Bio Unit 1
Threat to water quality ___main product of fossil fuel combustion When co2 dissolved in water as seawater acidified
burning of fossil fuels that release gas into atmosphere .. when certain of these compounds react w water water become more acidic and alters balance of conditions co2 (scientists worry too much absorb co2 in water harm ecosystems) reacts w water to form carbonic acid which lowers pH Extra H+ combine w carbonate ions to form bicarbonate ions , reducing carbonate ion concentration which is important for calcification (production of calcium carbonate by marine organism including reef building corals and animals tht build shells) acidification will cause carbonate ion concentrationto decrease)
HCL and NaOH ammonia is a There are also __ acids A strong acid like hydrochloric acid, HCl, Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, acts as a These combine with in any aqueous solution at 25 degrees celsius in neutral solution at 25 If add enough acid to make H+=1.0 x10^-5, An acid not only adds Base has ___ effect pH is defined as As H+ increases, pH Acidic solutions have pH values Basic solutions have pH values Most biological fluids have pH values in the range of ph of stomach
dissociate completely - strong acid and strong base weak base (reversible)- acts as a relatively weak base when it attracts an H+ ion from the solution and forms ammonium, NH4+ NH3 + H+ <=> NH4+ weak acids which reversibly release and accept back H+ ions (ex H2CO3<=> HCO3- + H+) (favors left bc weak acid.. only 1% dissociate) dissociates completely into H+ and Cl− in water: HCl -> H+ + Cl− strong base indirectly by dissociating completely to form hydroxide ions H+ ions to form water: NaOH —>Na+ + OH− product of H+ and OH- concentration equals 1.0x10^-14 1.0x10^-7 for [H+] and same for Oh- OH- = 1.0x10^-9 H+ to a solution, but also removed OH- ions bc of tendance for OH- to combine w H+ forming water opposite-increase OH- but also decrease H+ concentration by form water -log (base 10) of hydronium concentration decreases -btw neutral 7 at 25-.. this system also denotes OH- concentration bc can divide to get 10^-14 from H+ concentration.. less than 7(lower is more acidic) greater than 7 6 to 8 2
DNA Nucleotides Genome= Genes inherited from parents control Living things __ to their enviro
double stranded molecule that encodes generic info (4 kinds) = building blocks of DNA (ATCG) entire library of generic instructions that an organism inherits growth and development of offspring adapt
WATER EMERGENT PROPS why ice less dense than water?
(ability to MODERATE TEMP) Water has high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, and an evaporative cooling property that together causes it to tend to maintain a constant temperature. just change more slowly than the temperatures of other substances. Each of these properties is due to the hydrogen bonding property of water. The breaking and forming of the bonds, which would be required to change the temperature of the water (temperature affects the speed of molecule movement), takes an extra amount of energy (or heat) to complete. can release or absorb large amount of heat without changing own temp much .. evaporative coolinghelps stabilize temps in organisms and bodies of water Versatility as solvent Because water is polar and so readily hydrogen bonds, other polar molecules will readily dissolve in it. Remember that for polar molecules, there is a negative charge on one end of the molecule, which is attracted to the positive charge on the other end of other molecules, like a magnet. This attraction forms hydrogen bonds. Polar molecules are also known as hydrophilic (water-loving) or water-soluble molecules. However, water does not dissolve nonpolar or hydrophobic (water fearing) molecules well. Hydrophobic molecules include oils and fats. Cohesive and adhesive behavior- h bonds hold water tg and cohesion due to H bonding contributes to transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity in plants (adhesion of water to cell wall by h bonds helps counter downward pull of gravity) Expands as freeze The high number of hydrogen bonds that exist within liquid water cause the water molecules to be farther apart (more structured h bonds than the transient liquid bonds) than the molecules may be in other liquids (the bonds take up space themselves). In liquid water, the bonds are constantly being formed, broken, and reformed, so that the water can flow without a specific form. However, when water freezes, the water attempts to maximize h bonds and creates structured shape w molecules more far apart )Therefore, the water molecules form a lattice that is more expansive than water in liquid form. Because the frozen water contains the same number of molecules but is more expansive, it is less dense than liquid water. The less dense ice (solid water) will therefore float over the more dense liquid water. A film of ice over a body of water acts as an insulator. As a result, the liquid water underneath the ice will be protected from the outside air and will be less likely to freeze as well. This is yet another reason that water is able to maintain a consistent temperature. High specific heat means that water absorbs and retains heat better than many substances. That is, it takes more energy (heat) to change the temperature of water. High heat of vaporization means that it takes more energy (heat) to turn water into a gas (vapor) than many other substances. m When water freezes, water molecules form a crystalline structure maintained by hydrogen bonding. Solid water, or ice, is less dense than liquid water. Ice is less dense than water because the orientation of hydrogen bonds causes molecules to push farther apart, which lowers the density. When water cools, it attempts to maximize its Hydrogen bonds and creates a more ordered and structured shape, stable H bonds ...in liquid water H bonds continually forming and breaking
Living systems store,___,___, and ____ to Biological systems _____, and these systems Characteristicsof Life: Living things are ___. Name the 12 levels.
, retrieve, transmit and respond to information essential to life processes. interact, and their interactions possess complex properties. organized atoms (oxygen) molecules (DNA) organelle (nucleus) cell (heart muscle cell) tissue (heart tissue) organ (heart) organ system (circulatory system) organism (human) population (student pop)=same species community (diff populatiosn in the same area) ecosystem= community (living) + physical (nonliving) environment biosphere=regions of earth inhabited by living things
3 Domains of biology Why did this classifcation system change? Parts of Domain Eukarya
1.)(Eu)bacteria (most bacteria on Earth) 2.)Archaea (ancient bacteria; extremophiles) 3.)Eukaryotes: animals, plants, fungi, protists a.) A five kingdom system (Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Animalia) b.) a three domain system- Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya (all come from universal ancestor) Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom animalia, protists, fungi
Of 92 natural elements, about ____ are essential elements, needed by an Trace elements are required in For example, in vertebrates, in humans, iodine deficiency can cause Elements in the same column have Some food chains are built on Some naturally occurring elements are In humans, ___ is linked to Some species have become adapted to For example, Sunflower plants were used to
20- 25%, organism to live a healthy life and reproduce (CHON) only minute quantities iodine (I) is required for normal activity of the thyroid gland goiter same valence electrons and similar chemical properties reducing O to H2O and some reducing S to H2S toxic to organisms aresenic, many diseases and can be lethal, yet is "NATURAL" to environments containing elements that are usually toxic sunflower plants can take up lead, zinc, and other heavy metals in concentrations lethal to most organisms detoxify contaminated soils after Hurricane Katrina— presumably, variants of ancestral sunflower species arose in heavy metal kaiden souls and natural selection resulted in their survival
inductive reasoning hypothesis While induction entails reasoning from a set of specific observation to reach general conclusion, deductive How does hypothesis gain credibility? Hypotheses must be Controlled experiment theory vs hypothesis In scientific inquiry, scientists The hypothesis is usually without control group Researchers control unwanted variables by scientific theory still scientists must sometimes
