BIO 210 FINAL EXAM (review) Not Including CH 12-15

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Prokaryotic cells

"Before nucleus," primitive, no nucleus, ex. bacteria

Eukaryotic cells

"True nucleus," has a nucleus that is membrane bound, ex. ALL plants & animals

What is Hyperpolerization?

#6 The inside of the membrane becomes more negative then the resting potential.

Dendrites of Motor Neurons

'messenger' cells that receive stimulus anchor the cell body relay signal to cell body

Action Potentials (APs)

'neuron firing' +35mV Action potentials are only generated by muscle cells and neurons They do not decrease in strength over distance They are the principal means of neural communication

receptor

(1) A cell or nerve ending of a sensory neuron specialized to respond to particular types of stimuli; (2) protein that binds specifically with other molecules, e.g., neurotransmitters, hormones, paracrines, antigens.

colloid

(1) A mixture in which the solute particles (usually proteins) do not settle out readily. (2) Substance in the thyroid gland containing thyroglobulin protein.

Appositional Growth

(1st type of cartilage growth) cartilage forming cells in surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue.

Interstitial Growth

(2nd type of cartilage growth) lacunae-bound chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding the cartilage from within.

Red Marrow

(Hematopoitec Tissue) typically found within the trabecular cavities of spongy bone of long bones and in the diploe of flat bones

Ossification

(Osteogenisis) the process of bone formation; formation of the bony skeleton in embryos and bone growth goes in until early adulthood as body continues to increase in size

Perichondrium

(around the cartilage) acts like a girdle to resist outward expansion when the cartilage is compressed. Contains blood vessels from which nutrients diffuse through matrix to reach the cartilage cells

groove (ex groove of the ramus of the mandible)

(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) furrow

fissure (ex inferior orbital fissure)

(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) narrow slit-like opening

foramen (ex infraorbital foramen)

(depressions and opening s for passage of blood vessels and nerves) round or oval opening through a bone

notch (ex supraorbital notch)

(depressions and openings for passage of blood vessels and nerves) indentation at the edge of a structure

(Synovial) Condyloid Joints

(ellipsoidal joints) the oval articular surface of one bone fits into a complementary depression in another. Important characteristic is that both articulating surfaces are oval. Permits all angular motions

Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (2)

(generation and propagation of the action potential); [neuron send AP through axon] end plate potential ignites AP that spreads in all directions from neuromuscular junction across sarcolemma; this depolarization (end plate potential) spreads to adjacent membrane areas and opens voltage gated sodium channels; Na+ enters and reaches voltage threshold (+30), and an action potential is generated. AP is propegated along length of sarcolemma as depolarization wave spreads to adjacent areas of sarcolemma and opens voltage gated sodium channels there; again, Na+ difusses into cell

Gomphoses

(gomphosis)a peg-in-socket fibrous joint (ex: articulation of a tooth with its bony alveolar socket), Fibrous connection is the periodontal ligament

Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (1)

(local depolarization and generation of an end plate potential); Binding of ACh molecules to ACh receptors at neuromuscular junction opens (ligand) gated ion channels that allow Na+ and K+ to pass; More Na+ diffuses in then K+ diffuses out and interior of sarcolemma becomes less negative (depolarization [local electrical event called, end plate potential)

Epimysium

(outside muscle) an overcoat of dense irregular connective tissue that surrounds the whole muscle

ramus (ex ramus of the mandible)

(projection that help form joints) (arm like) arm-like bar of bone

Head ( ex head of a rib)

(projection that help form joints) bony expansion carried on a narrow neck

condyle (ex condyle of the mandible)

(projection that help form joints) rounded articular projection (fits in a joint or is where a bone joins another)

facet (ex articular facet of rib)

(projection that help form joints) smooth, nearly flat articular surface

tuberosity (ex tibial tuberosity)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) Large round projection; may be roughened

process (ex spinous process of the vertebra)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) any bony prominence

line (ex intertrochanteric line of the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) narrow ridge of bone; less prominent that a crest

crest (ex iliac crest)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) narrow ridge or bone; usually prominent

epicondyle (ex medial epicondyle of the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) raised area on or above a condyle

spine (ex ischial spine of the ischium)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) sharp, slender, often pointed projection

tubercle (ex adductor tubercle of the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) small rounded projection or process

trochanter (the only examples are on the femur)

(projections that are sites of muscle and ligament attachment) very large, blunt, irregularly shaped process

Bone Resorption

(removal) osteoclasts secrete lysosomal enzymes (digest organic matrix) and acids (convert calcium salts into soluble forms). Dissolved Matrix is transcytosed across osteoclast, enters interstitial fluid and then blood

Generation of an Action Potential Across the Sarcolemma (3)

(repolarization); sarcolemma is restored to intitial polarized state; Na+ channels close and voltage-gated K+ channels open; K+ efflux rapidly restores the resting polarity; Fiber cannot be stimulated and is in a refractory period until repolarization is complete; Ionic conditions of the resting state are restored by the Na+-K+ pump

Excitabilty

(responsiveness, irritability); the ability of muscle tissue to recieve and respond to a stimulus, that is any change in the environment either inside or outside the body

Sesamoid Bone

(shaped like a sesame seed) are special type of short bones that form in tendons . Vary in sizes and numbers in individuals. Some alter directions of pull of tendon other their functions are unknown

Synchondroses

(synchondrosis)site where bar or plate of hyaline cartilage unites bone (ex: epiphyseal plate in children and coastal cartilage of first rib and manibrium of sternum)

Resistance Exercise

(typically anaerobic) results in Muscle hypertrophy (due to increase in fiber size), Increased mitochondria, myofilaments, glycogen stores, and connective tissue

Endomysium

(within muscle) a whispy sheath of connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle fiber

What is anatomical position?

- Body erect - feet slightly apart, palms facing forward - thumbs point away from body

What are the different glial cells and their functions?

- Provide support - Outnumber neurons 10-50 to 1 A)PNS has 2 types: 1.Schwann cells- wrap around neuron (speed up electrical impulse) 2. Satellite cells- supportive capsules around nerve cells in ganglia (cluster of nerve bodies found outside of CNS) B) CNS has 4 types 1. oligodendrocytes- like Schwann cells in PNS 2. microglia- immune cells in CNS 3. astrocytes- take up and release chemicals 4. ependymal cells- one source of stem cells Schwann and oligodendrocytes support and insulate axon by forming myelin (nodes of ranvier)

Body Planes

- Sagittal: divides the body into right and left parts - Midsagittal or Medial: sagittal plane that lies on the midline - Parasagittal: not on midline - Frontal or Coronal: divides the body into anterior and posterior parts - Transverse or Horizontal (cross section): divides the body into superior and inferior parts - Oblique section: cuts made diagonally

What is the difference between anatomical study and physiological study?

