BIO 436 Final Fall '17

Aldosterone

"Salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys Na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure, mineralocorticoid released from adrenal cortex, causes a decrease in blood K+ levels, causes a high rate of urinary Na+ reabsorption which will produce an increase in the volume of blood

Capacitance vessels

(aka veins) — called this because they can stretch and accommodate large volumes of fluid The measure of a BLOOD VESSEL'S ability to increase the volume of BLOOD it holds without a large increase in BLOOD PRESSURE. The vascular capacitance is equal to the change in volume divided by the change in pressure

Buffy coat

(normal <1%): platelets, white blood cells; the thin white coat between RBCs and the plasma

Hematocrit

(normal ~45%): packed RBC volume; elevated with dehydration, increased altitudes, and in a person who partakes in blood doping; Male Norms: 42-52%; Female Norms: 37-47%

Problems associated with hemolytic anemia

(of which sickle cell anemia is a specific type of hemolytic anemia): RBCs are destroyed and removed from the bloodstream before their normal lifespan is over; can be inherited or acquired/developed

How many divisions are there and what are they?

1) Sympathetic 2) Parasympathetic

What do they mediate (type of response)?

1) Sympathetic Fight/Flight (Stress) reaction 2) Parasympathetic Mediates a rest/digest reaction

What is "total peripheral resistance"? What contributes to TPR?

1). Vessel diameter Smaller the diameter - the more fluid in contract with the blood vessel wall Therefore greater pressure Other factors Arteriosclerosis Atherosclerosis 2). Blood viscosity Hematocrit (# of cells/volume) affects viscosity More viscous blood - creates greater resistance - and a higher blood pressure Viscosity is much lower in capillaries 3). Total vessel length Vessel length doesn't matter that much after maturity... Increased fatty tissue requires more blood vessels to service whole body Can add to total blood vessel length in body Longer total vessel length, greater resistance encountered - leads to higher blood pressure

Describe the ANS anatomically.

1. ANS uses two neurons which meet a ganglion preganglionic/postganglionic neurons 2. Entire sympathetic system can be activated simultaneously because of sympathetic chain ganglion 3. Almost all organs have dual innervations Except adrenal gland, sweat glands and blood vessels

Which pathway is the quickest, slowest, requires oxygen, doesn't need oxygen?

1. Glycolysis Uses only glucose No oxygen use Occurs in the cytosol of the cell Glucose is broken into 2 pyruvate molecules which produces 2 ATP molecules 2. Oxidative Phosphorylation Uses both the Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport Chain Uses oxygen and occurs in the Mitochondria Uses the pyruvate from glycolysis, fatty acids, and amino acids from the break down of proteins Makes 34 ATP

What are the 6 major functions of the kidney?

1. Regulates extracellular fluid volume 2. Regulates osmolarity 3. Regulates ion concentrations of ECF 4. Regulates pH of ECF 5. Produces hormones 6. Excretes wastes and foreign substances from plasma

What nerves are involved and where do they synapse in the heart?

1. Vagus 2. Cranial Nerve X Focused on Parasympathetic control of heart rate

What are the 3 functions of respiration?

1. Warming of inspired air If not warmed... Blood and body would get cold very quickly 2. Humidified inspired air If H2O not added to air Osmosis would cause water to leave the body Controls water loss 3. Mucus lining filters and cleans inspired air Conducting gasses out of body and back in

What are the 3 forms in which CO2 is transported in the blood? Which is the major form?

10% transported in blood as dissolved CO2 20% as carbaminohemoglobin 70% as bicarbonate ion (HCO3-)

How long do mature RBC's survive?

120 days

Plasma

55% of blood, containing: Water, Ions, Organic molecules, Amino acids, Proteins: Albumins Globulins Fibrinogen, Glucose, Lipids, Nitrogenous waste, Trace elements and vitamins, Gases: CO2 O2

Bradycardia

< 60 bpm

Tachycardia

> 100 bpm

Arrhythmia

A change in the normal pattern of the heartbeat Irregular beats Bradycardia and tachycardia

Sinus Venosus

A collecting chamber for deoxygenated blood Found in fish and amphibians

Cardiac Cycle

A complete heartbeat consisting of contraction and relaxation of both atria and both ventricles a) Late diastole- both sets of chambers relaxed. passive ventricular filling. entire heart is at rest. blood returning from the lungs are filling left atrium. a) blood returning from the capillaries are filling the right atrium. b) atrial systole- atrial contraction forces the remaining 20% of blood into the ventricles c) EDV= end diastolic volume- maximum amount of blood in the ventricles peccaries at the end of the ventricle relaxation =135 d) ISV= isovolumetric contraction- first phase of ventricular contraction pushes AV valves closed but does not create enough pressure to open semilunar valves e) ventricular ejection f) ESV= end systolic volume- min amount of blood in ventricle =65ml g) Dub

Oxygen Debt

A cumulative deficit of oxygen resulting from intense exercise

Vasoconstriction

A decrease in the diameter of blood vessels caused by contraction of smooth muscles in the vessel walls Increased oxygen and myogenic activity Decreased carbon dioxide Increased sympathetic stimulation vasopressin Angiotensin to cold

Autorhythmicity

A feature of cardiac muscle tissue that allows the generation of action potentials without an external stimulus, generate own rhythm

Heat Exhaustion

A heat-related illness characterized by muscular weakness, distress, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, pale clammy skin, and fainting Usually associated with lack of heat acclimatization and physical fitness, low health status, and an inadequate water intake. Oral temperature may be normal or low but core temperature usually elevated up to 38.5 degrees C (101.3 degrees F)

Angiotensin II

A hormone that stimulates constriction of pre-capillary arterioles and increases reabsorption of NaCl and water by the proximal tubules of the kidney, increasing blood pressure and volume

Heat Stroke

A life-threatening condition of severe hyperthermia caused by exposure to excessive natural or artificial heat, marked by warm, dry skin Severely altered mental status and often irreversible coma

What is a pneumothorax (from lab)?

A puncture in pleural membrane When the lung collapses it is TELATASSES

What is a pacemaker potential?

A slow positive increase in voltage (Na+) that occurs between the end of one action potential and the next action potential during spontaneous depolarization This increase in voltage is mediated by HCN (hyperpolarized activated cyclic channels) These channels are open during hyperpolarization.

What are the antigens found on cells?

A, B, A&B, or none

Which antibodies can be found in the blood?

A, B, A&B, or none

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

AKA vasopressin, secreted from posterior pituitary, conserves body water by reducing the output of urine, causes insertion of water channels or aquaporins into the membranes of the collecting ducts

What role do acidic molecules play in exercise?

