BIO156 Final Exam
saliva
contains mucus and digestive enzymes
Papillae
contains sensory nerve ending and small BV
central nervous system (CNS)
contains the brain and the spinal cord
systole
contraction phase of the heart cycle
obesity
contributes to diabetes colon cancer, breast cancer, heart disease
What happens when we get too hot?
control center sends signals to skin increasing activity of sweat glands and cause dense network of blood vessels to dilate; evaporative cooling occurs as sweating increases and heat radiates from the blood vessels as they fill with warm blood; the skin loses heat until the blood cools back to the set point; when this happens, control center turns off its signals to the skin
pons
controls breathing
medulla oblongata
controls breathing, circulation, swallowing, digestion
venules
converge into veins
salivary amylase
converts starch to disaccharides
helper T cell
coordinate immune response by amplifying message from macrophages
gallstone
build of salt deposits i gallbladder;can block bile duct
location of receptors for water soluble hormones
cell membrane
cerebellum
coordinates body movement; learns and remembers motor responses
lungs
main organ of the respiratory system
kidneys
main organs of the excretory system. filters blood
hyposecretion of which gland results in cretinism
thyroid
what gland requires iodine to produce its hormones?
thyroid
Pulmonary artery
vessels that carries blood from heart to lung
Pulmonary Vein
vessels that carries blood from lung to heart
veins
vessels that carry blood to the heart from the venules
Homeostasis
"steady state"control systems in internal environment must keep it constant
Reticular connective tissue
(also called lymphoid tissue) serves as the internal framework of soft organs such as the liver and the tissues of the lymphatic system (spleen, tonsils, and lymph nodes) it consists of thin, branched reticular fibers (composed of collagen) that form an interconnected network.
Adipose tissue:
(connective tissue) - Stores fat (Triglycerides) - Stockpiles energy - Pads and insulates the body
pepsin
(converted from pepsinogen by hydrochloric acid) begins protein digestion
suspension, substrate, fluid, and bulk feeders
(four methods of) obtaining food
ingestion digestion absorption elimination
(four stages of) food processing
trypsin
(small intestine) polypeptides-->smaller polypeptides
peptidase
(small intestine) small polypeptides-->amino acids
Describe the 3 phases of the Uterine Cycle
*-Menstrual Phase: Days 1-5:* Day 1 shedding the endometrium *-Proliferative Phase: Days 6-14:* rebuilds endometrium *-Secretory Phase: Days 15-28:* Begins releasing nutrients to prepare the endometrium for an embryo and keep it alive during implantation
Which cells outside the testis secrete testosterone?
*Interstitial cells* called *Leyidg Cells*
What happens in Stage 3 of Oogenesis: Completion of Meiosis 2 when fertilization occurs
*Secondary Oocyte enters Meiosis 2 IF a sperm penetrates the plasma membrane in the uterine tube fertilizing the cell becoming an Ovum.* If fertilized the Oocyte goes on to become an Ovum and a secondary polar body is also generated. *Cell Division Meiosis 2 producing 4 Haploid Cells: One Ovum and 3 Degenerative Polar Bodies*
Animals use three organ systems to exchange materials with the external environment:
- Digestive - Respiratory - Urinary The circulatory system transports materials inside the body from these exchange surfaces
As blood circulates through the kidneys:
- A fraction of it is filtered - Plasma enters the kidney tubules, forming filtrate
Osmoregulators:
- Actively regulate their water loss or gain - Include freshwater animals, most marine vertebrates, and all land animals
Cells of the epithelial tissues:
- Are bound tightly together - Form a protective barrier - Fall off and are continually renewed by mitosis
Organ system:
- Are teams of organs that work together - Perform vital body functions - Can be physically connected of dispersed Example: circulatory system- heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)
In humans, the two kidneys:
- Are the main processing centers - Contain many fine tubes called tubules - Include an intricate network of capillaries
Skeletal muscle:
- Attached to bones by tendons - Responsible for voluntary movements (walking) - Striated (striped) because the contractile apparatus forms a banded pattern in each cell or fiber- Adults have a fixed numbers; strength training does not increase number but size
Nephrons:
- Carry out the functions of the urinary system - Consists of a tubule and its associated vessels - Number more than a million in a kidney
Cardiac muscle:
- Composed of cells that are branched and striated - Found only in heart tissue - Responsible for the contraction of the heart - Involuntary
Epithelial tissue, also known as epithelium:
- Covers the surface of the body - Lines organs and cavities within the body Example: epidermis and the lining of the heart, blood vessels, and digestive tract
Animals have four main categories of tissue:
- Epithelial - Connective - Muscle - Nervous
Nephrons perform four key functions:
- Filtration, forcing water and other small molecules from the blood to form filtrate - Reabsorption, of water and valuable solutes back into the blood - Secretion, of certain substances, such as ions and drugs, into the filtrate - Excretion, of urine from the kidneys
Spermatogenesis is controlled by the stimulating action of what 2 hormones?
- Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH) -Testosterone
Fibrous connective tissue:
- Has a dense matrix of collagen - Forms tendons (attach muscles to bone) and ligaments (holds bones to joints)
Cartilage:
- Has a strong but rubbery matrix - Functions as a flexible, boneless skeleton ( Ex. your outer ear) - Found in the end of bones - Forms the shock-absorbing pads that cushion the vertebrate of the spinal column - No blood vessels (so injuries heal slowly, if at all)
Osmoconformers:
- Have internal and external environments with similar water concentrations - Include most marine invertebrates
Blood:
- Is a connective tissue with a matrix of liquid - Contains red and white blood cells suspended in plasma (liquid matrix) - Functions mainly to transport substances from one part of the body to another and also plays a role in immunity
Bone:
- Is a rigid connective tissue - Has a matrix of collagen fibers hardened with deposits of calcium salts so bones harden without becoming brittle
Loose connective tissue:
- Is the most widespread connective tissue - Binds epithelia to underlying tissues - Holds organs in place
Nervous tissue:
- Makes communication of sensory information possible Example: temperature regulation - Consists of network of neurons (basic unit)
Muscle tissue:
- Most abundant tissue and what we consume as meat - Consists of bundles of long, thin, cylindrical cells called muscle fibers - Has specialized proteins that contract when stimulated by a nerve
Smooth muscle:
- Named for its lack of obvious striations - Found in the walls of such organs as the intestines and blood vessels - Involuntary
The urinary system:
- Plays a central role in homeostasis - Forms and excretes urine - Regulates the amount of water and solutes in body fluids
What is the function of the Female Reproductive System?
- Produce Ova [gametes] - Prepare to support a developing embryo - Undergo changes according to the menstrual cycle
conductive pathway
- SA node - AV node - Bundle of HIS - Purkinje Fibers
The human urinary systems includes:
- The circulatory system - The kidneys - Nephrons, the functional units of the kidney - The urinary bladder, where urine is stored
Filtrate contains:
- Valuable substances that need to be reclaimed (such as water and glucose) - Substances to be eliminated, such as urea
What happens in the Stage 1 of Oogenesis: Fetal Period - Formation of Oocytes?
-*Egg stem cells called Oogonia give rise Primary Oocytes,* which are "stalled" once the female is born sitting in the ovary for decades in Meiosis 1. *Cell Division: Mitosis producing 2 Diploid Identical Daughter Cells, each of which start Meiosis but do not finish it*
How is the uterine cycle, menstrual cycle and ovarian cycle related and coordinated?
-*Hormones synchronize* the ovarian cycle events to the uterine cycle events. -Follicular Stimulating Hormone triggers the Follicular Phase of the Ovarian Cycle. - Follicular Cells make estrogen. Estrogen increases with increasing numbers of follicular cells. -Initial increase in Estrogen triggers uterus to switch phases from Menstural to Proliferative Phase. -Sudden Increase in LH triggers Ovulation. -LH also causes the follicular cells to become Corpus Luteum. Once the corpus luteum begins to develop, it generates Progesterone. -Progesterone switches the uterine phase from Proliferative to Secretory Phase. - If egg is not fertilized, corpus luteum degenerates and switches the uterine cycle from secretory to Menstrual Phase, shedding the endometrium.
What happens in Stage 2 of Oogenesis: Completion of Meiosis?
-*One Primary Oocyte per month in the ovary becomes active from Puberty to Menopause in response to increasing levels of LH, which signals ovulation and the completion of Meiosis 1: *Cell Division: Meiosis 1 producing 2 Haploid Cells: One Secondary Oocyte and 1st Polar Body*
What are the accessory sex organs?
-Glands -External Genitalia
What are Gonads?
-Male: Testis -Female: Ovaries
What is the function of the paraurethral glands, located on either side of the urethra?
...
Describe the 3 phases of the Ovarian Cycle
1) *Follicular Phase 1st 14 days: One follicle begins to mature* 2) *Ovulation: midpoint = 14th day: Follicle ruptures and Oocyte exits ovary* 3) *Luteal Phase: Last 14 days: corpus luteum forms from ruptured follicle* -Secretes *Progesterone* -*Acts in preparation for implantation of the embryo*
What happens in Stage 1 of Spermatogenesis: Formation of Spermatocytes?
1) *Sperm stem cells called Spermatogonia* located on the outer region of seminiferous tubules on the epithelial basal lamina divide vigorously and continuously by mitosis. 2) Each division forms 2 identical daughter cells *-Type A Daughter cells* remain at the basal lamina to maintain the germ cell line. *-Type B Daughter cells*, which move toward the lumen to become *primary spermatocytes* *Cell Division: Mitosis producing 2 Diploid Identical Daughter Cells*
Describe the path of ejaculation?