- anatomy studies the structures of body parts and their relationship to each other. - physiology studies the functions of the body; how the parts of the body work together and carry out their life-sustaining functions.

Draw an action potential***

- label voltages (-55mV, -70mV, +30mv) - know what channels open and closes at each step

level of structural organization: organ

- made up of discrete structures that are composed of at least two groups of tissues that work together to perform a specific function in the body. - a group of organs that work closely together to accomplish a specific purpose

Trigger zone (aka threshold)

-55 mV; If the stimulus reaches the trigger zone then the action potential happens.

Polarized

-70 (resting plasma potential)

Types of nerves

-Cranial: exit the cranial cavity through the foramina in the cranium -Spinal: exit the vertebral column through the intervertebral foramina

Peripheral Nervous System

-consists of nerve fibers and cell bodies outside the CNS that conduct impulses to or away from the CNS -Also, organized into nerves that connect the CNS with peripheral structures

Phases of the Action Potential

1 - resting state 2 - depolarization phase 3 - repolarization phase 4 - hyperpolarization

What are the Body Cavities and the organs that they contain?

1) DORSAL CAVITY 2) VENTRAL CAVITY: 3) THORACIC CAVITY: 4) ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY:

Examples of Homeostasis:

1) Temperature control (N) 2) waste removal 3) rate and depth of breath (N) 4) O2 and CO2 levels in blood (N) 5) oxytocin production during birth (P) 6) blood clotting (P)

What are the levels of structural organization?

1) chemical level 2) cellular level 3) tissue level 4) organ level 5) organism level

What are examples of Positive Feedback?

1) generation of nerve impulses 2) oxytocin production during birth 3) blood clotting 4) lactation

Functions of Plasma Membrane

1) provides protective barrier against substances and forces outside the cell, 2) some act as receptors, 3) determines what goes in and out

What are examples of Negative Feedback?

1) regulation of heart rate 2) regulation of blood pressure 3) regulation of depth of breath 4) blood levels of O2, CO2 and minerals

Steps in Homeostasis:

1) stimulus produces a change 2) change is detected by receptor 3) input: info is sent along afferent pathway to control center 4) reaches control center 5) output: info sent along efferent pathway to effector 6) response of effector feeds back to influence the magnitude of stimulus and returns variable to homeostasis.

Requirements for Skeletal Muscle Contraction

1. Activation: stimulation by nerve ending so that change in membrane potential occurs 2. generate and propegate an electrical current, called an action potential, along its sarcolemma 3. a short lived rise in intercellular calcium ion levels that is the final trigger for contraction must occur

Characteristics of Connective Tissue

1. Common Origin ( all connective tissue arise from mesenchyme [an embryonic tissue] and hence have a kinship) 2. Varying Degrees of vascularity (all vascular except for cartilage) 3. Extracellular matrix (cells seperated by nonliving extracellular matrix [ground substances and fiber])

Classification of Bones

1. Long Bones 2. Short Bones 3. Flat Bones 4. Irregular Bones

Functions of Integumentary System

1. Protection 2. Body Temperature Regulation 3. Cutaneous Sensation 4. Metabolic Functions 5. Blood Reservoir 6. Excretion

(2) Cell Types

1. Squamous 2. Cuboidal 3. Columner

Functions of Bones

1. Support (for body and soft organs), 2. Protection (for brain, spinal cord and vital organs, 3. Movement (levers for muscle action), 4. Storage (minerals [calcium and phosphorus] and growth factors), 5. Blood Cell Formation (occurs in marrow cavities of certain bones), 6. Triglyceride (Fat) Storage (fat is stored in bone cavities and represents a source of stored energy for the body)

Passive membrane processes

1. diffusion, 2. facilitated diffusion, 3. osmosis, 4. filtration

Extracellular fluid is found...

1. intravascular space 2. interstitial space 3. cerebrospinal or synovial spaces (transcellular fluid)

3 factors that determine if a molecule can diffuse...

1. size of the molecule, 2. lipid solubility, 3. molecular charge

The Skin

1.5-4.0 millimeters (mm), composed of two distinct regions, the epidermis and dermis

Special Charactersistics of Epithelium

1.Polarity 2. Specialized Contacts (cell close together/cell sheets) 3. Supported by connective tissue 4. Avascular but innervarted 5. Regeneration

3. Articular Capsule

2 layers enclose the joint cavity. External layer is tough fibrous capsule (composed of dense irregular connective tissue) [strenghtens joint so that bones are not pulled apart. Inner layer is a synovial membrane (composed of loose connective tissue) [covers all internal joint surfaces that are not hyaline cartilage]

Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)

20 to 40 cell layers of dead, flat keratinized, membranous sacs, accounts for up to 3 quarters of epidermal thickness. Functions: Protects from abrasion and penetration, Waterproofs, Barrier against biological, chemical, and physical assaults

Metaphase

2nd stage of mitosis; chromosomes cluster at the middle of the cell; (type of phase)

Depolarized

30 (for action potential to occur)

Anaphase

3rd stage and the shortest of mitosis, chromosomes split (type of phase)

Body Fluid breakdown

40% intracellular, 20% extracellular

Covering and Lining Membranes

A body membrane that incorpotates more then one type of tissue. 3 types: Cutaneous, Mucous, and Serous

Wolff's law

A bone grows or remodels in response to forces or demands placed upon it; Observations supporting Wolff's law: (1) Handedness (right or left handed) results in bone of one upper limb being thicker and stronger (2)Curved bones are thickest where they are most likely to buckle (3)Trabeculae form along lines of stress (4)Large, bony projections occur where heavy, active muscles attach

Axon collaterals

A branch of an axon

neuroblast

A cell from which a nerve cell develops.

Polypeptide

A chain of amino acids.

Synthesis (combination) reaction

A chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.

dipeptide

A combination of two amino acids united by means of a peptide bond.

section

A cut through the body (or an organ) that is made along a particular plane; a thin slice of tissue prepared for microscopic study.

cellulose

A fibrous carbohydrate that is the main structural component of plant tissues.

Ependymal Cell

A glial cell that lines membranes within the brain and spinal cord and helps form cerebrospinal fluid

Visceral organs (viscera)

A group of internal organs housed in the ventral body cavity.

Hydrogen ion (H+)

A hydrogen atom minus its electron and therefore carrying a positive charge (i.e., a proton).

Myelin Sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

glycerol

A modified simple sugar (a sugar alcohol); a building block of fats.

mole

A mole of any element or compound is equal to its atomic weight or its molecular weight (sum of atomic weights) measured in grams.