A type of logic in which generalizations are based on a large number of specific observations. (ex all orgs are made of cells based on two centuries of data (careful observation and data analyses along with generalization reached by induction are fundamental to understanding nature) tentative answer to well framed question- explanation on trial (can be tested then accepted or rejected) involves logic tht flows in opp direction-from general to specific (if then logic) surviving multiple attempts to falsify it while alternative hypothesis are eliminated (falsifying) by testing falsifiable-must ne experiment or observation that could reveal if such idea not true (not all hypotheses meet criteria for science.. supernatural) (btw key features of scientific inquiry are o derivations and forming and testing hypotheses) one designed to compare control group w experimental group (ideally differ in only one factor that the experiment is testing) theory much broader in scope- and it is general enough to spin off new hypotheses and theory supported by a greater body of evidence (vast cumulation of evidence) (must modify or reject theories if new models provide evidence that doesn't fit) (like diff in DNA so eubacteria and archaea tow diff kingdoms now) make observations (collect data) and use inductive reasoning to draw general conclusion which can be developed into hypothesis. Deductive reasoning makes predictions that can be used to test hypothesis... also scientists must be able to repeat each other's work a rational accounting for a set of observations based on available data and guided by inductive reasoning (trial and error is also a hypothesis based approach) scientists wouldn't be able to rule out other factors as causes of the attacks not by eliminating them byregulating environment but by canceling out their effects using control groups much broader in scope than hypothesis, general enough to spin off new hypotheses, supported by a much greater body of evidence (theories that become widely adopted in science such as natural selection explain great diversity of observations and are supported by vast accumulation of evidence) modify or reject theories if new technology emerge and produce results that don't fit
CHON make up some trace elements needed by all forms of life elements properties depend on Protons and neutrons are Unless otherwise noted, Almost all of an atoms mass is concentrated In nature, an element occurs as Though isotopes have diff masses Radioactive tracers although useful, radioactive isotopes when two atoms approach eachother Energy is Potential energy is
A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule. (must be H N O) 96 percent of living matter iron (hemoglobin, molecule tht carries oxygen in red bloodcells) structure of its atoms packed tg in dense core called nucleus and electrons form cloud of negative charge around nucleus, the attraction btwn opp charge keeps electrons in the vicinity (also P and N have similar masses of 1 dalton but e is way less so negl) e balance our p and atoms r neutral (so atomic number tells us p and e) un nucleus a mixture of isotopes (for ex carbon 12 which accounts for 99% of c in nature) behave identically in chemical reactions important diagnostic tools in medicine- can pose a danger to life my damaging cellular molecules (one of most serious environmental threats is radioactive fallout from nuclear accidents) nuclei don't come close enough to interact- only e involved in chem reactions btwn atoms capacity to cause change (ex by doing work) energy matter possesses bc of its location or structure
Which of the following effects is produced by the high surface tension of water? Which of the following takes place as an ice cube cools a drink? A dietary Calorie equals 1 kilocalorie. Which of the following statements correctly defines 1 kilocalorie? Part A The nutritional information on a cereal box shows that one serving of a dry cereal has 200 kilocalories. If one were to burn one serving of the cereal, the amount of heat given off would be sufficient to raise the temperature of 20 kg of water how many degrees Celsius? Liquid water's high specific heat is mainly a consequence of the Which type of bond must be broken for water to vaporize? tTemperature usually increases when water condenses. Which behavior of water is most directly responsible for this phenomenon? Why does ice float in liquid water? Hydrophobic substances such as vegetable oil are
A water strider can walk across the surface of a small pond Kinetic energy in the drink decreases 1,000 calories, or the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C 10 absorption and release of heat when hydrogen bonds break and form. hydrogen bonds the release of heat by the formation of hydrogen bonds Hydrogen bonds stabilize and keep the molecules of ice farther apart than the water molecules of liquid water. nonpolar, repel water
What is the difference between covalent bonds and ionic bonds? In ammonium chloride salt (NH4Cl) the anion is a single chloride ion, Cl. What is the cation of NH4Cl? The atomic number of chlorine is 17. The atomic number of magnesium is 12. What is the formula for magnesium chloride? How many electron pairs are shared between carbon atoms in a molecule that has the formula C2H4? Which bond or interaction would be difficult to disrupt when compounds are put into water? Van der Waals interactions result when What bonding or interaction is most likely to occur among a broad array of molecules of various types (polar, nonpolar, hydrophilic, hydrophobic)? Which of the following is (are) not considered to be a weak molecular interaction? Which of the following would be regarded as compounds? What is the maximum number of hydrogen atoms that can be covalently bonded in a molecule containing two carbon atoms? ANSWER Which of the following is true for this reaction? 3 H2 + N2 ↔ 2 NH3 Which of the following correctly describes chemical equilibrium? Which of the following correctly describes any reaction that has reached chemical equilibrium? Which of the following explains most specifically the attraction of water molecules to one another? If a salamander relied on hydrogen bonds to cling to surfaces, what type of surface would cause the most problems for this animal? In a single molecule of water, two hydrogen atoms are bonded to a single oxygen atom by The slight negative charge at one end of one water molecule is attracted to the slight positive charge of another water molecule. What is this attraction called? The partial negative charge in a molecule of water occurs because Sulfur is in the same column of the periodic table as oxygen, but has electronegativity similar to carbon. Compared to water molecules, molecules of H2S will t A Water molecules are able to form hydrogen bonds with
Covalent bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms; ionic bonds involve the electrical attraction between atoms. NH4, with a charge of +1 MgCl2 2 covalent bond electrons are not symmetrically distributed in a molecule van der Waals interactions covalent bond H2O and CH4, but not O2 6 Ammonia is being formed and decomposed Forward and reverse reactions continue with no effect on the concentrations of the reactants and products The rate of the forward reaction is equal to the rate of the reverse reaction hydrogen bond a surface made with carbon and hydrogen atoms covalently bonded together polar covalent bonds. a hydrogen bond ] the electrons shared between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms spend more time around the oxygen atoms nucleus than around the hydrogen atom s nucleus. not form hydrogen bonds with each other. compounds that have polar covalent bonds
EMERGENT PROPERTIES The whole is l _____ THAN the ____ • Emergent properties characterize _____ - For example, a functioning bicycle Life can be studied at What is reductionism?
New properties that result from interactions between individual parts. GREATER,, sum of its parts. nonbiological entities as well emerges only when all of the necessary parts connect in the correct way different levels, from molecules to the entire livinf planet complex systems are reduced to simpler components to make them more manageable to study
Biosphere is Ecosystem Community Populatiom Organism Organ Tissue Cell Molecule Atom
Regions of the Earth's crust, waters, and atmosphere inhabited by living things a community plus the environment interacting populations in a particular area Several organism of the same kind in a particular Rea an individual; complex individuals contain organ systems composed of a number of tissues and organized for a particular task a group of cells with a common structure and function smallest unit of a living thing smallest unit of a compound that has the properties of rhe compound smallest unit of a molecule
Why is it important that an experiment include a control group? in a high school laboratory, which of the following constitutes an experiment? A water sample from a hot thermal vent contained a single-celled organism that had a cell wall but lacked a nucleus. What is its most likely classification? An organism has been isolated from decomposing organic matter. This organism has a cell wall but no chloroplasts. How would you classify this organism? Which of the following best describes what occurred after the publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species? ANSWER: Which branch of biology is concerned with the naming and classifying of organisms About 25 of the 92 natural elements are known to be essential to life. Which 4 of these 25 elements make up approximately 96% of living matter? Which of the following statements is false Knowing just the atomic mass of an element allows inferences about which of the following? ANSWER: Why is each element unique and different from other elements with respect to its chemical properties? The nucleus of a nitrogen atom contains 7 neutrons and 7 protons. Which of the following is a correct statement concerning nitrogen? Molybdenum has an atomic number of 42. Several common isotopes exist, with mass numbers of 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, and 100. Therefore, which of the following can be true? One difference between carbon-12 ( 12/6C) and carbon-14 ( 14/6C) is that carbon-14 has An atom has 6 electrons in its outer shell. How many unpaired electrons does it have? ANSWER: Electrons exist only at fixed levels of potential energy. However, if an atom absorbs sufficient energy, a possible result is that From its atomic number of 15, it is possible to predict that the phosphorus atom has ANSWER: The atomic number of each atom is given to the left of each of the following elements. Which of the atoms has the same valence as carbon (12/6)?
