals occur in low concentrations, concentrated sources must be found before mining is begun

atmosphere

the layer of gases that envelops our planet and performs many important functions: Moderates our climate. Provides oxygen. Shields us from meteors and hazardous solar radiation. Transports and recycles water and nutrients. The atmosphere is mostly nitrogen and oxygen, with smaller amounts of other gases, as well as water vapor. The atmosphere has evolved since life first began on Earth, particularly with the introduction of oxygen when the first microbes began using photosynthesis. Humans are beginning to alter the quantities of some atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide and methane.

intergovernmental panel on climate change

was established in 1988 by the United Nations hundreds of international scientists and government representatives review and summarize all available data in climate studies for policymakers and the general public. Documents observed trends in: Surface temperature, precipitation patterns, snow and ice cover, sea levels, storm intensity, and other factors. Predicts future changes in wildlife, ecosystems, and human societies Discusses strategies to pursue in response to climate change The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was established in 1988 by the United Nations to review and summarize all available data in climate studies for policymakers and the general public. In 2013 and 2014, the IPCC released its Fifth Assessment Report, summarizing trends in surface temperature, precipitation patterns, snow and ice cover, sea levels, storm intensity, and other factors.