Acidic molecules = lactic acid Lactic acid buildup sends signals to say that muscles are fatigued What are some of the acidic molecules that circulate in our blood stream?

Metabolic acids

Acids produced by the body through metabolism that generate CO2 All acids produced in normal body metabolism (not CO2) — not respirable Must be neutralized, metabolized, or secreted

Adrenergic

Activated by, characteristic of, or secreting epinephrine or related substances, particularly the sympathetic nerve fibers that liberate norepinephrine at a synapse when a nerve impulse passes Any agent that produces such an effect

What is ATP?

Adenosine Triphosphate

Know what factors increase or decrease affinity of hemoglobin for O2

Affinity decreases when pH decreases Rate of transfer of pyruvate and other molecules into mitochondria Maximum heart rate.

Pneumothorax

Air in the pleural cavity caused by a puncture of the lung or chest wall

Large plasma proteins

Albumins, globulins, fibrinogen

How and where are Na+, glucose, amino acids, Cl-, urea, K+, H+ and water reabsorbed throughout the nephron?

All bio molecules reabsorbed in PCT Na+ = actively because of the Na+/K+ ATPase pump on the basolateral membrane Glucose = Na+ symporter (secondary active transport) amino acids = Na+ symporter (secondary active transport) urea = passive transport (diffusion) K+ = passive transport (diffusion) H+ = Water = passive transport (diffusion)

Residual volume

Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation

Expiratory Reserve Volume

Amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation

Inspiratory Reserve Volume

Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation

Tidal Volume

Amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs during a normal breath

End Systolic Volume

Amount of blood in ventricle at end of cardiac ejection period and immediately preceding ventricular relaxation Used as a measure of systolic function

Cardiac Output

Amount of blood pumped out by each ventricle in one minute Q = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume; measured in L/min HR is the number of beats in 1 min — resting to 70 to 75 = 5.52 liters permit. SV is the amount of blood pumped out each ventricle each beat

Glycogen

An extensively branched glucose storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of starch

What is hemoglobin?

An iron-containing oxygen transport protein

What does ADH (vasopressin) do? Where is ADH released from?

Anti-Diuretic Hormone; vasopressin Fine-tuning of H2O Secreted from posterior pituitary gland Most important effect is to conserve body water by reducing output of urine Puts aquaporins (water channels) in collecting duct-- allows for simple diffusion of water through tubular cells back into blood

What is a feed forward mechanism?

Anticipation of increased activity Ensures blood pressure doesn't fall at onset of activity Speeds up heart rate automatically

Feedforward Mechanism

Anticipation of increased activity Insures blood pressure doesn't fall at onset of activity

Does the blood type refer to the antigens on the cell surfaces or the antibodies found in the plasma?

Antigens on cell surface

Platelets (thrombocytes)

Are buds of megakaryocytes Carry growth factors Lifespan: 5-9 days

Arteriosclerosis

Arteries cannot expand and therefore create more resistance and higher pressure Arteries thicken and harden

How does hemoglobin help RBC's carry oxygen to tissues? What is essential for this function?

As blood passes through the lungs, Hb binds the oxygen to its heme group, because of the increased oxygen pressure in the capillaries in the lungs, and released the oxygen to tissues where the oxygen pressure is lower. Intact and normally shaped hemoglobin is essential for RBCs to carry oxygen to the tissues.

Does blood flow to the brain change?

At rest 13% of the blood goes to the brain During vigorous exercise ***Sending same amount of blood to brain because CO increases from 5.8 to 25.6 L/min*** 3% of blood goes to the brain Because eventually the high intensity exercise the blood to the brain percentage drops - and will contribute to symptoms of exercise fatigue

What is the ANS?

Autonomic Nervous System part of the nervous system that supplies the internal organs, including the blood vessels, stomach, intestine, liver, kidneys, bladder, genitals, lungs, pupils, heart, and sweat, salivary, and digestive glands

Glomerulus

Ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney Process of filtration

Cortex

Below the capsule 300 mOsm of salts

Peritoneal cavity

Below the diaphragm; Contains liver, pancreas, GI tract, spleen, & genitourinary tract

Carbonic acid

Bicarbonate Ions enter the RBC's to combine with hydrogen ions to form this substance, which then splits into water + CO2

Why are the blood PCO2 levels tightly regulated?

Billions and billions of oxygen molecules in blood, so small shift would not be detected Respiratory alkalosis caused by low CO2 in arterial blood Respiratory acidosis caused by high CO2 in arterial blood Blood PCO2 directly affect blood pH, viscosity of blood, and vasodilation

Cholinergic

Bind to receptors that ACh binds to and can either inhibit or mimic the action of ACh, parasympathomimetic Stimulated, activated, or transmitted by acetylcholine Said of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers that liberate acetylcholine at a synapse when a nerve impulse passes to an agent that produces such an effect

Is blood flow increased to all organs/tissues?

Blood flow really only increases to skeletal increases from 21% to 88% Decreases blood flow to kidneys, GI, skin and other tissues

Venous return

Blood returning to the heart — almost nothing on the arterial side affects this Systemic veins = 60-70% Lungs = 10-12% Heart = 8-11% Arteries = 10-12% Capillaries = 4-5%

What is blood typing?

Blood typing determines which antigen is present on the RBCs

Resistance vessels

Blood vessels (i.e. arterioles) that convert high-pressure (120/80mmHg) Pulsatile arterial blood flow to low-pressure (30mmHg) Non-pulsatile flow at the pre-capillary sphincter to allow normal capillary function

Conduction

Body conducts heat to whatever the skin is in direct contact with. Heat loss occurs when the skin is subjected to either cold air or water

Know Boyles and LaPlace's laws. Why are they important to breathing?

Boyle Collision with walls measures energy At rest Diaphragm is relaxed Inhaling Diaphragm contracts Pulls down on lung material and increases lung volume Pressure is lower inside than outside Exhale Diaphragm relaxed and volume decreases Pressure is lower outside than inside Laplace Inward pressure is equal to 2x surface tension divided by radius Doesn't collapse every time we breathe because phospholipids secreted by Type II alveolar cells = surfactant

Ventilation

Breathing

equation for cardiac output

CO = Heart Rate x Stroke Volume

Dissolved gases

CO2 (10% of total CO2 in blood)

Can the ESR be used to diagnose diseases? (If cells clump during test then it signals inflammation)

Cannot be used to diagnose diseases, but can be used to track the progression of certain diseases like sickle cell anemia, some cancers, and inflammatory diseases like rheumatoid arthritis

Flutter

Cardiac arrhythmia in which atrial contractions are rapid but regular Contraction rates can be 200-300/min

Myocardium

Cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissues and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers Contracts to pump blood from the heart chambers Middle and thickest layer of heart wall

Why can't cardiac myocytes summate?