Without a control group, there is no basis for knowing if a particular result is due to the variable being tested. seeking to identify the pigments present in a leaf archaea domain eukarya, kingdom fungi the book was widely disxussed and disseminated taxonomy C,H,O,N all organisms have same elementa in same quantities (right- some naturally occurimg elemts toxic to orgs, iron needed by all orgs, 1/4 of the natrl elements r essential) P+ N each has unique numebr Protons mass 14 atomic number 7 Molybdenum atoms can have between 50 and 58 neutrons. two more neutrons than carbon-12 2 electron may move to an electron shell firther from nuc 15 P, 15 E silicon (14)
A single cell performs Each time a cell divides, DNa is ____ and each of the two offspring Each chromosome contains Genes are the units of Each of us begin with What accounts for DNA ability to store info? specific sequences in these four DNA provides blueprints for making Genes control The sequence of nucleotides along a gene is transcribed into Gene expression In translating genes into proteins, all life How does DNA ensure inheritance? Diff btwn genes and chromosomes? Differences btwn organisms reflect genomics a typical human cell has __sets of chromosomes Bioinformatics
all the functions of life while a multicellular has division of labor amongst specialized cells replicated and each of two cellular offspring inherit a complete set of chromosomes identical to that of parent cell one dna molecule with thousands of genes, each a stretch of dna arranged along the chromosome as a single cell stocked with dna inherited from our parents- replication of that dna during each round of cell division transmits copies of the DNa to eventually what became trillion of cells ..as cells grew and divided genetic info encoded by dna directed our development inheritance (encode all necessary info to build all molecules synthesized in a cell which in turn establish the cells identify and function) molecular structure- two long chains (strands) in a double helix (atcg nucleotides, chemical building blocks) (we can think of nucleotides as four letter alphabet) nucleotides encode the info in genes proteins (major players in building and maintaining the cell and carrying out activities) protein production indirectly, using RNA as an intermediary RNA, which is then translated into a spec protein with unique shape and function info in a gene directs the manufacture of a cellular product employ same genetic code!! (sequence of nucleotides says same thing in one organism as it does in other) by carrying instructions for making proteins and RNa and by replicating w each cell division Genes are composed of DNA sequences while chromosomes are entire DNA strands that are packed tightly together so they can fit into a cell. So, the entire chromosome is lined with genes. In other words, one chromosome contains several genes, while that cannot be said the other way around. differences btwn their nucleotide sequence rather than btwn their genetic codes rather than study a single gene at a time, study whole sets of genes in one or more species 2(and each set has 3 billion nucleotide pairs of dna) use of computational tools to store organize and analyze hue volume of data .. scientists determine sequence of a genome must faster now bc of tech (we can now see sequence of genomes in Bacteria and Archaea so can distinguish)
COMPARE CONTRAST EUKARYA AND ARCHAE AND BACTERIA archae is archaea be bacterial BAE SAYS
all three: C based, have membrane, have DNA, Bacteria and Euk: unicellular EUK: some can be unicellular but mostly multicellular orgs, membrane bound organelles, dna found in nucleus, 4 kingdoms under Eukarya- plantae, animalia, protista, fungi Arch: live in harsh environments, made of diff chemicals than bacteria, hot springs volcanoes v salty water, Bacteria: DNA found free floating in cell Membrane coated with peptidoglycan Found in almost all places on earth can cause disease and illness can help in digestion ancient bacteria ; extremophiles use diff material in cell wall All have cells walls but use diff materials in them
Not all RNA molecules in cell scientists have recently discovered All these RNAs are specified by How dna ensure inheritance
are translated into protein- some carry out other important tasks whole new classes of RNA tht play other roles in cell such as regulating the functioning of protein-coding gene genes and production of these RNAs is also called gene expression by carrying instructions for making proteins and rnas and by replicating w each cell division
One mole (mol) of glucose (molecular mass = 180 daltons) is How many molecules of glucose (C6H12O6 molecular mass = 180 daltons) would be present in 90 grams of glucose? H ow many molecules of glycerol (C3H8O3; molecular mass = 92) would be present in 1 L of a 1 M glycerol solution? When an ionic compound such as sodium chloride (NaCl) is placed in water, the component atoms of the NaCl crystal dissociate into individual sodium ions (Na+) and chloride ions (Cl ). In contrast, the atoms of covalently bonded molecules (e.g., glucose, sucrose, glycerol) do not generally dissociate when placed in aqueous solution. Which of the following solutions would be expected to contain the greatest number of solute particles (molecules or ions)? The molar mass of glucose is 180 g/mol. Which of the following procedures should you carry out to make a 1 M solution of glucose? The molar mass of glucose (C6H12O6) is 180 g/mol. Which of the following procedures should you carry out to make a 0.5 M solution of glucose? You have a freshly prepared 0.1 M solution of glucose in water. Each liter of this solution contains how many glucose molecules? The molecular weight of water is 18 daltons. What is the molarity of 1 liter of pure water? (Hint: Note that 1 liter of pure water has a mass of 1 kg.) You have a freshly prepared 1 M solution of glucose in water. You carefully pour out a 100-mL sample of that solution. How many glucose molecules are included in that 100-mL sample? Strong acid like HCL... Which of the following ionizes completely in solution and is considered to be a strong base (alkali)? a 0.01 M solution of a substance has a pH of 2. What can you conclude about this substance? A given solution contains 0.0001(10-4) moles of hydrogen ions (H+) per liter. Which of the following best describes this solution? A solution contains 0.0000001(10-7) moles of hydroxyl ions (OH-) per liter. Which of the following best describes this solution? What is the pH of a solution with a hydroxyl ion (OH-) concentration of 10-12 M? ANSWER: What is the pH of a 1-millimolar NaOH solution? ANSWER: Which of the following solutions would require the greatest amount of base to be added to bring the solution to neutral pH? What is the hydrogen ion (H+) concentration of a solution of pH 8? ANSWER: the pH of a solution is decreased from 9 to 8, it means that the ANSWER: If the pH of a solution is increased from pH 5 to pH 7, it means that the ANSWER: One liter of a solution of pH 2 has how many more hydrogen ions (H+) than 1 L of a solution of pH 6?: One liter of a solution of pH 9 has how many more hydroxyl ions (OH-) than 1 L of a solution of pH 4?:
both 180 grams of glucose and 6.02 × 10^23 molecules of glucose 90/180 x 6.02 x 10^23 6.02x10^23 1.0 L of 1M NaCl- not 1L of .5 M Dissolve 180 g of glucose in 0.8 L of water, and then add more water until the total volume of the solution is 1 L. Dissolve 90 g of glucose in a small volume of water, and then add more water until the total volume of the solution is 1 L. 6.022x10^22 55.6 6.02x10^22 ionizes completely in aqueous solution NaOH a strong acid that ionizes completely in water acidic: will give H+ to weak acids, but accept H+ from strong acids neutral pH2 pH11 gastric juice pH 2 (one lowest pH) 10^-8 concentration of H+ has increased tenfold (10X) and the concentration of OH- has decreased to one-tenth (1/10) what they were at pH 9. concentration of OH- is 100 times greater than what it was at pH 5. 10,000 100,000
Each element consists of a An atom is the Atoms are composed of smaller parts called___ Relevant subatomic particles include : All atoms of an element have the same number of____ but Isotopes are Radioactive isotopes Some applications of radioactive isotopes in biological research are Atoms in a molecule attract electrons to ____ Electronegativity is The more electronegative an atom,
certain type of atom, different from the atoms of any other element smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element subatomic particles Neutrons (no electrical charge), Protons (positive charge), Electrons (negative charge) protons, may differ in number of neutrons two atoms of an element that differ in number of neutrons decay spontaneously, giving off particles and energy (Hydrogen 1, hydrogen 2 deuterium, Hydrogen3 tritium) Dating fossils, Tracing atoms through metabolic processes, Diagnosing medical disorders varying degrees an atom's attraction for the electrons in a covalent bond the more strongly it pulls shared electrons toward itself (going to right as get smaller and more P have stronger e-.. going up have stronger e- bc less shielding)
Adaptation is Natural selection evolution ALL l ife forms have Adaptations gives rise to Cells = Info is inherited in form of Each level of biological organization has _____determines function.
