Bio 345L
Be able to explain the graph from our hematocrit data, not just stating tonicity but what is actually occurring at the cellular level to give us our results.
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What is hemolymph?
A fluid equivalent to blood
How does the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system work? What does this system correct?
A hormone system that regulates blood pressure and fluid and electrolyte balance, as well as systemic vascular resistance. Increases the volume of extracellular fluid in the body, which also increases blood pressure
What is the dive reflex? What changes occur in the body during the dive reflex?
A protective reflex. Aids in the conservation of oxygen stores in mammals by initiating several specific physiological changes during aquatic immersion. The cause of increased peripheral resistance is thought to redistribute blood to the vital organs while limiting oxygen consumption by non-essential muscle groups. In addition to vascular resistance, bradycardia is initiated to decrease the work of the heart and further limit unnecessary oxygen consumption.
Know the basics of membrane transport and the types of molecules that can pass through the membrane.
Active transport carries: Na+,K+,Cl-,Ca++
What is the difference between the afferent and efferent arterioles?
Afferent: going to the glomerulus Efferent: leaving the glomerulus
How does anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) affect water permeability and which region of the mammalian nephron does it tend to affect? How would ADH affect urine volume? How would ADH affect the concentration of urine? Be able to explain the physiological mechanisms that affect the urine concentration and volume.
Antidiuretic hormone helps in enhancing the re-absorption of water and it does so by inserting water channels or aquaporins into the kidney tubules. These water channel helps to transport the water and help its absorption back into the blood and hence it tends to decrease the plasma osmolarity. This also tends to increase the osmolarity of the urine. The ADH hormone helps in conserving the water by reducing its loss in urine. The nephron consists of receptors for the ADH and the hormone binds to the receptor and help in its function. The specific parts of the nephron where the ADH receptors are present are called distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct.
what items are needed for a proper graph
Axis labels Units of measurement Error bars (when necessary) R2, equation, and trendline (when necessary) Figure /Table caption: This takes the place of your title
Compare and contrast osmoconformers vs. osmoregulators. Where are osmoconformers vs. osmoregulators found in the environment? Which is more commonly found in marine invertebrates?
Conformer Regulator Body fluid matches environment Can change to their environment More common!
Know the coordination of electrical conduction and heart contraction.
Electrical comes first to the top of the ventricles then the heart contractes.
How is glomerular filtration rate affected by blood pressure?
Filtration increases with increased blood pressure and decreases with decreased blood pressure.
What is glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion? What substances are not filtered through the glomerular wall (e.g., how does the composition of the filtrate differ from that of blood)?
Glomerular filtration: is the first step in making urine. It is the process that your kidneys use to filter excess fluid and waste products out of the blood into the urine collecting tubules of the kidney, so they may be eliminated from your body. Tubular filtration and secretion: descending limb- reabsorbs water, ascending limb- reabsorbs ions
What regulates heart rate and stroke volume?
HR: Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system Stroke Volume: the degree to which the ventricles are stretched prior to contracting. The amount of blood put out by the left ventricle in one contraction
What causes the valves of the heart to close?
Heart muscles contracting and relaxing
What determines cardiac output? What allows for fit individuals to have lower heart rates?
Heart rate and stroke volume. As the cardiac muscle becomes stronger, it is able to pump out more blood per heartbeat
Be able to calculate molarity to mOsm for electrolyte and non-electrolyte solutions
Higher Osm/L=higher OP
Be able to reproduce the results of the analyses to determine whether an animal would be considered an osmoconformer versus osmoregulatory, based on the osmolarity of its hemolymph at different environmental salinities
If animals concentration stayed constant = osmoregulator Animals concentration was close to the waters concentration = osmoconformer
How is the glomerular filtration rate affected by the radius of the arterioles?
Increase radius.. Increase rate due to increased blood flow Decrease radius.. Decrease rate due to decreased blood flow
What structure of cardiac muscle allows for the fluid depolarization throughout the cardiac muscle of the heart?
Intercalated disks Desmosomes: tie adjacent cells together, allowing force created by one cell to be transferred to the adjacent cell Gap Junctions: allow waves of depolarization (electrical signals) to spread rapidly from cell to cell
Know the specialized structures of cardiomyocytes (cardiac muscle cells).