Cardiac muscles must wait until it is almost completely repolarized to be activated again "Long Refractory Period" Cannot produce an increase in strength of contraction due to he high frequency of stimulations

How are H+ ions "trapped" in urine?

Cause of ACIDOSIS when too much H+ ion is in the plasma (PCT) → all HCO3- will be converted to carbonic acid and will be reabsorbed. Extra H+ ions will combine with hydrogen phosphate HPO24- to make dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4-) or with ammonia to form ammonium → excreted out from the body in the urine

Syncytium

Cells that are linked together via gap junctions Act like one large cell due to an electrical passing of depolarization via gap junctions Atria have own syncytium and ventricles have own syncytium — why they are NOT connected via gap junctions (there are a total of 2 synctium one in atria and one in ventricles)

What is the Bohr effect?

Changing of pH in plasma Normal curve will shift either to left or right If decreases (more acidic, higher temperature, more CO2), shifts to right if more basic, shifts to left

Gap junctions

Channels or passageways that can open or close and can allow small molecules like Na and Ca to pass from one cell to another Provide channels for electricity continuity and propagation throughout the heart

Thoracic cavity

Chest cavity formed by ribs, muscle, the sternum, and thoracic portion of vertebral column. Contains pleural and pericardial cavities and mediastinum Peritoneal cavity = liver, pancreas, GI tract, spleen, genitourinary tract

Understand the "Chloride Shift" and the "Reverse Chloride Shift".

Chloride Shift Antiporter in RBC Telling the direction antiporter is moving 70% started CO2 becomes bicarbonate and is in bloodstream Bicarbonate leaves as chloride come in at tissue Reverse Chloride Shift Bicarbonate come in chloride leave at lungs

Why does cholesterol pose a special problem for transport in our circulation?

Cholesterol is water soluble and needs to be wrapped in protein packages (lipoproteins) in order to travel in the bloodstream from the liver

Pilocarpine

Cholinergic agonist that stimulate sweat, contraction of pupils, dry mouth and mimics the effects of the chemical, acetylcholine which is produced by nerve cells. Acetylcholine serves as a messenger between nerve cells and between nerve cells and the organs they control.

Atropine

Cholinergic antagonist that counters rest and digest activity of parasympathetic NS, increased heart rate, reduced salivation, etc An anticholinergic and antispasmodic alkaloid used as the sulfate salt to relax smooth muscles and increase and regulate the heart rate by blocking the vagus nerve, and to act as a preanesthetic antisialagogue, an antidote for various toxic and anticholinesterase agents and as an antisecretory, mydriatic, and cycloplegic

What do the terms chylomicron, HDL & LDL refer to?

Chylomicron: lipoprotein that transports cholesterol and lipids from the intestines to the liver via blood. HDL: high density lipoprotein that transports excess cholesterol from the tissues and delivers it to the liver. LDL: low density lipoprotein that transports cholesterol from the liver to the tissues (AKA bad cholesterol because if too much cholesterol and lipids build up in the tissues and arteries, it leads to plaque build-up and arteriosclerosis

3rd AV block

Complete AV block No atrial activity passes to ventricle Ventricular fibrillation.

What is compliance? Elasticity? Surface tension?

Compliance of the lung How stretchy the lung is is a measure of the lung's ability to stretch and expand Elasticity How easily does the lung recoil the rebound of the lungs after having been stretched by inhalation, or rather, the ease with which the lung rebounds

Tricuspid Valve

Contains 3 flaps The right AV valve stands between the right atrium and the right ventricle Allows blood to flow only from the atrium to the ventricle

How does the ANS affect SV?

Contractility increased by sympathetic activity Sympathetic stimulation HR and SV increase CO increase Can go from 5L/min to 30 L/min

Gluconeogenesis

Converts non carbohydrate molecules (glycerol and amino acids) into glucose when glucose reserves have been depleted and blood glucose levels are beginning to drop. Protects body, the nervous system in particular, from low blood sugar. Ensures that ATP synthesis can continue

Vagus nerve

Cranial nerve X — A nerve that supplies nerve fibers to the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), lungs, heart, esophagus, and intestinal tract, as far as the transverse portion of the colon. Also brings sensory information back to the brain from the ear, tongue, pharynx, and larynx. The vagus nerve is the tenth cranial nerve. It originates in the medulla oblongata, a part of the brain stem, and extends all the way down from the brainstem to the colon. Complete interruption of the vagus nerve causes a characteristic syndrome in which the soft palate droops on the side where damage occurred, and the gag reflex is also lost on that side. The voice is hoarse, the nasal and the vocal cord on the affected side is immobile. The results in difficulty swallowing (dysphagia) and speaking (dysphonia). Has several important branches, including the recurrent laryngeal nerve.

Bowman's Capsule

Cup-shaped structure of the nephron of a kidney which encloses the glomerulus and which filtration takes place

What causes a pacemaker potential?

Cyclic channels in membrane potential Through slow influx of Na+ without K+ outflow Followed by rapid Ca+ inflow and K+ outflow

Myopathies

Damage to heart walls ECG detects this about the heart

Restrictive pulmonary disease

Decreased lung compliance — reduced tidal volume, in other words, there is a reduced normal vital capacity, however, there is a normal forced vital capacity E.g. pulmonary fibrosis, respiratory distress syndrome.

What can cause Vasodilaiton?

Decreases resistance Increases blood glow Causes smooth muscles to relax Decrease in NE Increase in beta-adrenergic receptors

Pulmonary vein

Deliver oxygen rich blood from the lungs to the left atrium Only vein that carries bright red oxygenated blood

Pulmonary artery

Delivers blood from right ventricle to lungs for oxygenation

What is Poiseuille's equation and how is it derived? Understand the variables.

Describes relationship b/t BP, vessel radius, vessel length, and blood viscosity on laminar blood flow Q=πPr⁴/8ηL

Poiseuille's Law

Describes the relationship between blood pressure, vessel radius, vessel length, blood viscosity on laminar blood flow Q= ∆pπR^4 /(8ηL)

What are the functions of the desmosomes and gap junctions?

Desmosomes form tight connections so that cardiac cells don't pull apart when the heart contracts. Gap junctions provide channels for electrical continuity and propagation throughout the heart forms a tight communication that allows the passage of ions

End Diastolic Volume

Determinant of stroke volume Volume of blood in ventricles at the end of diastole Amount of blood in the ventricle immediately before a cardiac contraction begins Used as a measurement of diastolic function.