Presynaptic neuron

A neuron conducting impulses toward the synapse

Postsynaptic neuron

A neuron on the receiving end of a synapse

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

A nucleic acid found in all living cells; it carries the organism's hereditary information.

enzyme

A protein that acts as a biological catalyst to speed up a chemical reaction.

substrate

A reactant on which an enzyme acts to cause a chemical action to proceed.

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction

A reaction that couples the oxidation (loss of electrons) of one substance with the reduction (gain of electrons) of another substance.

uracil (U)

A smaller, single-ring base (a pyrimidine) found in RNA.

Synaptic Cleft

A space between two connecting neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Chemical equilibrium

A state of apparent repose created by two reactions proceeding in opposite directions at equal speed.

base

A substance capable of binding with hydrogen ions; a proton acceptor.

polymer

A substance of high molecular weight with long, chainlike molecules consisting of many similar (repeated) units.

reactant

A substance taking part in a chemical reaction.

acid

A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when in solution (compare with Base); a proton donor.

proton donor

A substance that releases hydrogen ions in detectable amounts; an acid.

proton acceptor

A substance that takes up hydrogen ions in detectable amounts. Commonly referred to as a base.

Chemical Synapses

A synapses that is specialized to release and the reception of chemical neurotransmitters.

molarity

A way to express the concentration of a solution; moles per liter of solution.

Direct Phosphorylation

ATP producing way; Metabolic Pathway; chemical reaction where CP (creatine phosphate) and ADP are used. Phosphate from CP is taken and put into ADP and turns to ATP; 1 to 1 ration; energy last for less then 10 seconds; does not require Oxygen;first stage body goes to to make energy; occurs in cytoplasm of cell

Serratus anterior

Abducts and protracts the scapula

Supraspinatus

Abducts arm; stabilizes the head of the humerus in glenoid cavity; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles

What are the 2 major neurocrines secreted by the nervous system, what types of receptors do they have, and where are those receptors?

Acetylcholine (cholinergic; nicotonic- skeletal muscles, autonomic neurons, CNS | muscarinic- smooth and cardiac muscle, endocrine and exocrine glands, CNS) and norephinephrine (adrenergic; smooth and cardiac muscle, endocrine exocrine glands, CNS)

What are the main kinds of Neurotransmitters?

Acetylcholine, Biogenic Amines, Amino Acids, Peptides, Novel Messengers.

What is the All Or None Phenomenon?

Action potentials either happen completely or not at all.

Adductor Pollicis

Adduction of the thumb is bringing it back into the plane of the palm of the hand from its previously abducted position. This muscle, however, also brings the thumb to the side of the palm and index finger.

Adductor Pollicis

Adducts Thumb towards Middle Digit

Pectoralis major

Adducts and medially rotates the arm; flexes and extends humerus

Peristalsis

Alternating contractions and relaxations of smooth muscle layers that mix and squeeze substances through the lumen of hollow organs; (Longitudinal layer) contracts; organ dilates and shortens ; (Circular layer) contracts organ constricts and elongates

chemical bond

An energy relationship holding atoms together; involves the interaction of electrons.

anion

An ion carrying one or more negative charges and therefore attracted to a positive pole.

Hydroxyl ion (OH-)

An ion liberated when a hydroxide (a common inorganic base) is dissolved in water.

cation

An ion with a positive charge.

Anterior and Posterior

Anterior( ventral)- toward the front of the body posterior( dorsal) -toward the back of the body

Organic compound

Any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds.

Neuropathy

Any disease of nervous tissue, but particularly degenerative disease of the nerves.

What is the synaptic cleft and what happens at the synapse?

Area between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic membrane. The presynaptic and postsynaptic cells makes the synapse.

neuron processes

Armlike extensions from the soma

Role of Calcium (Ca2+) in Contraction

At low intracellular Ca2+ concentration: (Tropomyosin blocks the active sites on actin) (Myosin heads cannot attach to actin) (Muscle fiber relaxes) At higher intracellular Ca2+ concentrations: [Ca2+ binds to troponin ] [Troponin changes shape and moves tropomyosin away from active sites] [Events of the cross bridge cycle occur] [When nervous stimulation ceases, Ca2+ is pumped back into the SR and contraction ends]

ion

Atom with a positive or negative electric charge.

level of structural organization: chemical

Atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules.Molecules combine in specific ways to form organelles, which are the basic unit of living cells.

What are the processes of the nervous system?

Axons and dendrites. Arm-like extensions from the Soma.

Hyperpolarizing graded potentials

Becomes more negative... so is inhibitory

Depolarized graded potentials

Becomes more positive.... so is excitatory

Axosomatic synapses

Between axon endings of one neuron and cell bodies of other neurons

peptide bond

Bond joining the amine group of one amino acid to the acid carboxyl group of a second amino acid with the loss of a water molecule.

Central nervous system (CNS)

Brain and spinal cord Integration and command center

histology

Branch of anatomy dealing with the microscopic structure of tissues.

What is the Axonal Terminal?

Branched terminus of an axon.

nucleotide

Building block of nucleic acids; consists of a sugar, a nitrogen-containing base, and a phosphate group.

Role of Calcium Ions

Ca2+ binds to and activates calmodulin ; Activated calmodulin activates myosin (light chain) kinase; Activated kinase phosphorylates and activates myosin ; Cross bridges interact with actin

Hormonal Control of Blood Ca2+

Calcium is necessary for Transmission of nerve impulses, Muscle contraction, Blood coagulation, Secretion by glands and nerve cells, Cell division

What is the role of calcium at the end of a neuron?

Calcium triggers exocytosis of the synaptic vesicle contents (in that the synaptic vesicle fuses with the membrane) and therefore signaling the release of neurocrine neurotransmitters at the synapse.

Osteoporosis Treatment

Calcium, vitamin D, and fluoride supplements, Weight-bearing exercise throughout life, Hormone (estrogen) replacement therapy (HRT) slows bone loss , Some drugs (Fosamax, SERMs, statins) increase bone mineral density

Length and Tension Changes

Can contract when between half and twice its resting length

What are Biogenic Amines?

Catecholamine - dopamine, norepinephrine (NE), and epinephrine. Indolamines - seratonin and histamine. Broadly distributed in the brain. Play roles in emotional behaviors and our biological clock.

Neurons

Cells specialized for transmitting nerve impulses.

What are Supporting Cells?

Cells that surround and wrap neurons.

Interneurons

Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

Membrane potential changes are produced by:

Changes in membrane permeability to ions Alterations of ion concentrations across the membrane

Covalent bond

Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms.

ionic bond

Chemical bond formed by electron transfer between atoms.

Decomposition reaction

Chemical reaction in which a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules or its constituent atoms.

Displacement (exchange) reaction

Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.

