BIO 2401: Chapter 2
Glycolysis
"Sugar splitting." Splits the six-carbon glucose molecule into two three-carbon molecules of pyruvic acid.
Deoxyrobonucleic acid (DNA)
100 million to 1 billion nucleotides long. Constitutes our genes, gives instructions for synthesizes all of the body's proteins, and transfers hereditary information from cell to cell when cells divide and from generation to generation when organisms reproduce.
solution (sodium chloride) solute solvent
A ____ consists of particles of matter called the ____ mixed with a more abundant substance (usually water) called the ____
amino acid
A ____ has a central carbon atom with an amino (-NH2), carboxyl (-COOH), and R group
peptide peptide bonds
A ____ is any molecule composed of two or more amino acids joined by ____
Triglyceride (also called neutral fats) glycerol
A _____ is a molecule consisting of a three-carbon alcohol called _____ linked to three fatty acids. Liquid at room temperature
Metabolic pathway
A chain of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme.
Fatty acid
A chain of usually 4 to 24 carbon atoms with a carboxyl group at one end and a methyl group at the other. Can be either saturated or unsaturated.
Reduction
A chemical reaction in which a molecule gains elections and energy.
Reversible reactions
A chemical reaction that results in an equilibrium mixture of reactants and products. aA + bB <--> cC + dD
Buffer
A chemical solution that resists change
Antioxidant
A chemical that neutralizes free radicals.
Secondary structure alpha helix beta sheet (pleated sheet)
A coiled or folded shape held together by hydrogen bonds is the ____. Most common shapes:
Carbohydrate
A hydrophilic organic molecule with the general formula (CH2O)n
Lipid
A hydrophobic organic molecule, usually composed only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a high ratio of hydrogen to oxygen.
Decomposition reaction
A large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones. AB --> A + B
Chemical bond
A molecule is held together, and molecules are attracted to one another, by forces called ___
Denaturation
A more drastic conformational change in response to conditions such as extreme heat or pH.
Aerobic respiration
A more efficient pathway when oxygen is available. Break pyruvic acid down to carbon dioxide and water and generates more ATP. Reactions are carried out in mitochondria.
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
A nucleotide formed by the removal of both the second and third phosphate groups from ATP. Acts as a "second messenger" to activate metabolic affects within the cell.
Chemical reaction
A process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken.
polymer
A protein is a ____ of amino acids
Base
A proton acceptor - accepts H+ ions in water.
Acid
A proton donor - releases H+ ions in water.
Cellulose
A structural polysaccharide that gives strength to the cell walls of plants.
Emulsion
A suspension of one liquid in another.
Hydrolysis
A water molecule ionizes into OH- and H+.
<7.0 (H+>OH-)
Acidic pH
pH
Acidity is expressed in terms of ____, a measure derived from the molarity of H+.
Metabolism
All the chemical reactions in the body are called
-NH2 Amino acids, proteins
Amino functional group
Eicosanoids
An arachidonic acid that functions as a hormone-like chemical signal between cells.
Glycogen
An energy-storage polysaccharide made by cells of the liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina.
Enzyme-substrate specificity
An enzyme will catalyze only one particular reaction.
Cofactor
An inorganic substance (other than the substrate) whose presence is essential for the activity of an enzyme.
Coenzyme
An organic compound that is necessary for the functioning of an enzyme.
saturated fats polyunsaturated fats
Animals fats are usually made from ____ and are solid at room temperature. Most plant triglycerides are ____ which generally remain liquid at room temperature.
Oxidation
Any chemical reaction in which a molecule gives up electrons and releases energy.
Ligand
Any hormone or other molecule that reversibly binds to a protein
>7.0 (OH->H+)
Basic pH
Democritus
Called imaginary particles atoms (indivisible)
Conjugated
Carbohydrates are often ___ with (convalenty bound to) proteins and lipids.
Unsaturated fatty acid
Carbon atoms are joined by double covalent bonds.
-COOH Amino acids, sugars, proteins
Carboxyl functional group
oligopeptides polypeptides
Chains of fewer than 10 or 15 amino acids are called ____ and chains larger than that are called ____
Ion
Charged particle with unequal number of protons and electrons.
Steroid hormones
Chemical messenger between cells
Molecules
Chemical particles composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond.
Free radicals
Chemical particles with an odd number of electrons. Cause tissue damage.
Marie Curie
Coined the term radioactivity. First woman to receive a Nobel Prize and first women in France to receive a PhD.
Cholesterol
Component of cell membranes; precursor of other steroids.
Glycoprotein
Component of the cell surface coat and mucus.
Glycolipid
Component of the cell surface coat.
Prosthetic group
Conjugated proteins have a non-amino acid moiety called a ____ covalently bound to them.
Catabolism
Consists of energy-releasing decomposition reactions.
Anabolism
Consists of energy-storing synthesis reactions.
Mixture
Consists of substances that are physically blended but not chemically combined.