changing in response to enviro individuals w traits best suited to enviro will survive and reproduce change over time leads to develppment of new species = descent w modification DNA and a common ancestor diff s pecies organisms badic unit of structure and f unction DNA emergentprops -new props gained from interaction of indiv parts structure-hollow bones of birds aid in flight
Water as emergent Extraordinary qualities of water emerge in large part from Similarities and differences Water molecules stay Cohesion Adhesion Surface tension The H bonds in water give it an unusually Moderation of temp by water... water moderates ____ by Water is effective as a ___bank bc Anything that moves has
composed of H2 and O2 gas... when combine, make polar water due to uneven sharing of electrons... o more electronegative the H bonding tht organizes water molecules into a higher level of structural order- 4 emergent props of water tht contribute to earths suitability as an enviro for live; cohesive and adhesive behavior, ability to moderate temp (high spec heat and evaporative cooling), expansion upon freezing (density), versatility as solvent close as result of H bond- at any given moment many of molecs in liquid water r linked by multiple H bonds H bonds hold the water together..cohesion due to H bonding contributes to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity in plants clinging of one substance to another- adhesion of water to cell walls by h bonds helps counter downward pull of gravity Measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break surface of liquid high surface tension, making it behave as tho coated w invisible film. air temp by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing the stored heat to air that is cooler. heat bank- can absorb or relase large amnt of heat w only slight change in its own temp. Kinetic energy- energy of motion (faster move, greater KE)
Living things utilize ___ Input of ____, mainly from the ___, and ____ of ____ make life possible Plants and orher ____organisms This ___ energy Energy flows through an Chemical elements are
energy energy, sun, and transformation of energy from one form to another make life possible photosynthetic- convert the energy of sunlight into the chemical energy of sugar chemical energy of these producers is then pssed to consumers that feed on the producers ecosystem -generally entering as light and exiting as heat recycled within an ecosytm
cORE THeme of biology Big ideas in bio Evolutions makes Lif3 has been The scientific explanation for this is
evolution The process of evolutiondri sense of everything we know abt living orgs evolving on earth for billions of yrs resulting in vast diversity of past and present orgs- but along w diversity are many shared features for this unity and diversity as well as for the adaptation of orgs to their environments- is evolution
How did diverse forms of life arise How have biologists classified life forms? Bringing together several similar genera forms a In last few decades, new methods of assessing species relationships, esp All the euks These three kingdoms are distinguished partly by Plants____,fungi___, animals Kingdom animalia Plantae Kingdom fungi Protists As diverse as life is, it also displays How can we account for lifes dual nature of unity and diversity? According to darwin, the shared anatomy of Darwin proposed that natural selection, by its cumulative effects over time, could cause
evolution used careful comparisons of form and function family which in turn is a component of an order and then a class. comparisons of dna sequences- led to REEVALUATION of the larger groupings. (orgs w eukaryotic cells) grouped in domain Eukarya- includes three kingdoms of multicellular euks- plantae, fungi, animalia modes of nutrition produce own sugaras and food molecules by photosynth....animals obtain food by digest other orgs.. fungi absorb dissolved nutrients from surroundings multicellular euks tht ingest other orgs multicellular euks (land plants) tht carry out photosynth... defined in part by nutritional mode of its members (such as mushroom) which absorb nutrients from outside their bodies mostly unicellular euks and some simple multicellular relatives. remarkable unity...universal language of DNA (also similarities btwn orgs are evident at ALL levels of biological hierarchy.) evolution mammalian limbs reflects inheritance of the limb structure from a common ancestor... diversity from mammalian forelimbs result from modification by natrl selection operating over millions of yrs.. an ancestral species to give rise to two or more descendant species (ex if one population of orgs fragmented into several subpopulations isolated in diff environments-in these separate arenas of natl selection, species could radiate into multiple species as isolated populations (geographically) adapt over many generations to diff. environmental conditions.
In some reactions, equilibrium may lie All organisms are made Connections btwn atoms of a water molecule are ____ bonds The un____ of ____ and its ___shape make it a ___molecue The properties of water arise from attractions between H bond vs Cov bond strength
far right tht these reactions essentially go to completion- all R to P mostly of water polar covalent unequal sharing of electrons and vlike shape make it a polar molecule --overall charge uneveleny distribulated. oppositely chaged atoms of diff. water molecules- slightly pos H of one molecule attracted to slightly neg. oxygen of nearby molecule...the two molecules held by H bond. H bond 1/20 as strong as cov... h bonds form, break, and re form with great frequency
W hich of these provides evidence of the common ancestry of all life? Which of the following is (are) true of natural selection?
near universality of the genetic code It requires genetic variation, results in descent with modification, and involves differential reproductive success.
Imagine there is a species-specific fishing regulation that mandates only adult fish of this species that are 75 cm or longer may be kept and shorter fish must be released. Based on your knowledge of natural selection, you would predict that the average length of the adult fish population will Which of the following taxonomic categories is least likely to be later revised for a particular organism? ANSWER: When applying the process of science, which of these is tested? A controlled experiment is one in which The application of scientific knowledge for some specific purpose is known as Which of the following are qualities of any good scientific hypothesi In presenting data that result from an experiment, a group of students show that most of their measurements fall on a straight diagonal line on their graph. However, two of their data points are "outliers" and fall far to one side of the expected relationship. What should they do? Which of the following is the best description of a control for an experiment? Which of these is an example of inductive reasoning? Why is a scientific topic best discussed by people of varying points of view, a variety of subdisciplines, and diverse cultures?
gradually decline species hyporhesis there are at least two groups, one of which does not receive the experimental treatment. technology it is testable, it is falsifiable Show all results obtained and then try to explore the reason(s) for these outliers The control group is matched with the experimental group except for the one experimental variable. Hundreds of individuals of a species have been observed and all are photosynthetic; therefore, the species is photosynthetic. Robust and critical discussion between diverse groups improves scientific thinking.
Water has a high This quality helps evaporative cooling occurs bc Evap cooling of water contributed to the Water is one of the few substances that is While other materials contract and become denser when they solidify, water At temperatures above 4 degrees celsius, At 0 degrees celsius When ice absorbs enough heat for temp to rise above zero, Water reaches its greatest density at Ice floats in liquid water because If ice sank, all bodies of water would eventually
heat of vaporization -due to strength of H bonds which must be broken before molecules can escape as gas moderate earths clomate the hottest molecules w greatest KE are the ones most likely to leave as gas (helps prevent us from overheating) stability of temps in lakes and ponds less dense as solid than liquid (ice flots) expands bc of H bonds. water behaves as others liquids expanding as it warms and contracting as it cools .. as temp falls form 4 to 0 water begins to freeze bc more and more of its molecules are moving too slowly to break H bonds molecules become locked in a crystalline lattice , each water molecule bonded to four partners (maximizes its bonding)..these bonds keep far apart enough to make ice 10% less dense than liquid water H bonds btwn molecules r disrupted.. crystal collapses as ice melts and molecules r free to slip closer tg 4 degrees and then begins to expand as molecules move faster hydrogen bonds in ice are more "ordered," making ice less dense freeze solid, making life impossible on Earth
Weak bonds Strong bonds in ionic in covalent Ionic bonds -Atoms sometimes -after the transfer of -then both atoms also A cation is a An anion is a An ionic bond is an
hydrogen bonds [attraction btwn + and , A type of weak chemical bond formed when the slightly positive hydrogen atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule. (must be H N O) ] hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions (interactions w water), van der waals forces, ionic covalent bonds (share electrons) electrons transferred Polar covalent ( e shared u equally bc of diff in electrongeituty) or nonpolar covalent (share equally) strip electrons from their bonding partners (An example is the transfer of an electron from sodium to chlorine) of an electron, both atoms have charges Both atoms also have complete valence shells positively charged ion negatively charged ion attraction between an anion and a cation
large standard error
if you have smaller sample size, while if you have more data then you have smaller standard error. higher standard deviation is more spread out and flat
Darwin inferred that as a result, over many generations, Diversity from common ancestor results from One species can Longer you go back Scientists use a process of inquiry that includes recorded observations r called Darwin three observations
individuals with inherited traits tht are better suited to the local environment more likely to survive and reproduce than less well suited individuals. higher and higher proportion of individuals in a population will have advantageous traits (natural selection)- natural environment selects for the propagation of certain traits among naturally occuring variant traits in the population modification by natural selection operating over millions of urs in diff enviro contexts branch into many as geographically isolated populations adapt over many gens to diff enviro conditions the common ancestor is way more different bc of evolution over time- go back fat enough and reach early prokaryotes .. but all have universal genetic code we can recognize make observations form hypotheses and test- data 1-individuals in a pop vary in traits, many of which seem to be heritable..second.. population can produce far more offspring than can survive to produce offspring of their own. competition is thus inevitable. third- species generally are suited to their environments- adapted.