Exchange (displacement) reaction

Chemical reaction in which bonds are both made and broken; atoms become combined with different atoms.

reduction

Chemical reaction in which electrons and energy are gained by a molecule (often accompanied by gain of hydrogen ions) or oxygen is lost.

Combination (synthesis) reaction

Chemical reaction in which larger, more complex atoms or molecules are formed from simpler ones.

Endergonic reaction

Chemical reaction that absorbs energy, e.g., an anabolic reaction.

Exergonic reaction

Chemical reaction that releases energy, e.g., a catabolic or oxidative reaction.

buffer

Chemical substance or system that minimizes changes in pH by releasing or binding hydrogen ions.

Inorganic compound

Chemical substances that do not contain carbon, including water, salts, and many acids and bases.

What are Neurotransmitters?

Chemicals used for neuronal communication with the body and the brain. Over 50 have been indentified.

nucleic acid

Class of organic molecules that includes DNA and RNA.

Serous fluid

Clear, watery fluid secreted by cells of a serous membrane.

Ammonia (NH3)

Common waste product of protein breakdown in the body; a colorless volatile gas, very soluble in water and capable of forming a weak base; a proton acceptor.

protein

Complex substance containing carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen; composes 10-30% of cell mass.

Skeletal System

Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments - Protects and supports body organs - Provides the framework for muscles - Site of blood cell formation - Stores minerals

Urinary System

Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra - Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body - Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH (acid/base) balance of the blood

Female Reproductive System

Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina - Main function is the production of offspring - Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones - Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus - Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the newborn

Muscular System

Composed of muscles and tendons - Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression - Maintains posture - Produces heat

Male Reproductive System

Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum, and ductus deferens - Main function is the production of offspring - Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones - Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female reproductive tract

Lymphatic System

Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels - Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood - Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream - Houses white blood cells involved with immunity

Nervous System

Composed of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves (cranial and spinal nerves) - This is the fast-acting control system of the body - Sends electrical impulses - Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and glands

Cardiovascular System

Composed of the heart and blood vessels ( arteries, veins, capillaries) - The heart pumps blood - The blood vessels transport blood throughout the body - Bring O2 and nutrients to cells - Carry CO2 and waste from cells

Respiratory System

Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs - Alveoli are sites of gas exchange in the lungs - Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide - Has role in Acid/Base balance

Digestive System

Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and accessory organs which are liver, gallbladder and pancreas - Breaks down food into absorbable nutrients that enter the blood - Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces

External oblique

Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column

Internal oblique

Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column

Rectus abdominis

Compresses abdominal cavity and flexes vertebral column

What is an Axon Hillock?

Cone shaped area from which axons arise.

Somatic nervous system

Conscious control of skeletal muscles

Structural (fibrous) proteins

Consist of extended, strandlike polypeptide chains forming a strong, ropelike structure that is linear, insoluble in water, and very stable; e.g., collagen.

neutral fats

Consist of fatty acid chains and glycerol; also called triglycerides or triacylglycerols. Commonly known as oils when liquid.

Transversus abdominis

Constricts abdomen and supports abdominal viscera

Gray Matter

Contains mostly nerve cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers.

Abdominal Cavity

Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver, and other organs

Nerve Cell Body (Perikaryon or Soma)

Contains the nucleus and a nucleolus Is the major biosynthetic center Is the focal point for the outgrowth of neuronal processes Has no centrioles (hence its amitotic nature) Has well-developed Nissl bodies (rough ER) Contains an axon hillock - cone-shaped area from which axons arise

Pelvic Cavity

Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum

saltatory conduction

Current passes through a myelinated axon only at the nodes of Ranvier avoiding fats Action potentials are triggered only at the nodes and jump from one node to the next Much faster than conduction along unmyelinated axons Na+ channels are concentrated at these nodes

Perikaryon

Cytoplasm surrounding the nucleus of a neuron

S (synthetic)

DNA replicates itself, enduring that the two daughter cells will receive identical copies of the genetic material (type of interphase)

Repolarizing phase

Decrease in Na+ permeability and an increase in K+ permeability

Stratum Basale (Basale Layer)

Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to the dermis, Single row of stem cells, Also called stratum germinativum: cells undergo rapid division, Journey from basal layer to surface Takes 25-45 days, 10 - 25% made of melanocytes

Endoneurium

Delicate connective tissue immediately surrounding the neurilemma cells and axons

Cartilage: hyaline

Description: Amorphous but firm matrix; collagen fibers form an imperceptible network; chonodroblasts produce the matrix and when mature (chondrocytes) lie in lacunae Functions: Supports and reinforces; has resilient cushioning properties; resists compressive stress Location: Forms most of the ends of the embryonic skeleton; covers the ends of long bones in joint cavities; forms costal cartilage of the ribs; cartilages of the nose, trachea, and larnyx

Cardiac Muscle

Description: Branching striated, generally uninucleate cells that interdigitate at specialized junctions (intercalated discs) Function: as it contracts it propels blood into the circulation, involuntary control Location: the walls of the heart

Medial Pterygoid

Description: Deep two headed muscle that runs along internal surface of mandible and is largely concealed by that bone Origin and Insertion: (medial surface of lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone, maxilla, and palatine bone) [medial surface of mandible near its angle] Action: acts with the lateral ptyergoid muscle to protrude (protract) mandible and to promote side to side (grinding) movements; synergist of temporalis and messeter muscles in elevation of the mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve

Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tissue, aerolar

Description: Gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, and some white blood cells Function: Wraps and cushions organs; its macrophages phagocytize bacteria; plays important role in inflammation; holds and conveys tissue fluid Location: Widely distributed under epithelia of body, ex: forms lamina propria of mucous membranes; packages organs; surrounds capillaries

Connective Tissue Proper: loose connective tisse, adipose

Description: Matrix as in Aerolar, but very sparse; closely packed adipocytes, or fat cells, have nucleus pushed to the side by large fat droplet Function: Provides reserve a food fuel; insulates against heat lose; supports and protects organs Location: Under skin in the hypodermis; around kidneys and eyeballs; within abdomen; in breasts

Cartilage: fibrocartilage

Description: Matrix similar to but less firm than that in hyaline cartilage; thick collagen fibers predominate Function: Tensile strength with the ability to absorb compressive shock Location: Intervertebral discs; pubic symphysis; discs of knee joint

Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue: dense irregular

Description: Primarily irregularly arranged collagen fibers; some elastic fibers; major cell type is the fibroblast Function: able to withstand tension exerted in many directions; provides structural strenght Location: fibrous capsules of organs and of joints; dermis of the skin; submucosa of digestive tract. Can also be found in dermis layer of skin

Cartilage: elastic

Description: Similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix Function: Maintains the shapes of a structure while allowing great flexibility. Location: Supports the external ear (pinna); epiglottis