1) Mature sperm in the Epididymis move out into the Vas Deferens 2) Then moves into the Ampulla of the Vas Deferens, where secretions are added from the Seminal Vesicles. Sperm and secretions then move into the 3) Ejaculatory Duct where the Prostate Gland adds a milky fluid in the final process of creating semen. The semen then is ejaculated out into the 4) Prostatic Urethra, membranous urethra, and finally out of the penis at the spongy urethra
During Meiosis 1 of Oogensis, how do the 2 Haploid Cells differ?
1) Polar Body: Doesn't do anything 2) Secondary Oocyte: Goes onto Meiosis 2 *if it is fertilized*
What are the events leading to fertilization
1) Sperm deposited into the vagina swim up to the mucous plug of the cervix where mass sperm death occur attempting to break through. 2) Sperm that eventually break through continue through the uterus swimming through the Uterine Tube until they reach a Ovulated Oocyte 3) Once the sperm reach the Oocyte, an Acrosomal Reaction takes place where the *Acrosome (head of the sperm) releases enzymes* that break through the *Zona Pellucida, allowing the sperm to enter the egg fertilizing the egg joining chromosomes and initiating Meiosis 2 * 4) *Cortical Reaction* occurs after a sperm reaches the inside of the egg, which creates a force field that blocks additional sperm from entering.
What happens in Stage 2 of Spermatogenesis: Meiosis
1)Primary Spermatocytes under go Meiosis where the Diploid cells split into 2 Haploid cells. This is done in the following 2 stages: *-Meiosis 1:* Diploid cell (46 Chromosomes 92 DNA) splits into *2 Haploid Cells Secondary Spermocytes* (2 cells each with 23 Chromosomes and 46 DNA) *-Meiosis 2:* Nothing more than Mitosis minus the Interphase step in other words just cell division without duplication) resulting in *4 Haploid Spermatids* (4 cells each with 23 Chromosomes and 23 DNA)
Thermoregulation is the maintenance of internal body temperature. 1. Endotherms 2. Ectotherms
1. Endotherms derive the majority of their body heat from their metabolism. 2. Ectotherms obtain body heat primarily by absorbing it from their surroundings.
large intestine (colon)
1.5 m long, no digestion, absorbs water and minerals to create feces. E. coli (symbiotic bacteria) live here)
duodenum
1st part of small intestine: produces enzyme, site of entrance of pancreatic juice and bile; site of massive chemical digestion
How many days does the Ovarian Cycle last?
28 days on average
jejunum
2nd part of small intestine: absorption
ascending, transverse, descending (parts of large intestine)
3 portions of large intestine, in order of 1st to last
ileum
3rd part of small intestine:absorption
Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous
4 Types of Tissue
Adipose, loose connective, blood, bone, cartilage, fibrous connective
6 types of connective tissue
essential amino acids
9 of the 20 AA can't be made by humans, must be obtained by diet
Cardiovascular System
A collection of organs that transport blood throughout the body; the organs in this system include the heart, the arteries, and the veins.
Tissue
A cooperative unit of many very similar cells that perform a specific function; have a particular structure that enables them to perform a specific task;
plaque
A deposit of fatty material on the inner lining of an arterial wall
diabetes
A disease characterized by abnormally high levels of blood glucose.
cardiovascular disease
A disease characterized by abnormally high levels of blood glucose., a disease of the heart or blood vessels
Lymphatic System
A network of fine vessels connected to many small organs called lymph nodes; supplements the work of cardiovascular system and together makes up circulatory system; lymph vessels pick up fluid called lymph that leaks through blood vessels into tissue spaces and return it to the blood, keping the blood volume constant; lymph also percolates through the lymph nodes which are packed with white blood cells called lymphocytes and macrophages;
cholesterol
A waxy, fat-like substance in the bloodstream of all animals. It is believed to be dangerous when it builds up on arterial walls and contributes to the risk of coronary heart disease; found only in animals not in plants
what hormone is a antagonist of aldosterone
ANP (Atrial natriuretic peptide)
Lymphatic System
Acts like a "drain" to remove the body's excess fluid and return portions to the blood. Contains lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) that protect the body against disease.
Sebaceous glands
Also known as oil glands, these secrete an oily fluid that moistens and softens hair and skin.
What is a follicle?
An oocyte (egg) with follicular cells around it.
Skeletal Muscle
Attached to bones by tendons, cords of fibrous tissue. Called "voluntary" bc an animal can contract them at will; muscle fiber is backed tightly with strands (striated); bands occur in repeated groups, each of which is structural and functional unit of muscle contraction; exercise doesn't increase number of these cells, only enlarges those already present
areolar tissue
Binds skin to the underlying organs
Excretory System/Urinary System The Urinary System and the Excretory are the same but are different because urination releases excess water from the body. Where the excretion releases the body's liquid and gas waste products.