____ make life possible Ex's of work Chemicals that a plant absorbs from the air or soil may be Eventually, these chemicals will ___ have générated all o2 in enviro Some interactions between organisms Scientific explanation for for unity and diversity Domain eukarya vs bacteria vs archaea (compare chart) What are protists? Two main points of darwin's books interactions between organisms effect how populations We can explain traits shared by Evolution accounts for the
input of energy (PRIMARILY FROM SUN) and and transfo of energy from one life form to another (ex chlorophyll molecules within plants leaves convert sunlight energy to chemical energy of food ..chemical energy in sugar then passed along from plants and other photosynthetic orgs (producers) toconsumers- such as animals that feed on other consumers and producers moving growing reproducing and cellular activities of life incorporated into plants body then passed to animal that eats plant be returned to enviro by décomposées such as bacteria and fungi (now can be taken up by plants again) plants and other photosynthetic orgs mutually beneficial (mutualism) and others in which one species is harmed while other is neither harmed nor helped (commencalism) (also like if two plants compete for scarce resource) those in which one benefits and one loses (parasitism), and those in which both are harmed (as well as adaptation of organisms to their enviros) is evolution- idea that orgs today are modified descendants of common ancestors Bacteria and Archaea. are prokaryotic and eukarya are eukaryotic -contains three kingdoms of multicellular eukaryotes- plantae, fungi, animalia (distinguished by modes of nutrition- plants produce own sugars by photosynth , fungi absorb nutrients from surrounding, animals obtain food by digest other orgs)...A and B have no cell membrane lines organelles or nucleus. All three have dna and cell membrane. Eukarya has cell membrane organelles and enclosed nucleus unicellular eukaryotes and some simple multicellular relatives (so some eukaryotes and can be uni or multi cellular while bacteria and archaea can only have uni) 1.)species have arisen from a succession of ancestors that differed from them (descent with modification-species come from common ancestor and envolée differently) (unity in kinship among species tht descended from comman ancestor, diversity in modifcations tht evolved as species branched) 2.)natural selection is a mechanism for descent with modification evolve over time we can explain traits shared by two orgs with the idea that theyve descended for a common ancestor, and we can account for differences with the idea that heritable changes have occurred along the way UNITY AND DIVERSITY OF LIFE
Weak chemical bonds, such as___ and ___ Many large biological molecules are A hydrogen bond forms when a In living cells, the electronegative partners are usually Polar water creates ___ -also can occur wherever an Hydrogen bonds areb
ionic bonds and hydrogen bonds, are also important held in their functional form by weak bonds hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one electronegative atom is also attracted to another electronegative atom oxygen or nitrogen atoms molecular attractions- attraction between positive H in one H2O molecule to negative O in another H2O H bonds an -OH exists in a larger molecule weak bonds but common in biology
Compounds formed by ionic bonds are called Salts are often found in nature as Unlike a covalent compound, which consists of Environment effects the In a dry salt crystal, bonds are so strong that If same salt is dissolved in water In organisms, most of the strongest chemical bonds are Weak bonding is important in Even a molecules with non polar covalent bonds This results in These r called These can be strong when If electrons are distributed asymmetrically in molecules or atoms, they can result in Van der Waals interactions are attractions between Van der Waals interactions are individually ___ and occur only Collectively, such interactions can be
ionic compounds or salts crystals- each is an aggregate of vast numbers of cations and anions bounded by their electrical attraction and arranged in a 3D lattice molecules having definite size and number of atoms, an ionic compound doesn't consist of molecules- (formula units.. the compound name NaCl indicates ratio of Na* to Cl-) strength of ionic bonds takes hammer and chisel to break enough of them to crack crystal into two ionic bonds much weaker bc each ion partially shielded by its interactions w water molecules covalent bonds which link atoms to form a cells molecules biological molecules-many held in their functional form by weak bonds-the reversibility of weak bonding can be an advantage-two molecules can come tg, respond to one another in some way, and separate may have + and - charged regions- electrons not always symmetrically distributed- at any point they may accumulate in one part of the molecule ever changing regions of + and - charge (instantaneous dipôle/) that enables all atoms and molecules to stick van der wall forces many such interactions occur simultaneously hot spots" of positive or negative charge molecules that are close together as a result of these charges weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together strong, as between molecules of a gecko's toe hairs and a wall surface
THERMAL ENERGY The total thermal energy of a body of matter depends in part on the although thermal energy is related to temperature, they when increase temp, you increase When two objects of diff temps are brought together, thermal energy passes from Molecules in the cooler object ___ at the expense of Heat A calories is Conversely, a calorie is also the amount of On ejoule is Water's high s Specific heat At night and during winter, water effects on ocean
ke associated w random movement of atoms or molecules matters volume arent same thing- temperature represents the avg KE of the molecules regardless of volume increase speed of molecules and thermometer records this as rise in temp of liquid. warmer to cooler object until the two are same temp. speed up at expense of thermal energy of warmer object (ex ice cube cools drink by abssorbing thermal energy from liquid as ice melts) thermal energy in transfer from one body of matter to another heat amount that is required to raise temp of 1 g of water by one degree celsius. heat that one g of water releases when cools by one degree celsius ( a kilocalorie, 1000 cal, is quantiy fo heat required to raise temps of one kg of water by one degree celsius .239 cal.. one cal equals 4.184 Joules. specific heat... ability of water to stablizie temp stems from its high spec heat. amount of heat tht must be absorbed or lost for 1g of tht substance to change temp by one degree celsius. as water cools, release heat as making bonds and so warms air
Matter has tendance to Electrons have PE bc It takes work to move Changes in Pe of electrons can only An electrons energy level is correlated with electrons are found in An electron can ____, BUT When an electron absorbs energy, it When an electron loses energy,
move to lowest possible state of PE how they're arranged in relation to nucleus- negative charger e attracted to positive charge nucleus (so since naturally attracted to nucleus, farther away has more PE) an electron farther from nucleus , so farther an electron is from the nucleus greater its PE. (farthest away has highest energy absorbed to keep from nucleus) occur in fixed amounts...electrons PE determined by its energy level it's avg distance from the nucleus electron shells (first shell closest to nucleus, lowest PE...second shell have more energy, third shell even more energy change shell it occupies, only by absorbing or losing an amount of energy equal to the difference in PE btwn position of old shell and new shell moved to a shell farther away from nucleus falls back to a shell closer to the nucleus and energy is usually lost into enviro as heat
Biology is a ___ science Living organisms are subject to basic Matter consists of Organisms are composed of Matter is Matter is made up of An element is A compound is A compound has
multidisciplinary laws of physics and chemistry chemical elements in pure form and in combinations called compounds matter anything tht takes up space and has mass (solid liquid gas plasma) elements substance that can't be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio EMERGENT PROPERTIES!!, characteristics different from those of its elements (also btw elements contain one type of atom but compounds contain two diff types of atoms)
W hich of these provides evidence of the common ancestry of all life? Which of the following is (are) true of natural selection? Charles Darwin proposed a mechanism for descent with modification that stated that organisms of a particular species are adapted to their environment when they possess Which of these individuals is likely to be most successful in an evolutionary sense? Through time, the lineage that led to modern whales shows a change from four-limbed land animals to aquatic animals with two limbs that function as flippers. This change is best explained by Why is Darwin considered original in his thinking? Darwin's finches, collected from the Galápagos Islands, illustrate which of the following? What is the major distinguishing characteristic of fungi?