Smooth Muscle

Description: Spindle-shaped cells with central nuclei; no striations; cells arranged closely to form sheets Function: propels substances or objects (foodstuffs, urine, a baby) along internal passageways; involuntary control Location: mostly in the walls of hollow organs

Orbicularis Oris

Description: complicated, multilayered muscle of the lips with fibers that run in many different directions; most run circulatory Origin and Insertion: (arises indirectly from maxilla and mandible; fibers blended with fibers or other facial muscles associated with the lips [encirlces mouth; inserts into muscle and skin at angles of mouth] Action: closes lips; purses and protrudes lips; kissing and whistling muscle Nerve Suppply; facial nerves

Lateral Pterygoid

Description: deep two headed muscle; lies superior to medial ptyergoid muscle Origin and Insertion: (greater wing and lateral pterygoid plate of sphenoid bone) [condyle of mandible and capsule of temporomandibular joint] Action: provides forward sliding and side to side grinding movements of lower teeth; protrudes mandible (pulls anteriorly) Nerve Supply: facial nerve (cranial vii)

Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue, elastic

Description: dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers Function: allows recoil of tissue following stretching; maintains pulsatile flow of blood through arteries; aids passive recoil of lungs following inspiration Location:

Temporalis

Description: fan shaped muscle that covers parts of the temporal, frontal, and parietal bones Origin and Insertion: (temporal fossa) [coronoid process of mandible via a tendon that passes deep to zygomatic arch] Action: closes jaw; elevates and retracts mandible; maintains position of the mandible at rest; deep anterior part may help protract mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve

Genioglossus

Description: fan shaped muscle; forms bulk of inferior part of tongue; its attachment to mandible prevents tongue from falling backward and obstructing respiration Origin and Insertion: (internal surface of mandible near symphysis) [inferior aspect of the tongue and body of hyoid bone] Action: protracts tongue; can depress or act in concert with other extrinsic muscles to retract tongue Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve (cranial xii)

Hypoglossus

Description: flat, quadrilateral muscle Origin and Insertion: (body and greater horn of hyoid bone) [inferolateral tongue] Action: depresses tongue and draws its sides downward Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve

Others: bone (osseous tissue)

Description: hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers; osteocytes lie in lacunae. Very well vascularized Function: bone supports and protects (by enclosing); provides levers for the muscles to act on; stores calcium and other minerals and fat; marrow inside bones is the site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis) Location: (bones)

Skeletal Muscle

Description: long, cylindrical, multinucleate cells; obvious stritations Function: Voluntary movement; locomotion; manipulation of the environment; facial expression; voluntary control Location: in skeletal muscles attached to bones or occasionally to skin

Zygomaticus

Description: muscle pair extending diagonally from cheekbone to corner of mouth Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic bone) [ skin and muscle at corner of the mouth] Action: raises lateral corners of mouth upward (smiling muscle) Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Mentalis

Description: one of the muscle pair forming a v-shaped muscle mass on chin Origin and Insertion: (mandible below incisors) [ skin of chin] Action: wrinkles chin; protrudes lower skin Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Masseter

Description: powerful muscle that covers lateral aspect of mandibular ramus Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic arch and zygomatic bone) [angle and ramus of mandible] Action: prime mover of jaw closure; elevates mandible Nerve Supply: trigeminal nerve (cranial v)

Connective Tissue Proper: dense connective tissue. dense regular

Description: primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers; major cells type is the fibroblast Function: attaches muscles to bones or to muscles; attaches bones to bones; withstands great tensile stress when pulling force is applied in one direction Location: Tendons, most ligaments, aponeuroses

Others: blood

Description: red and white blood cells in a fluid matrix (plasma) Function: Transport of respiratory gases, nutrients, wastes, and other substances Location: contained within blood vessels

Transitional Epithelium

Description: resembles both stratified squamous and stratified cuboidal; basal cells cuboidal or columner; surface cells dome shaped or squamous like, depending on degree of organ stretch Function: stretches readily and permits distension of urinary organ by contained urine Location: lines the ureters, urinary bladder, and part of the urethra

Pseudostratified Columner Epithelium

Description: single layer of cells of differing heights, some not reaching the free surface; nuclei seen at different levels; may contain mucous-secreting cells and bear cilia (gives appearance that their are many different layers of cells) Function: secretion, particularly of mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action; known for absorption Location: Nonciliated type in makes sperm carrying ducts and ducts of large glands; ciliated variety lines the trachea, most of the upper respiratory tract. Also asscociate with lungs

Risorius

Description: slender muscle inferior and lateral to zygomaticus Origin and Insertion: (lateral fascia associated with masseter muscle) [skin at angle of mouth] Action: draws corners of lips laterally; tenses lips; synergist of zygomsticus Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Styloglossus

Description: slender muscle running superiorly to and at right angles to hypoglossus Origin and Insertion: (styloid process of temporal bone) [inferolateral tongue] Action: retracts (and elevates) tongue Nerve Supply: hypoglossal nerve

Depressor Anguli Oris

Description: small muscle lateral to depressor labii inferioris Origin and Insertion: (body of mandible below incisors) [skin and muscle at angle of mouth below insertion of zygomaticus] Action: draws corners of mouth downward and laterally, zygomaticus antagonist Nerve Supply: facial nerves

Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Description: thick memabrane composed of several cell layers; basal cells are cuboidal or columner and metablically active; in the keratinized type the surface cells are full of keratin and dead; basal cells are active in the mitosis and produce the cells of the more superficial layers Function: protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion Location: Nonkeratinized type forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina; keratinized variety forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry membrane

Levator Labii Superioris

Description: thin muscle between orbicularis oris and the inferior eye margin Origin and Insertion: (zygomatic bone and the infraorbital margin of maxilla) [ skin and muscle of lower lip] Action: opens lips; raises and furrows the upper lip Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Orbicularis Oculi

Description: thin tripartite sphincter muscle of the eyelid; surrounds rim of the orbit Origin and Insertion: (frontal and maxillary bones and ligaments around orbit) [tissue of eyelid] Action: closes eye; various parts can be activated individually; produces blinking, squinting, and draws eyebrows inferiorly Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Buccinator

Description: thin, horizontal cheek muscle; principal muscle of cheek; deep to masseter Origin and Insertion: (molar region of maxilla and mandible) [orbicularis oris] Action: compresses cheeks; as in whistling and sucking; trampoline like action holds food between teeth during chewing; draws corner of mouth laterally; well developed in nursing infants Nerve Supply: facial nerve

Platysma

Description: unpaired, thin, sheetlike superficial neck muscle; not strictly a head muscle, but plays a role in facial expression Origin and Insertion: (fascia of chest {over pectoral muscles and deltoid}) [ lower margin of mandible; and skin and muscle at corner of mouth] Action: tenses skin of neck (ex: during shaving); helps depress mandible; pulls lower lip back and down, produces downward sag of mouth

Depressor Labii Inferioris

Descritption: small muscle running from mandible to lower lip Origin and Insertion: (body of mandible lateral to its midline) [skin and muscle of lower lip] Action: draws lower lip inferiorly (as in pout) Nerve Supply: facial nerves

2 Key Parameters that influence speed of AP

Diameter of the neuron (larger --> faster) and the Resistance of the axon to ion leakage (more myelination --> faster)

isotopes

Different atomic forms of the same element, vary only in the number of neutrons they contain; the heavier species tend to be radioactive.