Nonpolar covalent bond
Covalent bond in which electrons are equally attracted to both nuclei. Strongest type of chemical bond.
Polar covalent bond
Covlaent bond in which electrons are more attracted to one nucleus than to the other resulting in slightly positive and negative regions in one molecule.
Electrons
Determine the chemicals properties of an atom. Governs what molecules can exist and what chemical reactions can occur.
John Dalton
Developed atomic theory. Believed every atom of an element was identical.
Physical half-life
Each radioisotope has a characteristic ____, the time required for 50% of its atom to decay to a more stable state.
valence electrons
Electrons of the outermost shell, called _____ determine the chemical bonding properties of an atom.
isotopes
Elements have varieties calls ___ which differ from one another only in number of neutrons and therefore in atomic mass.
Trace elements
Elements that account for 0.7% of body weight, and no one of them accounts for more than 0.02%
Minerals
Enable enzymes and other organic molecules to functions
Exergonic
Energy-releasing reactions
adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) adenosine diphosphate (ADP)
Enzymes called ____ are specialized to hydrolyze the third phosphate bond producing _____ and an inorganic phosphate group (Pi)
Ultraviolet rays x-rays alpha particles beta particles gamma rays
Examples of ionizing radiation include ___ and ____, and three kinds of radiation produced by nuclear decay:
Concentration temperature catalysts
Factors that affect reaction rates
Temperature and pH
Factors that change the shape of an enzyme that tend to alter or destroy the ability of the enzyme to bind to its substrate.
Saturated fatty acid
Fatty acid with a carbon forming a single bond to hydrogen. Has as much hydrogen as it can carry.
Essential fatty acids
Fatty acids that must be obtained from the diet because we cannot synthesize them.
fatty acids triglycerides phospholipids eicosanoids steriods
Five primary types of lipids in humans
Tertiary structure
Formed by the further bending and folding of protein into various globular and fibrous shapes. Van der Waals forces play a significant role in stabilizing this structure.
Prostaglandins
Functionally diverse eicosanoid that plays a variety of signaling roles.
isomers C6H12O6.
Glucose, fructose, and galactose are all ____ of each other with the molecular formula ____.
Disulfide bridges
Hold separate polypeptide chains together in such molecules as antibodies and insulin.
-OH sugars, alcohols
Hydroxyl functional group
Dehydration synthesis (condensation)
Hydroxyl group is removed from one monomer and a hydrogen from another producing water as a byproduct.
Electrolytes
Important for their chemical reactivity, osmotic effects, and electrical effects.
mutagenic carcinogenic
In lower doses, ionizing radiation can be ___ and ___
Dehydration synthesis
In triglycerides, each bond between a fatty acid and glycerol is formed by ___
Minerals
Inorganic elements that are extracted from the soil by plants and passed up the food chain to humans and other organisms. Make up 4% of the human body weight. (3/4 is Ca and P)
Guanosine triphosphate
Involved in energy transfers. Donates phosphate groups to other molecules.
Proteoglycans
Macromolecules in which the carbohydrate component is dominant and a peptide or protein forms a small component.
Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen
Major elements of the human body
Glycolipids glycoproteins
Many of the lipid and protein molecules at the external surface of the cell membrane have chains of up to 12 sugars attached to them, forming ___ and ___.
-CH3 Fats, oils, steroids, amino acids
Methyl functional group
Compounds
Molecules composed of two or more elements
Isomer
Molecules with identical molecular formulae but different arrangement of their atoms
Polymers monomers
Most macromolecules are _____, molecules made of a repetitive series of identical or similar subunits called ____
7.0 (H+=OH-)
Neutral pH
Neutrons
No charge
electrons
Number of protons equal the number of
change conformation, especially tertiary structure.
One of the most important properties of proteins is their ability to ____
Nucleotides
Organic compounds with three principal components: a single or double carbon-nitrogen ring called a nitrogenous base, a monsaccharide, and one or more phosphate groups. (ex. ATP)
Anion
Particle that gains electrons and acquires a negative charge
Cation
Particle that loses electrons and acquires a positive charge
Colloid
Particles that are too large to pass through most membranes, but small enough to remain mixed with the solvent. Particles are usually cloudy. 1-100nm in size. (Protein)
Suspension
Particles that are too large to pass through most membranes. Particles are too heavy and separate on standing. Exceed 100nm in size. (Blood cells)
-H2PO4 Nucleic acids, ATP
Phosphate
Phospholipids
Phosphate group linked to other functional groups. Amphipathic. Most important function is to serve as the structural foundation of cell membranes.
Reaction products
Product released by the enzyme in a chemical reaction.
Niels Bohn
Proposed a model of atomic structure similar to planets orbiting the sun.
Structure Communication Membrane transport Catalysis Recognition and protection Movement Cell adhesion
Protein functions
Enzymes
Proteins that function as biological catalysts. Enable biochemical reactions to occur rapidly at normal body temperature.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Range from 70 to 10,000 nucleotides long. Carries out instructions given by DNA and synthesizes the proteins, assembles amino acids in the right order to product each protein describes by the DNA.
increases
Reaction rate ____ as the temperature rises.