Stroke Volume

Determined by EDV, TPR, strength of ventricular contraction Sympathetic activity — the amount of blood ejected by the left ventricle in one contraction Sympathetic increases SV Parasympathetic decreases SV

Total peripheral resistance

Determined by stroke volume Impedance of blood flow in the arteries Blood cells + plasma encounter resistance when they contact blood vessel walls. If resistance increases more pressure is needed to keep blood moving — contributes to TPR = vessel diameter, blood viscosity, total vessel length

What is MAP? How is it calculated? And why is it important?

Difference b/t arterial and venous pressure that drives blood through capillary beds of organs Arteries don't usually have a drop in pressure MAP = [ (2 x diastolic) + systolic ] divided by 3. The reason that the diastolic value is multiplied by 2, is that the diastolic portion of the cardiac cycle is twice as long as the systolic.

Mean Arterial Pressure

Difference between arteriole and venous pressure that drives blood through the capillary beds of our organs MAP = Diastolic pressure + 1/3 Pulse Pressure (PP) Pulse Pressure (PP) = Systolic pressure - diastolic pressure Example: BP = 120/80 PP = 120-80 = 40 —> MAP = 80 + 1/3(40) = 93.33mmHg

Pulse Pressure

Difference between systolic + diastolic BP The formula: PP = SBP ─ DBP represents the force that the heart generates each time it contracts

Where does most of the peripheral resistance occur?

Directly proportional to length of vessel and viscosity of blood Inversely proportional to 4th power of radius Arteries and arterioles provide most resistance (diameter of vessel=very important)

Diaphragm

Dome shaped muscle used in inhalation Contract = breathe in Relax = breathe out

Agonist

Drug that mimics the action of a natural ligand, initiates a physiological response when combined with a receptor

QRS Complex

ECG Deflection in which the AV node fires and the ventricles are depolarized

What factors affect SV?

EDV - End Diastolic Volume TPR - Total Peripheral Resistance Impedance to blood flow in arteries Friction/resistance that blood cells experience against blood vessel walls "Afterload" force that opposes blood being pumped by heart The heart must overcome this afterload force to pump blood throughout the body Contractility Strength of ventricular contraction Increased by sympathetic activity

Isovolumetric contractions

Early phase of systole, in which the myocardial muscle fibers have begun to shorten but have not developed enough pressure in the ventricles to overcome the aortic and pulmonary end-diastolic pressures and open the aortic and pulmonary valves. During this period of muscle fiber contraction, the ventricular volumes do not change

Bronchus

Either of the two subdivisions of the trachea conveying air into the lungs

ECG/EKG

Electrocardiogram NOT action potential, can tell you heart rate, arrhythmias, damage to heart walls (myopathies), damage to conduction system P wave = atrial depolarization PR segment = AV nodal delay QRS complex = ventricular depolarization (atria repolarizing simultaneously) ST segment = time during which ventricles are contracting and emptying T wave = ventricular repolarization TP interval = time during which ventricles are relaxing and filling

Scalenes

Elevate 1st and 2nd ribs during forced inspiration when neck is fixed

Excretion

Elimination of carbon dioxide by the lungs and of nitrogenous wastes by the kidneys

Pyruvate

End product of glycolysis Its further fate, involving fermentation or entry into a mitochondrion, depends on oxygen availability

What does ESR stand for?

Erythrocyte sedimentation rate

What hormone is involved in RBC production?

Erythropoietin

What is the difference between convection and evaporation? Does our body use either or both of these mechanisms?

Evaporation: works in all environments only way to lose excess body heat on very hot days caused by increased blood flow to skin to lose heat Convection: only work if outside temperature is less than body temp caused by increased blood flow to skin to lost heat

What is the equation that describes excretion of a molecule?

Excreted = Filtered - Reabsorbed + Secreted E = F - R + S Reabsorption Something from filtrate reabsorbed by body Secretion Mechanisms where we can take things that bypass glomerulus and add them to filtrate Excreted Actually removed from body

Volatile acids

Excreted by lungs, involved in H+ metabolism

Fibrillation

Extremely rapid plus incomplete contraction of heart muscle Myocardial cell depolarizations become asynchronous > heart quivers — no blood pumped

What test can be performed to determine whether someone has a Restrictive Pulmonary Disease or an Obstructive Pulmonary Disease?

FEV1 test Forced expiratory volume measures rate of expiration Normal lung expire 80% Less than 60% is an issue

What does aldosterone do? Where is aldosterone released from?

Fine-tuning of Na, H, and K in DCT which helps to regulate pH and osmolarity of blood Mineralcorticoid Released from adrenal cortex 2 main reasons for aldosterone production An increase in plasma potassium Decrease in either blood volume or blood Na levels, release hormone Renin Effects of aldosterone Decrease in blood potassium levels High rate of urinary sodium reabsorption; produces increase in blood volume

Glomerular Filtrate

Fluid in the Capsular Space - Similar to Blood Plasma EXCEPT has nearly No PROTEINS This filtrate contains water, glucose, salts and urea. Large molecules such as protein are too large to fit through the blood capillary walls

What is the basic metabolic equation I spoke of in class?

Food + O2 -> ATP + Heat + CO2 + H2O

Atherosclerosis

Formation of deposits of plaque from fatty material within the arterial wall Is the leading risk factor for cardiovascular disease

Where is hemoglobin found?

Found in RBCs

Hemoglobin

Four-subunit protein found in red blood cells that binds oxygen Each subunit contains a heme group, a large multi-ring molecule with an iron atom at its center. One molecule can bind four oxygen molecules in a cooperative manner Carries O2 to tissues when O2 binds to the iron which makes heme in hemoglobin, then O2 is transported via arteries, capillaries, and veins (CV system), Iron in essential for this function, approximately 280 million hemoglobin molecules per one RBC

Nephron

Functional unit of the kidney responsible for forming urine Long time associated with blood vessels 1 million nephrons/kidney

SA Node (Sinoatrial node)

Group of pacemaker cells that set the heartbeat frequency and show fastest rate of spontaneous depolarization

Which is the "good" lipoprotein? Why?

HDL because the excess cholesterol from the tissues is properly disposed of or stored in the liver for future use

Dipole

Having two equal and opposite magnetized or electrically charged poles that are separated by a short distance

Efferent Arteriole

Heads to second capillary bed that completely surrounds nephron (exit)

PVC

Heartbeat initiated by purkinje fibers in ventricles rather than by SA node > 3 Characteristics: no P wave, large QRS complex, compensatory pause Premature ventricular contractions are extra, abnormal heartbeats that begin in one of your heart's two lower pumping chambers (ventricles). These extra beats disrupt your regular heart rhythm, sometimes causing you to feel a flip-flop or skipped beat in your chest.