near universality of the genetic code It requires genetic variation, results in descent with modification, and involves differential reproductive success. heritable traits that enhance their survival and reproductive success in the local enviromentn an organism that dies after five days of life but leaves 10 offspring, all of whom survive to reproduce natural selection. He proposed the mechanism that explains how evolution takes place. adaptive radiation absorbinf nutrients
What is emergent properties and what are water's?
new properties gained from interactions among individual parts. 1.) Cohesive behavior- Due to the polarity of water and the partial positive charges on H and negative on O, water can form H bonds with other water molecules- water sticks to itself bc is attracted to opposite charge on other water molecule...water linked by many h bonds.cohesion contributes to transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity and plants. Adhesion, clinging of one substance to another, also plays roll- adhesion of water to cell wall by H bonds help counter downward pull of gravity 2.) Moderation of temp by water Moderated air temp by absorbing heat from air that is warmer and releasing stored heat to air that is cooler. can absorb or release large amount of heat without changing own temp v much ...Water's high specific heat.. ability of water to stabilize temp comes from high specific heat. water will change its temp less than other liquids when absorbs or loses a given amount of heat ..trace waters high specific heat to H bondinf...heat must be absorbed to break H bonds and heat released when H bonds form ...relevance? a large body of water can absorb and store huge amount of heat from day time and summer while only warming a few degrees. At night and during winter, gradually cooling water can warm the air (bc form more H bonds and release heat) Due to waters high specific heat, it keeps temp fluctuations on land and water within limits tht permits life. Evap cooling-due to H bonds, require large amount of energy to evaporate water. this helps moderate earths climate. as liquid evaps, surface of liquid that remains behind cools down as highest energy particles leave. contributes to stability of lakes and ponds and prevents overheating 3.) Floating of ice on water (expanding as freeze) As temp of water falls, water begins to freeze and more and more molecules moving too slow to break H bonds. at 0, molecules become trapped in crystal lattice, maximizing H bonds with 4 other water molecules. The water molecules are now farther apart and in more ordered arrangement that allows for lower density. If ice sank, all ponds lakes and oceans freeze solid. when deep body of water cools, ice on top insulated liquid water allowing life to exist under frozen surface. 4.) Versatality as solvent Bc water is polar, very versatile solvent. When a polar or ionic substance with +/- regions is placed in water, wate rkolecule are attracted to these substance and surround them and dissolve them by. forming hydration shells. Many polar compounds are dissolved in the water of such biological fluids as blood, the sap of plants, and liquid within all cells- solvent of life
Cells= info is inherited in form of Each level of biological organization has structure determines
organisms basic unit of structure and function DNA emergent props (new props gained from the interaction of several parts) function-hollow bones of birds aid in flights
VWF, H bonds, Ionic bonds in water, and other weak bonds can also form between What is very important to a living cells function? Molecular shape is crucial in bio bc Biological molecules often bind Molecules with similar shapes can have What are chemical reactions? Photosynthesis All chemical reactions r Factor affecting rate of reaction? The same holds true for ___ Eventually, the fwd and reverse reactions This is a DY____
parts of a large molecule such as a protein (cumulative effect of weak bonds is to reinforce 3D shape) precise shape of a molecule determines how biological molecules recognize and respond to one another with spécifity temporarily to eachother by forming weak bonds (only if their shapes r complimentary) similar biological effects (ex opiates similar shape to endorphins and both cause euphoria cus or similar shape) making and breaking of chem. bonds, leading to changes in comp of matter (remember matter is conserved in chem reaction- can neither be created nor destroyed) 6CO2 + 6H2O—>C6H12O6 +6O2 (raw materials r co2 from air and h2o from soil ..w sunlight, powers conversion into glucose and oxygen (byproduct released in environment) matter simply rearranged. reversible-(products in fwd reaction becoming reactants in reverse) concentration of R- greater concentration, more frequently they collide and have opportunity to react and form products products-as products accumulate, collisions resulting in reverse reaction become more frequent occur at same rate, and relative [r] and [p] stop changing - chemical equilibrium NAMIC equilibrium-reactions still going on, but no net effect on [P] and [R] (equilibrium doesn't mean that have equal [] just means concentrations have stabilized at particular ratio)
H20 Molecules have ____ within and ___ between Water molecules are linked by The molecules stay Cohesion due to ___ contributes to the Adhesion, the ST is related to Evaporation is transformation of a substance from Heat of vaporization is the As a liquid evaporates, Evaporative cooling of water helps
polar covalent bonds within a molecule, H bond btwn- creates a sticky molecule multiple hydrogen bonds close together because of this; it is called cohesion hydrogen bonding, transport of water and nutrients against gravity in plants clinging of one substance to another, also plays a role cohesion liquid to gas heat a liquid must absorb for 1 g to be converted to gas its remaining surface cools, a process called evaporative cooling stabilize temperatures in organisms and bodies of water
Autotrophs Heterotrophs Consumers (4) Living things also ___ Homeostasis Negative feedbaxk (___)- Positive Feedback (___)-
produce their own food(plants and photosynthetic algae and bacteria, chemoautotroph) rely on other sources for their nutrients herbivores (eat plants), carnivores (eat other anomals), omnivores (eat plants and animals), decomposers (bacteria, fungi and worms that break down dead organic matter, they break down all living things in the end) Regulate maintain constant internal conditions (temp, pH, moisture) inhibition -slows or stops process speeds up a process
In contrast to Euk cells, Within cells, structures called chromosomes Analyzing biological structure does what A cell is
prokaryotic cells lack nucleus and other membrane bound organelles (smaller) (hve dna and outer membrane, no nucleus) containe g enetic info in the form of dna gives us clues abt what it's function is..and knowing function allows us to distinguish its structure. (at each level of hierarchy we find correlation btwn structure and function) smallest unit of organization that can perform all required activities
Biologists today compliment All cells share How systems biology allows us to pose new questions Two main forms of cells The cells of two groups of single celles microorganisms- all orher forms of life A eukaryotic cell contains Some organelles, such as Other organells are specific to
reductionism with systems biology-the exploration of a biological system by analyzing the interactions among its parts certain characteristics- every cell enclosed in a membrane that regultes passage of materials between cell and its surroundings examining and modeling dynamic behavior of an integrated network of components Eukaryote, Prokaeyote bacteria and archaea- are p rokaryotic- including plants and animals r composed of eukaryotic cells membrane bound organelles DNA containing nucleus, are found in the cells of all eukaryotes to particular cell types (ex chloroplsts r organelles only found in euk cells that carry out photosynth.)
each pH difference even a slight change in pH can pH of cells must be kept - pH affects - shape of molecules affect function - therefore pH affects • Control pH by - reservoir of Presence of buffers allows Buffer How work? Most buffers contain Contributes to pH stability in blood Chemical equilibrium btwn
reps tenfold difference in H+ and OH- concentration (ph3 not twice as acidic as 6 but 1,000 times as acidic).. pH changes slightly but concentration H+ and OH- change substantially be harmful bc chemical processes of cell are very sensitive to concentration of H+ and Oh- ions (ph of blood 7.4 and slightly basic) around 7 shape of molecules cellular function buffers H+ (donate H* when [H+] falls, absorb H+ when [H+] rises biological fluids to maintain relatively constant ph despite added bases or acids substance that minimizes changes in concentrations of H+ and Oh- in solution accept H+ ions from solution when in excess and donating H+ ions go solution when they have been depleted weak acid and conjugate base, which combine reversibly w H+ ions.. (add acid, convert CB to CA, which is weak acid and changes pH way less) carbonic acid (H2Co3...which forms when CO2 reacts w water in blood) bicarbonate and carbonic acid act as pH regulator ..reaction shifting left or right as other processes in the solution add or remove H+ ions ..if H+ decrease, (aka increase ph) reaction proceeds right and more carbonic acid dissociates replenishing the H+ ions. but when H+ rises (pH drops) reaction proceeds left w HCo3- (base) removing H+ ions from solution and forming H2CO3.