Law of mass action
Reactions proceed from the reactants in greater quantity to the substances with the lesser quantity.
increase
Reactions rates ___ when the reactant are more concentrated.
Endergonic
Reactions that require an energy input
Ionic bond
Relatively weak attraction between an anion and a cation.
Covalent bond
Sharing of one or more pairs of electons between nuclei.
oligosaccharides polysaccharides
Short chains of three or more monosaccharides are called _____ and long chains (up to thousands of monosaccharides long) are called _____
Electrons
Single negative charge and very low mass.
Protons
Single positive charge
Functional groups
Small clusters of atoms that determine many of the properties of an organic molecule.
Hydrophilic
Substances that dissolve in water
Hydrophobic
Substances that do not dissolve in water.
Electrolytes
Substances that ionize in water (acids, bases, or salts) and form solutions capable of conducting electricity.
Catalysts
Substances that temporarily bind to reactants, hold them in a favorable position to react with each other, and may change the shape of reactants in ways that make them more likely to react. Speeds up reaction.
Disaccharides
Sugars compsed of two monosaccharides.
thermal stability
The ___ of water helps to stabilize the internal temperature of the body.
Lower = more hydrogen ions
The ___ the number = ___ hydrogen ions
Chemical reactivity
The ____ of water is its ability to participate in chemical reactions.
Biological half-life
The _____ of a radioisotope is the time required for half of it to disappear from the body.
Solvency
The ability to dissolve other chemicals
Calorie (cal)
The amount of heat that raises the temperature of 1 g of water to 1 degree C. The base unit of heat.
Quaternary structure
The association of two or more polypeptide chains by noncovalent forces such as ionic bonds and hydrophilic-hydrophobic interactions
protons and neutrons
The atomic mass of an element is equal to its total number of its ____
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
The body's most important energy-transfer molecule. Briefly stores energy gained from exergonic reactions and releases it with seconds for physiological work.
Energy
The capacity to do work.
Valence
The charge on an ion is called its
chemical equation left right
The course of a chemical reaction is symbolized by a _____ that shows reactants on the ____ and products on the _____.
Activation energy
The energy needed to get a reaction started
Starch
The energy-storage polysaccharide of plants.
Substrate
The enzyme identifies the substance it acts upon called its ____
Phosphorylation kinases
The free phosphate groups released by ATP hydrolysis are often added to enzymes or other molecules to activate them. This addition of Pi called ____, is carried out by enzymes called _____.
Enzyme substrate complex
The intermediate formed when a substrate molecule interacts with the active site of an enzyme.
Molarity
The number of moles of solute per liter of solution.
Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions.
The oxidation on one molecule is always accompanied by the reduction of another. These transfers are known as
Free energy
The potential energy available in a system to do useful work.
radioactivity
The process of decay in radioisotopes is called
Primary structure
The protein's sequence of amino acids, which is encoded in the genes
Equilibrium
The ratio of products to reactants is stable.
Active site
The region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.
monosaccharides
The simplest carbohydrates are monomers called ____ or simple sugars.
Element
The simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties.
Biochemistry
The study of the molecules that compose living organisms.
Molecular weight (MW)
The sum of a compound's atomic weight of its atoms.
Cohesion
The tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other.
Adhesion
The tendency of one substance to cling to another.
Sucrose (glucose + fructose) lactose (glucose + galactose) maltose (glucose + glucose)
The three primary disaccharides are ___
glucose fructose galactose
The three primary monosaccharides are ___
Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Those with many C=C bonds.
glycogen starch cellulose
Three examples of polysaccharides in human physiology
Exchange reaction
Two molecules exchange atoms of groups of atoms. AB + CD --> AC + BD
Synthesis reaction
Two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one. A + B --> AB
Ionic covalent hydrogen van der Waals forces
Types of chemical bonds
Radioisotopes
Unstable isotopes are called
Proteoglycan
Used for cell adhesion, lubrication, supportive filler of some tissues and organs
Solvency cohesion adhesion chemical reactivity thermal stability
Water's properties that account for its ability to support life.
Joined by polar covalent bonds V-shaped with a 105 degree angle
Water's structure
Hydrogen bond
Weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule. Important in the three-dimensional folding and coiling of large molecules. Easily disrupted by temperature and pH changes.
Van der Waals force
Weak, brief attraction due to random disturbances in the electron clouds of adjacent atoms. Weakest of all bonds.
anaerobic fermentation
When the demand for ATP outpaces the oxygen supply, excess pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid by a pathway called ___
lock: active site key: substrate
Which is the active site and which is the substrate in the lock and key visual?
Alpha particles Beta partibles
____ are too large to penetrate the skin and ____ can penetrate only a few millimeters.
Nucleic acids
_____ are polymers of nucleotides