Neutralization reaction

Displacement reaction in which mixing an acid and a base forms water and a salt.

Serous Membranes by Body Cavity:

Dorsal Body Cavity: - Cranial cavity: Meninges - Vertebral Cavity: Meninges Thoracic Cavity: - Heart: Pericardium - Lungs: Pleura Ventral Body Cavity: - Abdominoplevic Cavity: Peritoneum

Internal intercostals

Draws the ribs together and depresses rib cage

What is the difference between the absolute refractory period and the relative refractory period?

During the absolute refractory period, no stimulus can trigger another action potential. During the relative refractory period, only a large than normal stimulus can initiate a new action potential.

Rough ER

ER with ribosomes on the surface, involved in the production of protein

How does a Voltage Gated Channel Work?

EX: Na- Channel. Closed when intracellular environment is negative. Na- cannot enter the cell. Open when the intracellular environment is positive. Na- can enter the cell.

How does a Gated Channel Work?

EX: Na-/K+ Gated Channel. Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the extracellular receptor. Na- cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit the cell. Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor. Na- enters the cell and K+ exits the cell.

Developmental Aspects: Fetal

Ectoderm - epidermis , Mesoderm - dermis and hypodermis , Lanugo coat: covering of delicate hairs in 5th and 6th month, Vernix caseosa: sebaceous gland secretion; protects skin of fetus

Nonpolar molecules

Electrically balanced molecules.

Pectoralis minor

Elevates 3rd-5th ribs during forced inspiration

External intercostals

Elevates the rib cage

Trapezius

Elevates, depresses, retracts, and rotates the scapula; rotates the arm

excretion

Elimination of waste products from the body.

Tendon Sheath

Elongated Bursa that wraps completely around a tendon

Developmental Aspects of Bones

Embryonic skeleton ossifies predictably so fetal age easily determined from X rays or sonograms, At birth, most long bones are well ossified (except epiphyses); Nearly all bones completely ossified by age 25, Bone mass decreases with age beginning in 4th decade, Rate of loss determined by genetics and environmental factors , In old age, bone resorption predominates

Types of nerve connective tissue coverings

Endoneurium Perineurium Epineurium

Electrical energy

Energy formed by the movement of charged particles across cell membranes.

chemical energy

Energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances.

Third Degree Burns

Entire thickness of skin damaged Gray-white, cherry red, or black, No initial edema or pain (nerve endings destroyed), Skin grafting usually necessary

Second Degree Burns

Epidermal and upper dermal damage, Blisters appear

First Degree Burns

Epidermal damage only, Localized redness, edema (swelling), and pain

Developmental Aspects: Old Age

Epidermal replacement slows, skin becomes thin, dry, and itchy, Subcutaneous fat and elasticity decrease, leading to cold intolerance and wrinkles, Increased risk of cancer due to decreased numbers of melanocytes and dendritic cells

Friction Ridges

Epidermal ridges lie atop deeper dermal papillary ridges to form friction ridges of fingerprints

Growth in Length of Long Bones

Epiphyseal plate cartilage organizes into four important functional zones: Proliferation (growth), Hypertrophic, Calcification, Ossification (osteogenic)

Operation of a Voltage-Gated Channel

Example: Na+ channel Closed when the intracellular environment is negative Na+ cannot enter the cell Open when the intracellular environment is positive Na+ can enter the cell

Operation of a Gated Channel

Example: Na+-K+ pump Closed when a neurotransmitter is not bound to the extracellular receptor Na+ cannot enter the cell and K+ cannot exit the cell Open when a neurotransmitter is attached to the receptor Na+ enters the cell and K+ exits the cell

ketosis

Excess levels of ketone bodies in blood. Called ketoacidosis if blood pH is low.

Paget's Disease

Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull; Excessive and haphazard bone formation and breakdown, usually in spine, pelvis, femur, or skull Pagetic bone has very high ratio of spongy to compact bone and reduced mineralization, Unknown cause (possibly viral), Treatment includes calcitonin and biphosphonates

What are Neurons?

Excitable cells that transmit electrical signals.

What is EPSP?

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials.

Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis

Extend and Abduct Hand at Wrist Joint

Extensor Pollicis Longus

Extends Distal Phalanx of Thumb at Metacarpophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints

Extensor Pollicis Brevis

Extends Proximal Phalanx of Thumb at Metacarpophalangeal Joint

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris

Extends and Adducts Hand at Wrist Joint

Iliocostalis group of erector spinae

Extends and laterally flexes vertebral column

Longissimus group of erector spinae

Extends and laterally flexes vertebral column

Extensor digitorum

Extends fingers and the wrist

Triceps brachii

Extends forearm

Spinalis group of erector spinae

Extends vertebral column

Extensor carpi radialis longus

Extends wrist and abducts hand

Latissimus dorsi

Extends, adducts, and medially rotates the arm; draws the shoulder downward and backward

Cell that store nutrients

Fat cell - produced by a large lipid droplet in its cytoplasm; (cells that ...)

Triglycerides

Fats and oils composed of fatty acids and glycerol; are the body's most concentrated source of energy fuel; also known as neutral fats.

Cells that connect body parts or cover and line organs

Fibrolast - elongated shape of this cell extends along the cablelike fibers that it secretes; Erthrocyte (red blood cell) - carries the respiratory gases, oxygen and carbon dioxide; Epithelial cell - some are gland cells (cells that ...)

What is Acetylcoline?

First neurotransmitter identified and best understood. Released at the neuromuscular junction. Synthesized and enclosed in the synaptic vesicles. Degraded by the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (ACheE). Released by all neurons that stimulate skeletal muscle and some neurons of the ANS.