Substances tht are nonionic and nonpolar Oil molecules are ___ because they have A colloid is a How many daltons in a g How can make 1 L of solution consisting of 1 mol of sucrose dissolved in water? Molarity concentration is Most biochemical reactions occur Chemical reactions depend on
seem to repel water- hydrophobic (ex oil bc of nonpolar covalent bonds between C and H so don't have affinity for H bonds w water and good for cell membranes bc won't dissolve) hydrophobic , relatively nonpolar bonds stable suspension of fine particles in a liquid 6.022x10^23 (sucrose Mm is 342 so to get one mom of sucrose weigh out 342g) measure 342 g sucrose and add enough water to bring volume to 1 L.. 1M number of moles of solute per liter of solution .. unit of concentration for aqueous solutions number of solute molecules per volume of solution in water collisions of molecules and therefore on the concentration of solutes in an aqueous solution
Species that are very similar all life is connected through Science is a way of inquiry Scientists use process of inquiry that includes observation- A type of logic called deductive reasoning is also while induction entails ___, deduction In scientific process, deductions usually Two key points about hypotheses
share recent common ancestor long evolutionary history by tracing vestiges in our genetic code knowing- an approach to understand natural world a search for information and explanations of natural phenomena make observations forming hypotheses and testing them use of senses to gather info directly or indirectly built into the use of hypothesis in science reasoning from a set of specific observations to reach a general conclusion, deductive involves indo that flows in opp direction- from GENERAL to SPECIFIC take the form of predictions of results that will be found if a hypothesis is correct- (if then logic...if the dead batter hypothesis correct, then the flashlight won't work. initial observations may give rise to multiple hypotheses (ideal is to design experiments that test all these candidate explanations) second we can never prove a hypothesis is true- just eliminate through falsifying (proving it false) No amount of experimental testing can prove hypothesis beyond shadow of doubt bc impossible to test all hypotheses
Occasionally, a hydrogen atom participating in a hydrogen bond btwn two water molecules When this happens, H+ represents __, but As indicated by the double arrow, At this equilibrium point, Though water dissociation is ___ and ___, it is H+ and Oh- are Solutes called acids and bases Acids ___ while bases___ in water, concentration of H+ and OH- are When acids dissolve in water, Some bases do what directly? Other bases decrease by Basic solution
shifts from one molecule to the other H atom leaves its electron behind (so essentially it's a P) and what is transgerrrd is an H+ ion ( a proton) ..water molecule that lost proton is now OH- and The proton bonding to the other water molecule makes Hydronium ion H3O+ H3O* but H+ cant exist on its own in an aqueous solution (always associated w another water molecule in form of H3O+) this is reversible reaction tht reaches state of equilibrium when water molecules dissociate at same rate they are being reformed from H+ and Oh- the concentration of water molecules way greater than concentration of H+ and Oh- rare and reversible, it is important in the chemistry of life- changes in their concentrations can effect a cells proteins and other complex molecules very reactive disrupt the balance between H and OH− in pure water increase the H+ concentration in water, while bases reduce the concentration of H+ in solution equal but adding certain types of solutes called acids and bases disrupt this balance donate additional H+ to solution-(ex HCl in water forms H+ + Cl-) ..source of H+ (dissociation of water is other source) results in acidic solution having more H+ than Oh- reduce H+ directly by accepting Hydrogen ions ( ex NH3 acts as base when unshared e- pair in nitrogen's valence attracts a H+ from solution resulting in NH4+ ion decrease H+ concentration indirectly by dissociating to from Oh- ions, which combine with H+ ions and form water. ex NaOh solution w higher [Oh-] than H+.. when equal, neutral
When organism uses chemical energy to do work As a result, energy flows Chemicals tht plant absorbs Each organism interacts
some of that energy converted to thermal energy and is released to surroundings as heat THROUGH an ecosystem- usually enter as light and leave as heat from air or soil may be incorporated into plants body's then pass to consumer and eventually these chemicals return to enviro by decomposers such as fungi and bacteria (break down waste products organic debris and bodies of dead orgs).. chemicals can then be taken up by plants again continuously w physical features in its environment (also environment affected by orgs who love there- photosynthetic orgs produce all oxygen)
Living things RE___ How? They interact with Respond to ___ Affects Behavior= Reproduction ____,___,____ split Genes and DNA: there are What do genes do?
spond surrounding environment to find food (energy) respond to stimuli (movement) behavior and survival How how organism respons to environment ability of organism to make another organism like itself bacteria, protozoans, and other unicellular organisms split into 2 (ex e. coli replication) instructioms (blueprints) encoded in genes (sequences of DNA) transmit info from parents to offspring
B.A.E The process of evolution Biological systems utilize ___and ___ to grow, to___ and to ____. Ex.) Energy flow from...
starts w last common ancestor... 2.0x10^9 yrs ago. Archaea 1.8x10^9 yrs ago, Bacteria 1.4x10^9 yrs ago, Eukarya 1.0 x10^9 yrs ago drives the diversity and the unity of life free energy and molecular building blocks, to grow, reproduce, and maintain dynamic homeostasis a.) sunlight to producers to consumers..(producers absorb light energy and transform to chemical energy, chemical energy in food is transferred from plants to consumers.) b.)using energy to do work (animals muscle cells convert chemical energy from food to kinetic energy the--energy of motion. when energy is used to do work, some energy converted to thermal energy and lost as heat.. a plants cells use chemical energy to do work such as growing newleaves)
Phosphorus-32, a radioactive isotope of phosphorus-31 (atomic number 15), undergoes a form of radioactive decay whereby a neutron turns into a proton, which is retained in the nucleus, and emits radiation in the form of an electron. What is the product of such radioactive decay of phosphorus-32? Fluorine has an atomic number of 9 and a mass number of 19. How many electrons are needed to complete the valence shell of a fluorine atom? An atom with atomic number 12 would have what type of chemical behavior in bonding with other elements? A covalent chemical bond is one in which If an atom of sulfur (atomic number 16) were allowed to react with atoms of hydrogen (atomic number 1), which of the following molecules would be formed? What is the maximum number of covalent bonds an element with atomic number 8 can make with hydrogen? Nitrogen (N) is much more electronegative than hydrogen (H). Which of the following statements is correct about the atoms in ammonia (NH3)? When two atoms are equally electronegative, they will interact to form What results from an unequal sharing of electrons between atoms? A covalent bond is likely to be polar when Which of the following molecules contains the most polar covalent bond? In comparing covalent bonds and ionic bonds, which of the following would you expect?