What is the difference between heat exhaustion and heat stroke?

Heat Exhaustion Cool, clammy skin Decrease in heart rate Heat Stroke Life-threatening Hot, dry skin Unconsciousness Increase in heart rate

Radiant Heat (radiation)

Heat emitted from a body in the form of electromagnetic radiation

Desmosomes

Help adhere cardiac cells together and stabilize the connections between cells Form tight connections so that cardiac cells don't pull apart — a structure by which two adjacent cells are attached Formed from protein plaques in the cell membranes linked by filaments

Intercalated discs

Help hold cells together and transmit force of contraction from cell to cell Allows myocytes to come together Contain gap junctions and desmosomes

What is the function of Hb?

Hemoglobin transports oxygen Consists of two alpha chains and two beta chains Approximately how many Hb molecules are in each RBC? 1 RBC = 280 million hemoglobin 1 Hb = can carry 4 oxygen molecules

Compliance

How easy it is to stretch the lungs

What can be determined by a person's hematocrit?

If person has anemia or polycythemia

T-wave

In ECG last wave of cardiac cycle corresponding to repolarization of the ventricles

Epinephrine (EPI)

In adrenal medulla, produced by sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system "flight or fight" hormone Increase blood flow — A catecholamine hormone of the adrenal medulla that is the most potent stimulant of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in increased heart rate and force of contraction, vasoconstriction or vasodilation, relaxation of bronchial and intestinal smooth muscle, glycogenolysis, lipolysis, and other metabolic effects.

P-Wave

In an ECG corresponds to depolarization of the atrial fibers (leads to contraction)

Conducting Zone

Includes respiratory passageways, cleanses, humidifies and warms incoming air

Obstructive pulmonary disease

Increased airway resistance — reduced airway flow (reduced diameter), in other words, there is a normal vital capacity but expiration is slowed down. E.g. emphysema (loss of lung tissue decreases elastic recoil of lung) Asthma (bronchiolar constriction increases airway resistance) Pulmonary edema (alveoli, ducts partially fluid filled) —> COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases

What role does surfactant play in respiration?

Increased surface tensions will decrease compliant and increase elasticity Caused by a thin layer of water inside alveolar sacs

What changes occur with ventilation?

Inhalation Diaphragm contracts Thoracic cavity volume increases Exhalation Diaphragm relaxes Thoracic cavity volume decreases

Are there significant changes in blood PO2 and PCO2 levels with exercise that help to regulate ventilation?

Initially... Changes in ventilation rate would be regulated by changes in PO2 and PCO2 values of blood as exercise continues However... Physiological experiment showed that NO changes were made until LONG periods of extremely intense exercise

What are the normal muscles used for ventilation (breathing)?

Inspiration Diaphragm, external intercostals, scaliness, sterocleidomastoids Expiration Internal intercostals, abdominals

Phosphocreatine

Is source of high energy Ps to regenerate ATP from ADP Transfer of phosphate groups from ATP to phosphocreatine and back, is accomplished by the enzyme creatine phosphokinase (CPK) — AKA creatine kinase, at rest levels are 3x that of ATP ATP + creatine <—CPK—> phosphocreatine + ADP = reversible, governed by law of mass action

Why is ATP the universal energy?

It is a chemical compound that cells use to store/release energy It is used for active transport, muscle contraction, and protein synthesis

What is and is not in the glomerular filtrate (ultrafiltrate)?

It is the rate at which fluid leaves glomerulus and enters bowman's capsule Done by changing the diameter of afferent arteriole Normal GFR = 180 L/day Vasodilation Increases blood flow into glomerulus Vasoconstriction Decreases blood flow into glomerulus

What organ is responsible for RBC production?

Kidney

Medulla

Kidney is subdivided — The inner portion is where most filtration takes place

Problems associated with pernicious anemia

Lack of vitamin B12

How do our bodies transport cholesterol (along with some triglycerides and phospholipids)?

Lipoproteins

What is the major organ responsible for synthesizing cholesterol for our bodies?

Liver

WBC's (leukocytes)

Lymphocytes Monocytes Neutrophils Eosinophils Basophils

What system uses a feed forward mechanism and what does it prevent?

MAP uses feed-forward mechanism Need to main MAP Diastolic pressures drops when exercise starts... If systolic pressure stayed the same, MAP drops Systolic pressure therefore increased when exercise starts to maintain MAP

Why is CO2 related to blood pH.

Maintained within narrow pH range by lungs and kidneys Normal pH=7.35-7.45 Most important buffer in blood is bicarbonate To maintain correct blood pH, we generally maintain a ratio of HCO3- to CO2 at 20:1 Excess H+ is buffered by HCO3-

Ketone bodies

Major fuel from fatty acid metabolism used by Cardiac muscle, kidney cortex, brain (during starvation) and skeletal muscle

Vital capacity

Max amount of air that can be exhaled after a max inhalation (usually tested with a spirometer) Looking at how much CO2 you can blow off

Total lung capacity

Max volume of air that lungs can contain. the sum of the vital capacity and the residual volume Is typically about 6000 mL (6L)

Visceral pleura

Membrane that covers the lungs

RBC's (erythrocytes)

Most dense Short Lifespan: avg. 4 months, or 120 days Comes from stem cells in bone marrow Formation is triggered by EPO (Erythropoietin) secretion by the Kidney

Distal Convoluted Tubule

Most distal portion of the nephron and is responsible for the resorption of sodium, water and secretion of hydrogen potassium, between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct system

External/internal intercostals

Muscles surrounding the ribcage which control its movement during ventilation

Sternocleidomastoids

Muscles that flex and rotate the neck

Purkinje fibers

Myocardium fibers that carry electrical signal from bundles of his to the ventricles and stimulate the cardiac cells to contract

Know anatomy of nephron and surrounding blood vessels.