Intercalates dicks: Myocardial muscle cells are branched, have a single nucleus, and are attached to each other by intercalated disks. Desmosomes/Gap junctions. Striated muscle: Contractile cells with contractile fibers organized into sarcomeres.
Compare and contrast ionoconformer vs. ionoregulator.
Ionoconformer Ionregulator Same ion concentration as environment Use absorption and secretion to control ion concentrations
What is the difference between hypoosmotic, isosmotic, and hyperosmotic?
Isosmotic: Solutions have the same osmotic pressure. Hyperosmotic: Solution A has a higher OP than solution B. Hyposmotic: solution A has a lower OP than solution B.
What causes the heart sounds?
Lup dup from atrium to ventricles
What are the actions (functions) of the kidneys?
Plasma osmolarity Electrolyte balance Excretion of metabolic waste Acid base balance (secretion of H+ or HCO3) Plasma volume (blood pressure) Regulation of hormones that regulate osmolarity and electrolyte balance
What is the functional unit of the kidney? What are the structures of this unit and their specific functions?
Nephron: filters blood to generate urine PCT, descending limb, ascending limb, DCT, and collecting duct
What is osmosis? In which direction does water tend to diffuse into?
Osmosis is the diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient. Diffusion of water from lower solute ocncentration to higher solute concentration. If there is more water there are fewer solutes.
What is the definition of a p-value? What does a p-value of 0.04 mean in terms of accepting that our observed result is valid (i.e., what does it mean in terms of probability of error)?
P-value: represents the probability of observed differences between the groups being due to chance. Tells you if samples are similar or not
What are the layers of the kidney and what structures are found in each?
Renal Cortex (outside): the outer layer/region of the kidney Renal Column: extensions of renal cortex between renal pyramids Renal Medulla (inside): the inner layer/region of the kidney Renal pyramid: flower petal/fan shaped structure within the kidney
Compare and contrast simple diffusion versus facilitated diffusion.
Simple diffusion: Passive transport, no channels. Molecules must be small, non polar and uncharged. Speed of movement is dependent on mass, conc. Gradient and polarity. Non-polar: diffuse rapidly Polar- slowly if at all Facilitated diffusion: Still passive but with the use of channels. Transport is facilitated by proteins. Span membrane and provide alternate route.
What is the difference between standard deviation and standard error? Which would you use if you were trying to relate the data to the population?
Standard Deviation: square root of variance How much the values vary from one another Standard Error: standard deviation divided by sqrt of your sample size Quantifies how precisely you know that true mean of the population
What is the function of the AV node?
The AV nodes serve as an electrical relay station, slowing the electrical current sent by the sinoatrial (SA) node before the signal is permitted to pass through the ventricles.
Know the segments of the ECG and what they represent.
The P wave: the normal atrium (upper heart chambers) depolarization. QRS complex: corresponds to the depolarization of the right and left ventricles T wave: the repolarization of the ventricles.
What are the different phases of cardiac cycle and which of these would correlate with the different heart sounds?
The stages of the cardiac cycle can be roughly divided into the four stages: Filling phase - the ventricles fill during diastole and atrial systole. Isovolumetric contraction - the ventricles contract, building up pressure ready to pump blood into the aorta/pulmonary trunk.
Where does atrial and ventricular repolarization occur?
Ventricular Repolarization: Between end the T wave and begin the next P wave the heart is electrically silent. (isoelectric). Atrial repolarization: Masked by larger ventricular depolarization wave
Know what a hematocrit is and what it represents.
Volume percentage of red blood cells in blood.
What is the osmolarity of a red blood cell, and what conditions would cause hemolysis or crenation?
What is the osmolarity of a red blood cell, and what conditions would cause hemolysis or crenation?
Be able to interpret results from the different statistical tests.
t-Test: comparing 2 groups for differences P-value Equal or unequal means? When p < 0.05, data sets are significantly different When p > 0.05, data sets are NOT significantly different F-test: tests to see if the variability in your 2 groups is similar P-value Equal or unequal variances? When p < 0.05, unequal When p > 0.05, equal Correlation An R-value of 1 or -1 implies that there is a perfect linear correlation A correlation greater than 0.8 = strong, less than 0.5 = weak Regression The clower the R2 is to 1, the more accurately x can predict y
What is the osmolarity of seawater?
~1000 mOSM/l