sulfur-32 (atomic number 16) 1 It would form ions with a +2 charge. outer-shell electrons of two atoms are shared so as to satisfactorily fill the outer electron shells of both atoms HSH 2 Each hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge; the nitrogen atom has a partial negative charge. nonpolar covalent bonds a polar covalent bond one of the atoms sharing electrons is much more electronegative than the other atom. H20 Covalent bonds and ionic bonds define opposite ends of a continuous spectrum, from equal sharing to no sharing of electrons
Metabolism = Enzymes =
sum of all chemical reactions special proteins that regulate chemical reactions
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by First shell can hold no more thab Atoms with same number electrons in valence shell Atom with completed valence shell is The reactivity of an atom arises from Atoms with incomplete Strongest kinds of chemical bonds
the distribution of electrons in the atoms electron shells 2 electrons (this why only H and He first row)(remember TEETH) have similar chemical behavior- outermost shell electrons determine behavior of atom unreactive (aka noble gases are inert aka chemically unreavtive) the presence of one or more unpaired electrons in its valence shell valence shells can react with certain other atoms in such a way that each partner completed its valence shell ionic and covalent
Which of the following best demonstrates the unity among all organisms? All the organisms on your campus make up __________. A controlled experiment is one that _________ Which of the following statements best distinguishes hypotheses from theories in science? Which of the following is an example of qualitative data? Which of the following best describes the logic of scientific inquiry? A localized group of organisms that belong to the same species is called a ANSWER: Organisms interact with their environments, exchanging matter and energy. For example, plant chloroplasts convert the energy of sunlight to The main source of energy for producers in an ecosystem is Which of the following types of cells utilize deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as their genetic material but do not have their DNA encased within a nuclear envelope? reductionism Prokaryotes are classified as belonging to two different domains. What are the domains?
the structure and function of DNA a community compares experimental and control groups Hypotheses usually are relatively narrow in scope; theories have broad explanatory power. fish swam in zif zag If my observations are accurate, they will support my hypothesis or let me formate a new one. population chem energy sun (light energy) archaea To understand the chemical basis of inheritance, we must understand the molecular structure of DNA. This is an example of the application of which concept to the study of biology? archaea and bacteria
Organisms interact with Life requires the regulatory mechanism
their environment flow of energy maintain balance in living systems
Which of the following statements is true about buffer solutions? : Buffers are substances that help resist shifts in pH by ANSWER: One of the buffers that contributes to pH stability in human blood is carbonic acid (H2CO3). Carbonic acid is a weak acid that dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and a hydrogen ion (H+). Thus, H2CO3 ↔ HCO3- + H+ If the pH of the blood drops, one would expect ANSWER: Assume that acid rain has lowered the pH of a particular lake to pH 4.0. What is the hydroxyl ion concentration of this lake Research indicates that acid precipitation can damage certain marine organisms by Consider two solutions: solution X has a pH of 4; solution Y has a pH of 7. From this information, we can reasonably conclude that If a solution has a pH of 7, this means that Carbon dioxide (CO2) is readily soluble in water, according to the equation CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is a weak acid. Respiring cells release CO2 into the bloodstream. What will be the effect on the pH of blood as that blood first comes in contact with respiring cells? A beaker contains 100 mL of NaOH solution at pH = 13. A technician carefully pours into the beaker 10 mL of HCl at pH = 1. Which of the following statements correctly describes the results of this mixing? Equal volumes (5 mL) of vinegar from a freshly opened bottle are added to each of the following solutions. After complete mixing, which of the mixtures will have the highest pH? ANSWER: Increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations might have what effect on seawater? How would acidification of seawater affect marine organisms? ANSWER: one idea to mitigate the effects of burning fossil fuels on atmospheric CO2 concentrations is to pipe liquid CO2 into the ocean at depths of 2,500 feet or greater. At the high pressures at such depths, CO2 is heavier than water. What potential effects might result from implementing such a scheme? if the cytoplasm of a cell is at pH 7, and the mitochondrial matrix is at pH 8, this means that ANSWER:
they maintain a relatively constant pH when either acids or bases are added to them. releasing OH- to a solution when bases are added. donating H+ to a solution when bases are added. both donating H+ to a solution when bases are added and accepting H+ when acids are added. the HCO3- to act as a base and remove excess H+ with the formation of H2CO3. 1x × 10-10 mol of hydroxyl ion per liter of lake water d ecreasing the concentration of carbonate ions in oceans the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution X is 1,000 times as great as the concentration of hydrogen ions in solution Y. the concentration of H+ ions in the water equals the concentration of OH- ions in the water blood pH decrease slightly The pH of the beaker's contents will decrease 100 mL of household cleanser containing 0.5 M ammonia S eawater will become more acidic, and carbonate concentrations will decrease Acidification would decrease dissolved carbonate concentrations and hinder growth of corals and shell- building animals. both increased acidity of the deep waters and changes in the growth of bottom-dwelling organisms with calcium carbonate shells the concentration of H+ ions is tenfold higher in the cytoplasm than in the mitochondrial matrix.
Molecule ex H2 single bond Bonding capacity H2 and O2 Methane, the main More electronegative In covalent bond of same element Polar covalent One of most elecrroneg elements Sodium and Cl A charged atom or molecule is called Bc of their opposite charges
two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds when two H atoms come close enough for electron shells to overlap, can share their electrons one shared pair elecs also called atoms valence and usually equals number of electrons required to complete atoms valence shell ( ex F 1, O 2) are elements bc same atom.. but an electron from each H is shared with O (unequally but) forms H20 component of natural gas, CH4 more strongly pull shared e to itself e shared equal bc no diff in electronegativity (nonpolar cov) due to diff in electronge, electrons not shared equally O... electrons spend more time near O in covalent bond with H ..pulled toward O, partial negative charge and so Hs have partial positive .. polarity of CH4 way less tho bc (well nonpolar) cuz barely difference in enegativity) Electron transfer ex Na Cl... sodium has eleven elecs with single valence in thir shell, cl has 17 elecs w 7 in valence.. when meet, lone sodium valence transferred to cl atom and end up w complete valence shells an ion (the na is cation bc lost an electron, cl is anion bc gained electron) actions and anions attract eachother and form ionic bonds (transfer of an electron not formation of a bond- attraction between two opposite charged
Bc of water high specifi heat, Specific heat can be thought of as a measure of Water resists changing specific heat of water We can trace waters high specific heat to a calorie of heat causes a relatively when temp of water drops slightly The high specific heat of water keeps Bc organisms are made primarily of water Molecules of any liquid ___ because Molecules moving fast enough to ___ can Temperature is ___, so even at lows temps, Increase temp of liquid,
will change temp less than other liquids when absorbs or loses a given amount of heat how well a substance resists changing its temp when it absorbs or releases heat its temp- when it does change it temp, it absorbs or loses relatively large quantity of heat for each degree of change 1cal/gdegreeC H bonding- heat must be absorbed in order to break bonds and heat is released when bonds r formed small change in temp of water bc much of the heat is used to disrupt h bonds before the water molecules can begin moving faster many additional H bonds form, releasing a considerable amnt of energy in form of heat temperature fluctuations within limits that permit life better able to resist changes in their own temp than if made of liquid w lower specific heat stay close bc attracted to eachother moving fast enough to overcome these attractions can depart from liquid and enter air as gas avg kinetic energy of a substance, speediest molecules can escape into air avg KE of substance increases and evaporates more rapidly
A sugar cube placed in a glass of water Solution Solvent Solute Aqueous solution is Water is a very ___ solvent, which we can trace to Dissolve salt in water Hydration shell Compound doesn't need to be ___ to Such compounds dissolve when Hydrophilic
will dissolve creating uniform mix of water and sugar - concentration of dissolved sugar will be same everywhere in mixture A liquid that is a completely homogenous mixture of two or more substances dissolving agent of a solution (water solvent sugar solute) substance that is dissolved one in which water is the solvent versalite- can trace to polarity of water molecule -allows it to form H bonds easily positively charged Na+ ions attracted to negative charged O2- anions and Cl- anions attracted to partially positive H+ ions.. water surrounds individual sodium and chloride ions , separating and shielding them from eachother .. result is homogenously mixed solution of two solutes-sodium and chloride ions with water sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion ionic to dissolve in water-many nonionic polar molecules such as sugars are water soluble water molecules surround each of the solute molecules, forming H bonds w them (even molecules as large as proteins can dissolve if have ionic and polar regions on surface) any substance that has an affinity for water (not all dissolve tho like if too large also ex cotton bc consists of giant molecules of cellulose, a compound w numerous regions of partial positive and negative charges tht can form H bonds w water- water adheres to cellulose fibers but doesn't dissolve)