Nephron is a functional unit of the kidney Approximately 1 million nephrons per kidney First capillary bed Glomerulus Where first start having urine formation Plasma is filtered into the nephron 80% of blood leaves to efferent arteriole Second capillary bed Peritubular capillaries including vasa recta Eventually capillaries drain into venule leading to renal vein leading to kidneys Renal corpuscle Filtration Where blood under pressures comes to glomerulus Pores within do not allow cells through normal circumstances Large plasma proteins typically do not get into ultrafiltrate Flow of blood... 1. Bowman's capsule 2. PCT 3. Descending loop of Henle 4. Ascending loop of Henle 5. DCT 6. Collecting duct

Pacemaker potentials

Never reach resting potential — constantly cycling through APs due to their HCN channels

Norepinephrine

Non adrenaline Released by sympathetic NS post-ganglions (adrenergic) — a catecholamine, which is the principal neurotransmitter of postganglionic adrenergic neurons, having predominant α-adrenergic activity Also secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to splanchnic stimulation, being released predominantly in response to hypotension. It is a powerful vasopressor and is used, in the form of the bitartrate salt, to restore the blood pressure in certain cases of acute hypotension and to improve cardiac function during decompensation associated with congestive heart failure or cardiovascular surgery.

What does anemia refer to?

Not enough RBC's; hematocrit 30% or lower

AV Node (atrioventricular node)

ONLY communication between the atria and the ventricles NO gap junctions here Delays the signal of conduction to myocardium for 1/10th of a second to allow the ventricles to fill...an area of specialized tissue between the atria and the ventricles of the heart, specifically in the posteroinferior region of the interatrial septum near the opening of the coronary sinus, which conducts the normal electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles

Reverse chloride shift

Occurs when bicarbonate diffuses back into RBC in exchange for Cl Free CO2 generated diffuses into alveolus to be exhaled

What is the countercurrent multiplier system?

Only way to reabsorb water (through osmosis) In loop, only thing that can move out of membrane is water Ascending loop: pump out sodium chloride and potassium, have high concentration of cholesterol Pumping out salt but water is trapped; salt surround ascending limb and H2O moves out because of osmosis

What is the major source of energy for the brain and NS? How is it "spared" during exercise?

Oxygen is crucial for brain and nervous system It is spared during exercise because although it receives less percentage of overall blood flow It receives amount of blood needed to function because there is THAT much more blood circulating

What events do the P-wave, QRS-complex, and T-wave represent?

P wave = atrial depolarization QRS complex = Atrial repolarization Ventricular depolarization T wave = Ventricular repolarization.

Trachea

Part of conducting zone Surround by cartilage rings

Know the partial pressures of O2 (PO2) and CO2 (PCO2) throughout the circulatory system.

Partial pressure - pressure that a particular gas in a mixture exerts independently PCO2 10% in plasma 20% bound to hemoglobin molecules 70% through loud as bicarbonate

Glycolysis

Pathway to produce ATP Occurs in cytosol, does not use O2, glucose is broken down into 2 pyruvate molecules with production of 2 ATP molecules

Understand the term hematocrit, what is it measuring. Know "normal" values

Percentage of blood that is comprised of red blood cells (normal= around 45%)

Forced Expiratory Volume

Percentage of the vital capacity that can be exhaled in a given time interval Healthy adult is 75%-85%

Plateau phase

Phase in cardiocyte > lasts 200-250 msec, sustaining contraction for expulsion of blood from heart Ca channels slow to close and SR slow to remove Ca from cytosol 1) VGCA channel opens and allows Ca to come in as K is leaving the cell 2) BOTH positively charged —> maintained state of depolarization = Ca plateau 3) K is trying to repolarize the cell but because Ca is coming in nothing happens to the membrane's state Phase 4, or the resting potential, is stable at ≈ −90 mV in normal working myocardial cells. Phase 0 = rapid depolarization. Membrane potential shifts into + voltage range. Is central to rapid propagation of the cardiac impulse (conduction velocity, θ=1 m/s) Phase 1 is a phase of rapid repolarization. This phase sets the potential for the next phase of the action potential. Phase 2, a plateau phase, is the longest phase. It is unique among excitable cells and marks the phase of calcium entry into the cell. Phase 3 is the phase of rapid repolarization that restores the membrane potential to its resting value

Know the anatomy of the pleural linings and spaces.

Pleural membrane Membrane that is attached to thoracic cavity Visceral pleura Membrane that is physically attached to lungs

Parietal pleura

Pleural membrane that lines the thoracic cavity

Ascending Loop of Henle

Portion of the nephron not permeable to water A filtrate flows up the ascending limp through decreasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, Na+ is actively pumped out of the filtrate, decreasing filtrate concentration. ENORMOUS amount of cholesterol, reabsorbs salts, potassium

Descending Loop of Henle

Portion of the nephron permeable only to water The filtrate becomes more concentrated as water is reabsorbed while traveling through the descending limb due to the increasing concentration of the interstitial fluid, drawing water out. NO transporters

Surface tension

Pressure in alveolus is directly proportional to ST Law of Laplace Can be decreased by surfactant

Intrapleural pressure

Pressure in the pleural cavity surrounding the lungs 756 mmHg

Partial pressure

Pressure that a particular gas in a mixture exerts independently

Intrapulmonary pressure

Pressure within alveoli

Skeletal muscle pump

Primary mover of venous blood In the limbs the veins are surrounded and massaged by the muscles Contracting muscles squeeze the blood out of the compressed part of a vein and the valves ensure that this blood can only go towards the heart

Convection

Process of air or water flowing by the skin and carrying away body heat

HCN (hyperpolarization-activated cyclic-nucleotide channels)

Produced by pacemaker cells Activated by change in polarity of pacemaker cell Funny Na channel

Semilunar Valve

Pulmonary and aortic valves located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and between the left ventricle and the aorta Prevents regurgitation

How does the body regulate temperature?

Radiation Conduction Convection Evaporation

Proximal convoluted tubule

Reabsorbs 33% of water Reabsorbs all Glucose, Amino Acid, small proteins and 80% of NaCl in water — from filtrate pulmonary artery: One of the two vessels which are formed as terminal branches of the pulmonary trunk and convey un-aerated blood to the lungs. The two pulmonary arteries differ in length and anatomy. The right pulmonary artery is the longer of the two. It passes transversely across the midline in the upper chest and passes below the aortic arch to enter the hilum of the right lung as part of its root. The left pulmonary artery is shorter — It pierces the pericardium (the sac around the heart) and enters the hilum of the left lung

Bundle of His

Receives electrical impulse from AV node, distributes through ventricular walls causing contraction, depolarizes after the AV node, extends into a right and left branch that goes through the middle of the heart This material then makes up the septum, they are NOT contracting cells — a collection of heart muscle cells specialized for electrical conduction that transmits the electrical impulses from the AV node (located between the atria and the ventricles) to the point of the apex of the fascicular branches via the bundle branches.

Myoglobin

Red protein pigment — almost indistinguishable from hemoglobin of blood Gives color to muscle + stores the needed O2 for muscle's metabolism

Chloride shift

Refers to the exchange of bicarbonate ions across RBC membranes

How do kidneys help to regulate blood pH?