Bursae

Flattened, fibrous sacs lined with synovial membranes , Contain synovial fluid, Commonly act as "ball bearings" where ligaments, muscles, skin, tendons, or bones rub together

Diaphragm

Flattens on contraction increasing the volume of thorax during inspiration

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

Flexes Proximal Interphalangeal Joints and Secondarily Metacarpophalangeal joints and Wrists

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

Flexes and Adducts Wrist

Flexor carpi ulnaris

Flexes and adducts wrist

Biceps brachii

Flexes and supinates forearm

Brachialis

Flexes elbow

Brachioradialis

Flexes elbow

Palmaris longus

Flexes wrist

Flexor carpi radialis

Flexes wrist and abducts hand

Deltoid

Flexes, medially rotates, and abducts arm

Proximal and Distal

For these terms the point of attachment is the reference point. These terms apply to appendages Proximal: closer to the point of attachment Distal: farther from the point of attachment

The Overload Principle

Forcing a muscle to work hard promotes increased muscle strength and endurance; Muscles adapt to increased demands; Muscles must be overloaded to produce further gains

myelin sheath

Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS The Schwann cell: -Envelopes an axon in a trough -Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane -Has concentric layers of membrane that make up the myelin sheath

Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering - Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails - Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D

Smooth Muscle

Found in walls of most hollow organs(except heart); Usually in two layers (longitudinal and circular); lack coarse connective tissue sheath; smooth muscle fibers SR is less developed then that of skeletal muscle and lacks specific pattern relative to myofilaments (no sacromeres, myofibrils or t tubules)

Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Function: secretion and absorption Location: Kidney tubules; ducts and secretory portions of small glands; ovary surface Tip: Associate with kidney and salvary glands

Sacromere

Functional unit of contraction in skeletal muscle fiber; Shorten when myosin heads in thick myofilaments form cross bridges with actin molecules in thin myofilaments

Nodes of Ranvier (Neurofibral Nodes)

Gaps in the myelin sheath between adjacent Schwann cells They are the sites where axon collaterals can emerge

1. Articular Cartilage

Glassy-smooth hylaine cartilage covers the opposing bone surfaces

steroids

Group of chemical substances including certain hormones and cholesterol; they are fat soluble and contain little oxygen.

Musclular Dystrophy

Group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases; Muscles enlarge due to fat and connective tissue deposits; Muscle fibers atrophy

Growth cone

Growing tip of an axon that has a prickly, fanlike structure that gives an axon the ability to interact with its environment.

Hair Growth

Growth phase (weeks to years) followed by regressive stage and resting phase (1-3 months), Growth phase varies (6-10 years in scalp, 3-4 months in eyebrows)

Sodium potassium pump

Helps establish a difference in charge across the membrane (membrane potential) moves ions and molecules against the concentration gradient (takes energy)

Stages in healing of Fracture

Hematoma Forms, Fibrocartilaginous Callus Forms, Bony Callus Forms, Bone Remodeling Occurs

suspension

Heterogeneous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out.

What is plasticity?

If a cell body still exists, plasticity allows neurons to make new connections and relearn how to function.

Bone Remodeling Occurs

In response to mechanical stressors over several months, Final structure resembles original

Sensory (afferent) division

In the PNS, sensory afferent fibers carry impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, and joints to the brain (aka CNS)

Motor (efferent) division

In the PNS, transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs

What are Amino Acids?

Include: GABA - Gamma aminobutyric acid, Glycine, Aspartate, Glutamate. Is found only in the CNS.

What are Peptides?

Include: Substance P - mediator of pain signals. Beta Endorphin, dynorphin, and enkephalins. Act as a natural opiate; reduce pain perception. Binds to the same receptors as opiates and morphine. Gut-brain peptides - Somatostain, and cholectokinin.

Depolarizing phase

Increase in Na+ permeability and reversal of membrane potential.

Growth

Increase in the size of a cell

What is IPSP?

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potentials.

Formation of Cross Bridge

Initaited when calcium ions released from SR bind to troponin (This causes tropinin to change shape); Tropomyosin moves away from myosin binding sites on actin allowing myosin head to bind actin and form a cross bridge; Myosin head has to be activated before a cross bridge cycle can begin; ATP combines with myosin head and is hydrolized to ADP and inorganic phosphate (Energy from hydrolozied Atp activates myosin head forcing It to be in cocked position)

What is the role of the Sodium Potassium Pump?

Ionic redistribution back to resting conditions is restored by this. Restores at hyperpolerization.

When gated channels are open:

Ions move quickly across the membrane Movement is along their electrochemical gradients An electrical current is created Voltage changes across the membrane

Radioisotope

Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior.

Macromolecules

Large, complex molecules containing from 100 to over 10,000 subunits.

Larger vs Shorter Neurons

Larger neurons conduct APs faster

Teres minor

Laterally rotates arm; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles

Infraspinatus

Laterally rotates shoulder; stabilizes the head of the humerus in glenoid cavity; one of the "rotator cuff" muscles

Perineurium

Layer of dense connective tissue that encloses a fascicle of nerve fibers, providing an effective barrier against penetration of the nerve fibers by foreign substances

Stratified Columner Epithelium

Limited distribution in body, Small amounts in pharynx, male urethra, and lining some glandular ducts; Also occurs at transition areas between two other types of epithelia

fatty acids

Linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms (hydrocarbon chains) with an organic acid group at one end. A constituent of fat.

Disaccharide

Literally, double sugar; e.g., sucrose, lactose.

Polysaccharide

Literally, many sugars, a polymer of linked monosaccharides; e.g., starch, glycogen.

Multiunit Smooth Muscle

Located in large airways, large arteries, arrector pili muscles, and iris of eye; Gap junctions are rare; Arranged in motor units; Graded contractions occur in response to neural stimuli

Naming of Skeletal Muscles

Location, Shape, Size, Direction of Fibers, Number of Origins, Location of Attachments, and Action

Cell that fight disease

Macrophage (phagocytic cell) - extends long pseudopods to crawl through tissue to reach infection sites; (cells that ...)

Electrical Synapses

Made of connexons- tubular proteins that allow passage of an impulse in 2 directions at once- are located in gap junctions where 2 cells come together- more rapid than a chemical synapse

Graded Potentials

Magnitude varies directly with the strength of the stimulus Short-lived, local changes in membrane potential Decrease in intensity with distance Sufficiently strong graded potentials can initiate action potentials Current is quickly dissipated due to the leaky plasma membrane Only travel over short distances

glycogen

Main carbohydrate stored in animal cells; a polysaccharide.

Hormones and Local Chemical Factors

May bind to G protein-linked receptors; May either enhance or inhibit Ca2+ entry

Medial, Lateral and Intermediate:

Medial: toward or at the midline of the body Lateral: away from the midline of the body Intermediate: between a more medial and more lateral structure

Teres major

Medially rotates and adducts the arm

cofactor

Metal ion or organic molecule that is required for enzyme activity.

Phospholipid

Modified lipid, contains phosphorus.