Regulate blood pH by excreting H+ and/or reabsorbing bicarbonate Most H+ secretion occurs across walls of PCT in exchange for Na

What is the function of EPI?

Regulates heart rate, blood vessel and air passage diameters, metabolic shifts Release is crucial component of fight or flight response of sympathetic NS

Renin Angiotensin System (RAS)

Release of renin activates adrenal gland to release aldosterone

What is the Renin-Angiotensin System (RAS) (Also known as the "Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System" or RAAS)?

Release of renin activates adrenal gland to release aldosterone

Renin

Released by nephron with decrease in arterial pressure or increase in urine Na+ concentration Acts as catalyst in converting Angiotensin I to II which stimulates aldosterone to be released and also vasoconstriction

Acetylcholine

Released by sympathetic and parasympathetic NS Inhibits the heart and excites the muscles

About how many liters/min of blood flows through our vessels during strenuous exercise?

Resting blood flow 5L/min Strenuous exercise blood flow 20-30L/min

What does venous return refer to?

Return of blood to heart via veins Controls EDV and thus SV and CO One-way venous valves ensure blood moves only toward the heart

Internodal fibers/pathways

SA node to AV node Pacemaker cells linked together and spread throughout the atria, as they depolarize they set the rate of depolarization around them

What is an ECG?

Shows electrical activity of heart using surface electrodes Only repolarization/depolarization of contracting cells produce signals that are picked up by ionic movement from electrolytes What is it NOT? It is not an action potential Therefore does not show pacemaker cell activity

How does the ANS affect heart rate?

Simply: Parasympathetic - slows heart In Vagus, Cranial Nerve X Neurotransmitter (NT) = ACh Ach promotes opening of K+ channels The K+ outflow counter Na+ influx Slowing depolarization and decreasing HR 1). Decreases depolarization of SA node 2). Lengthens pause at AV node 3). Decreases atrial cell contractility But does not affect ventricle contractility Sympathetic - speeds up heart Neurotransmitter = NE, EPI Sympathetic NS releases NE and EPI to stimulate opening of pacemaker HCN channels - depolarizes SA node faster 1). Faster depolarization of SA node 2). Shortens pause at AV node 3). Increases contractility of cells which increases strength of contraction of the heart

What is different between skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle?

Skeletal muscle cells can be very long while cardiac muscle cells are small (considered to be more normal sized) they do not have fibers that stretch lengthwise, around, or horizontal. Instead these smaller cells are linked to one another via intercalated discs. Cardiac cells have gap junctions that allows for electrical communication between cells. The T-tubules in cardiac muscle cells are small indented grooves **An important difference between cardiac muscle cells and skeletal muscle cells is that we do need Ca++ to cause cross bridging some of that Ca++ is going to come from the SR but a lot of it will come from outside the cell. To relax, the cardiac cells are going to pump some of the Ca++ into the SR but it is also going to pump some of it outside the cell. the cardiac muscle cells do not need neuron to activate it, instead they will be activated by pacemaker cells. the pacemaker cells take the place of somatic motor neuron Cardiac muscle cells cannot stay contracted. Cardiac muscle cells cannot hit tetanus. Cardiac Muscle cells have slow and fast Ca++ channels that give it much longer refractory period that lets the cell almost completely relax

What is normal pH of urine?

Slightly acidic at pH=5-7 Because kidneys reabsorb almost all bicarbonate (HCO3-) and excrete H+

Frank-Starling law of the heart

State of myocardial sarcomeres just before falling The energy of contraction of a cardiac muscle fibre is proportional to the initial muscle fibre length — there is increasing interaction of actin and myosin allowing more force to be developed (only way sarcomeres are stretched is by adding blood into the heart)

What is the Frank-Starling law of the heart?

States that the stroke volume of the heart increases in response to an increase in the volume of blood filling the heart (EDV) when all other factors remain constant In other words, as a larger volume of blood flows into the ventricle, the blood will stretch the walls of the heart, causing a greater expansion during diastole, which in turn increases the force of the contraction and thus the quantity of blood that is pumped into the aorta during systole.

How does the body replace RBC's?

Stem cells in bone marrow make new RBC's

Surfactant

Surface acting agents, secreted by type 2 alveolar cells Lowers surface tension by getting between water molecules Consists of phospholipids secreted by type 2 alveolar cells Lowers ST by getting between HWO molecules reducing ability to attract each other

What neurotransmitters (NT) are used by the ANS?

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic preganglionics release acetycholine (Ach) Parasympathetic postganglionics also release Ach Cholinergic synapses Sympathetic postganglionics release norepi (noradrenaline) Adrenergic synapses

Where is EPI from?

Sympathetic system releases NE and EPI to stimulate the opening of pacemaker HCN channels Via Adrenal Medulla

Ventricular Systole

Systole is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle that results in the ejection of blood into an adjacent chamber or vessel. Electrical systole can be recorded on an electrocardiogram (ECG) and precedes mechanical systole (the actual contraction). Visceral pleura — Membrane that covers the lungs

Myogenic

The atrial and ventricular cells, or autorhythmic cells, which are linked to the contracting cells through gap junctions; pacemaker cells have their own electrical signals within the heart and doesn't need to be innervated for a signal

What is similar between skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle?

The basic contractile unit is the sarcomere They both get Ca++ from the SR They both have T-tubules They both Have cross bridging and Thick and thin filaments sarcomeres will slide over each other.

Carbaminohemoglobin

The compound formed by the union of carbon dioxide with hemoglobin

Antagonist

The general term of a drug that inhibits the action of the natural ligand, a substance that interferes with or inhibits the physiological action of another

Isovolumetric relaxation

The part of the cardiac cycle between the time of aortic valve closure and mitral opening, during which the ventricular muscle decreases its tension without lengthening so that ventricular volume remains unaltered The heart is never precisely isovolumetric except during long diastoles with a midiastolic period of diastasis

Oxidative Phosphorylation

The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain, occurs in mitochondria, uses pyruvate from glycolysis and fatty acids and amino acids from breakdown of proteins, requires oxygen, makes massive amounts of ATP

Secretion

The release of biosynthesized substances

Afferent Arteriole

The small artery that carries blood toward the capillaries of the glomerulus First interaction of blood street with nephron

Bicuspid Valve/Mitral

The valve separating the left atrium and ventricle Permits blood to flow one way only, from the left atrium into the left ventricle This valve is more commonly called the mitral valve because it has two flaps (cusps) and looks like a bishop's miter or headdress

Know the definitions of the lung volumes.

Tidal volume 500 mL Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) 3100 mL Expiratory reserve volume (ERV) 1200 mL Residula volume (RV) 1200 mL Anatomical dead space 150 mL Total Lung Capacity 6000 mL

Countercurrent Multiplier System

Tubular fluid becomes more concentrated as it moves down the Loop of Henle and then more dilute as it moves back up as it's freely permeable to water and impermeable to solutes (vice versa for ascending)

Alveolar Sac

Two or more alveoli that share a common duct or opening

Type I & II Alveolar Cells

Type 1 cells- ~90% of surface and do gas exchange Type 2 release pulmonary surfactant

If given a blood type, be able to describe what antigens are found on the cells and what antibodies are found in the plasma. Be able to describe what happens if the wrong blood type is given to a person - for each blood type

Type A: A antigens on RBCs; B antibodies in plasma; can donate to A & AB; can receive A & O; if given B/AB, donor blood will agglutinate, creating clogged blood vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts of the body, can be fatal. Type B: B antigens on RBCs; A antibodies in plasma; can donate to B & AB; can receive B & O; if given A/AB, donor blood will agglutinate, creating clogged blood vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts of the body, can be fatal. Type AB: A & B antigens on RBCs; no antibodies in plasma; can donate to AB; can receive A, B, AB, & O. Type O: no antigens on RBCs; A & B antibodies in plasma; can donate to A, B, AB, & O; can ONLY receive O; if given A, B, or AB, donor blood will agglutinate, creating clogged blood vessels and stop the circulation of the blood to various parts of the body, can be fatal.

Universal recipient

Type AB because it doesn't make anti-A or anti-B antibodies (won't agglutinate donor's RBCs)

What type of cells line the alveolar sac, which one secretes surfactant?

Type I Alveolar cells Make up of actual air sac and alveoli Type II Alveolar cells Secrete surfactant Macrophages White blood cells kept in lungs...in case anything gets down to remove it before it enters the body

Universal donor

Type O because it lacks A & B antigens (recipient's antibodies won't agglutinate donor's Type O RBCs

How do we determine someone's blood type?

Use serum antibodies and RBC antigens. Take 3 slides and put 3 drops of the antibodies on them. First slide drop anti-a antibodies. Second slide drop anti-b antibodies. Third slide drop anti-Rh antibodies. If the cells clump/agglutinate then lyse, they are positive for that particular blood type. Type O will not react with the first 2 slides. Type AB will react with the first 2 slides.

What can cause vasoconstriction?

Vasoconstriction Increases resistance Decreases blood flow Causes smooth muscles to contract Increase in NE Decrease in beta-adrenergic receptors

How do we increase ventilation rate? ***Have to increase TIDAL VOLUME

Ventilation rate = beats per minute (bpm) x (tidal volume - dead space) 12 bpm x (500 - 150) Normal = 4200 mL/min Hyperventilation rate = 20 bpm x (300 - 150) 3000 mL/min Ventilation rate goes DOWN... Increased bpm, but decreased tidal volume Deep breathing 12 bpm x (750 - 150) 7200 mL/min Ventilation goes UP Constant bpm, but increased tidal volume

Ventricular ejection

Ventricular pressure exceeds aortic and pulmonic arterial pressure (80 mm Hg) > Aortic and Pulmonic valves open and the ventricles eject 70% of the blood

How is it accomplished? (venous return)

Via blood volume and venous pressure Vasoconstriction of veins caused by sympathetic NS Skeletal muscle pumps blood moves toward the heart by contraction of surrounding skeletal muscles

1st AV block

When contraction through AV node is greater than 0.2s. causes long P-R interval

How is blood flow maintained at adequate rate during exercise?

When muscle flow rates increase 10-fold during exercise Other organ systems are somewhat shut down because they are not as important for survival at the time Such as digestive and excretory systems

2nd AV block

When only 1 out of 2-4 atrial APs can pass to ventricles No QRS

Evaporation

When you sweat or when your skin or clothing gets wet, the evaporation of that liquid promotes heat loss, and the natural result is a cooling effect

Vasodilation

Widening of the diameter of a blood vessel Decreased myogenic activity Decreased O2 Increased CO2 Decreased sympathetic stimulation, histamine release, and heat

Small/soluble blood components

antibodies and antigens

Agglutinate/Agglutination

antibodies' affinity to bind to itself; determines blood type

problems associated with aplastic anemia

bone marrow doesn't make enough blood cells to carry oxygen, fight infection etc.

What in general is the profile and time frame of: cardiac pacemaker cells, cardiac contracting cells?

cardiac contracting cells -300 ms -Na+ channels open -Na+ channels close -Ca++ channels open; fast K+ channels close -Ca++ channels close; slow K+ channels open -resting potential

Carbonic anhydrase

catalyzes formation of H2CO3 (Carbonic acid) from C02 + H2O

Ureters

drains the urine into the bladder

Collecting duct

fine tuning reabsorption of salts and water contain a high level of cholesterol can only facilitate water reabsorption with the insertion of aquaporins from ADH

Hemoglobin (Hb)

found in RBCs and responsible for oxygen transport in the blood; has 4 polypeptide chains and 4 heme groups, which allows it to carry 4 oxygens

Heme

found on the polypeptide chains of Hb; is able to carry one oxygen per heme

Anemia

hematocrit 30% or less

Polycythemia

hematocrit 70% or more (dehydration also causes a hematocrit of 70% or more because the plasma volume decreased)

Erythropoietin (EPO)

hormone produced by kidney and is released which helps make more RBC from bone marrow stem cells

problem associated with iron deficiency anemia

inadequate amount of iron in the body, preventing the manufacture of Hb

Elasticity

lungs recoil

Preventricular Contraction

no P-wave, large Spread out QRS complex, compensatory pause; normal if they pop up occasionally; likely occurrence can lead to blood clots

Bohr Effect

oxyhemoglobin affinity decreases when pH decreases (makes unloading of O2 into tissues quicker) when curve shifts right, more O2 is being unloaded into plasma

What muscles do we use with exercise?

skeletal, heart and thoracic muscles

Reabsorption

substance put back into the body from the nephron

LDL - low density lipoprotein:

transport cholesterol and lipids from liver to tissues (too much is bad, because if you build up cholesterol and lipids in tissues, this leads to "plaque" build-up and arteriosclerosis)

HDL - high density lipoprotein

transport excess cholesterol from tissues and delivers it to liver. (HDL = Healthy, excess cholesterol from tissues is "properly" disposed of or stored in the liver for future use.)