Exocrine Glands

More numerous than endocrine glands, secrete products into ducts and secretion released onto the body surfaces (skin) or into body cavities to reduce friction ex: mucous, sweat, oil, and salivary glands

Skin Cancer

Most skin tumors are benign (do not metastasize), Risk factors: Overexposure to UV radiation, Frequent irritation of the skin. Some skin lotions contain enzymes in liposomes that can fix damaged DNA 3 types: Basal Cell Carcinoma, Squamous Cell Carcinoma, Melanoma

contractility

Muscles ability to shorten/contract

Developmental Aspects of Muscles

Muscular development reflects neuromuscular coordination; Development occurs head to toe, and proximal to distal; Peak natural neural control occurs by midadolescence; Athletics and training can improve neuromuscular control; Female skeletal muscle makes up 36% of body mass; Male skeletal muscle makes up 42% of body mass, primarily due to testosterone; Body strength per unit muscle mass is the same in both sexes; With age, connective tissue increases and muscle fibers decrease; By age 30, loss of muscle mass (sarcopenia) begins; Regular exercise reverses sarcopenia; Atherosclerosis may block distal arteries, leading to intermittent claudication and severe pain in leg muscles

Significance of multiple sclerosis

Myelin breaks apart, slowing down AP's causing disease --> fatigue, muscle weakness, difficulty walking a) APs appear to jump from one node of ranvier to the next b) In demyelinating diseases, conduction slows due to current leakage out of the previously insulated regions between the nodes.

Resting State

Na+ and K+ channels are closed

Action Potential: Resting State

Na+ and K+ channels are closed Leakage accounts for small movements of Na+ and K+ Each Na+ channel has two voltage-regulated gates

relative refractory period

Na+ gates are closed, K+ gates are open repolarization is occurring threshold level is elevated, allowing strong stimuli to increase the frequency of action potential events

Action Potential: Depolarization Phase

Na+ gates are opened; K+ gates are closed Cell becomes more positive

Atlas

Name the entire bone indicated by the arrow.

Axis

Name the entire bone indicated by the arrow.

Middle nasal concha

Name these bony landmarks of the ethmoid bone.

Superior nasal concha

Name these parts of the ethmoid bone.

Body

Name this area of the mandible.

Orbit

Name this area of the skull.

Frontal bone

Name this bone (superior view).

Ethmoid bone

Name this bone of the skull (lateral view).

Ethmoid bone

Name this bone of the skull (superior view).

Frontal bone

Name this bone.

Inferior nasal conchae

Name this bone.

Lacrimal bone

Name this bone.

Mandible

Name this bone.

Maxilla

Name this bone.

Nasal bone

Name this bone.

Occipital bone

Name this bone.

Palatine bone

Name this bone.

Parietal bone

Name this bone.

Sphenoid bone

Name this bone.

Temporal bone

Name this bone.

Vomer

Name this bone.

Zygomatic bone

Name this bone.

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (lateral view).

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (posterior view).

Cribriform plate

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (superior view).

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark of the ethmoid bone (superior view).

Dorsum sellae

Name this bony landmark of the sphenoid bone.

Lamina

Name this bony landmark of the vertebra.

Alveolar process

Name this bony landmark.

Angle of mandible

Name this bony landmark.

Angle of the mandible

Name this bony landmark.

Articular tubercle

Name this bony landmark.

Coronal suture

Name this bony landmark.

Coronoid process

Name this bony landmark.

Cribriform plate

Name this bony landmark.

Crista galli

Name this bony landmark.

Dorsum sellae

Name this bony landmark.

External auditory meatus

Name this bony landmark.

Mandibular fossa

Name this bony landmark.

Mastoid portion

Name this bony landmark.

Mastoid process

Name this bony landmark.

Middle nasal concha

Name this bony landmark.

Occipital condyle

Name this bony landmark.

Palatine process

Name this bony landmark.

Styloid process

Name this bony landmark.

Supraorbital margin

Name this bony landmark.

mandibular condyle

Name this bony landmark.

Sacrum

Name this entire bone.

Transverse foramen

Name this foramen of the atlas (C1).

Mandibular foramen

Name this foramen of the mandible.

Optic foramen

Name this foramen of the sphenoid bone.

Carotid foramen

Name this foramen.

Foramen lacerum

Name this foramen.

Foramen magnum

Name this foramen.

Foramen ovale

Name this foramen.

Foramen rotundum

Name this foramen.

Foramen spinosum

Name this foramen.

Incisive foramen

Name this foramen.

Infraorbital foramen

Name this foramen.

Jugular foramen

Name this foramen.

Mental foramen

Name this foramen.

Optic foramen

Name this foramen.

Supraorbital foramen

Name this foramen.

hypophyseal fossa

Name this fossa

Superior orbital fissure

Name this opening of the sphenoid bone.

Inferior orbital fissure

Name this opening.

Internal auditory meatus

Name this opening.

Mental foramen

Name this opening.

Superior orbital fissure

Name this opening.

Vertebral foramen

Name this opening.

Anterior fontanel

Name this part of the fetal skull.

Anterolateral fontanel

Name this part of the fetal skull.

Body

Name this part of the hyoid bone.

Greater horn

Name this part of the hyoid bone.

Lesser horn

Name this part of the hyoid bone.

Coronoid process

Name this part of the mandible.

Mandibular notch

Name this part of the mandible.

Ramus

Name this part of the mandible.

mandibular condyle

Name this part of the mandible.

Greater wing

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Hypophyseal fossa

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Lesser wing

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Tuberculum sellae

Name this part of the sphenoid bone.

Zygomatic process

Name this part of the temporal bone.

Temporal process

Name this part of the zygomatic bone.

Sella turcica

Name this region of the sphenoid bone.

Coccyx

Name this specific bone.

Body

Name this specific bony landmark of the sternum.

Inferior articular process

Name this specific part of C1.

Dens

Name this specific part of C2.

Inferior articular facet

Name this specific part of C2.

Inferior articular process

Name this specific part of C2.

Anterior arch

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Posterior arch

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Superior articular process

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Transverse process

Name this specific part of the atlas (C1).

Spinous process

Name this specific part of the axis (C2).

Body

Name this specific part of the costal bone.

Head

Name this specific part of the costal bone.

Neck

Name this specific part of the costal bone.

Posterior fontanel

Name this specific part of the fetal skull.

Posterolateral fontanel

Name this specific part of the fetal skull.

Pedicle

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Spinous process

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Superior articular facet

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Superior articular process

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebra.

Inferior articular process

Name this specific part of the lumbar vertebrae.

Angle

Name this specific part of the mandible.

Body

Name this specific part of the mandible.

Mandibular notch

Name this specific part of the mandible.

Costal groove

Name this specific part of the rib bone.

Manubirum

Name this specific part of the sternum.

Xiphoid process

Name this specific part of the sternum.

Body