Body system that collects and eliminates wastes from the body; includes the kidneys and bladder.
Dense CT
CT type, found in tendons and ligaments, and lower layers of skin, more collagen fiber and are oriented primarily in one direction, fibrous CT
Reticular CT
CT type, serves as internal framework of soft organs, consists of thin, branched reticular fibers, fibrous CT
Loose CT
CT type, surrounds many internal organs, muscles, and BV, contains a few collagen and elastic fibers in no pattern, fibrous CT
Elastic CT
CT type, surrounds organs that change shape regularly, contain high proportion of elastic fibers so it stretches and recoils easily, fibrous CT
atherosclerosis
Clogging, narrowing, and hardening of the body's large arteries and medium-sized blood vessels.
All living cells must be bathed in a watery solution so that exchange of materials can occur. Animals with ___ face the same basic problems. Each cell must:
Complex body forms - Be bathed in fluid (interstitial fluid) - Have access to essential nutrients from the outside environment
Blood
Connective tissue with fluid called plasma that consists of water, salts, and dissolved proteins. Red/White cells are suspended in the plasma; functions are transporting substances from one part of the body to another and immunity
Fibrous connective tissue, cartilage, bone
Connective tissues with dense matrices
Ligaments
Connects bone to bone
Tendons
Connects muscle to bone
Muscular System
Consists of all the skeletal muscles in the body; Skeletal muscles can move parts of body because they are attached to bone/cartilage structures; this system allows us to move, manipulate environment, change facial expressions;
Muscle Tissue
Consists of bundles of long cells(fibers); most abundant tissue in a typical animal; three types of this tissue
Internal Environment
Consists of insterstitial fluid that fills the spaces around the cells; maintain salt/water/temp/pH balance;
Organ
Consists of several tissues adapted to perform specific functions as a group;
Integumentary System
Consists of skin, hair, nails; major function is to protect internal body parts from mechanical injury, infection, excessive heat/cold, drying out
Connective Tissue
Consists of sparse population of cells scattered through an extracellular matrix. The cells synthesize the matrix, which is usually a web of fibers embedded in a liquid, jelly, or solid.
Integumentary System
Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail. Protects the body from injury, water loss, and some bacteria.
Organ
Consists of two or more tissues packed into one working unit that performs a specific function. - Examples include the heart, liver, stomach, brain and lungs An organ performs functions that none of its component tissues can carry out alone
Adipose Tissue
Contains fat (pads/insulates body); each cell contains a large fat droplet that swells when fat is stored and shrinks when fat is used as fuel; relatively little matrix
What happens when we get too cold?
Control center shuts off sweat glands and constrict skins blood vessels; blood is shunted into deeper tissues, reducing heat loss from skin until blood temp returns to set point and turns off control center; if body doesn't warm up, shivering (involuntary contractions of skeletal muscles) may occur; the contractions generate heat and increases body temp as a result
Negative Feedback Components
Controlled variable (property that varies), sensor (receptor, monitors), control center (receives input from sensor and signals effector), effector (takes necessary action to get balance)
nuclease
DNA & RNA--> nucleotides (small intestine)
What are the two muscle layers within the Scrotum and which one is response for relaxing or contracting based on the temperature of the testis?
Dartos muscle: layer of smooth muscle *Cremaster muscle: bands of skeletal muscles that are responsible for relaxing or contracting based on temperature.*
Dendrite
Directs signals toward the cell body
Hair
Each hair has a shaft above the skin's surface and a root below the surface. Hair is actually composed of several layers of cells enclosed in an outer layer of overlapping, dead, flattened keratinocytes. The root hair is surrounded by a sheath of several layers of cells called the follicle. The cells at the very base of the follicle are constantly dividing to form the hair root. As new hair cells are formed at the base, the hair root is pushed upward toward the skin's surface.
What is the function of the Corpora Cavernosa, Corpora Spongiosum and the Glans Penis?
Erection of the penis from blood flow and engoragement for intercourse.
Complex animals have __ or __ internal surfaces that maximize surface area for exchange with environment.
Extensively folded or branched internal surfaces
which hormone stimulates seminiferous tubules
FSH
two gonadotropic hormones
FSH/LH
Cartilage
Forms a strong but flexible skeletal material, consists of an abundance of collagen fibers embedded in a rubbery substance; commonly surrounds the ends of bones, where it forms a smooth, flexible surface; supports nose and ears, and forms cushioning discs between vertebrae
Cardiac Muscle
Forms the contractile tissue of the heart; striated but its cells are branched; ends of cells mesh tightly together, forming relay structures carrying the signals to contract from cell to cell during heartbeat;
larynx
From the pharynx, air is inhaled into the _________ (voice box) and then into the trachea (windpipe). The trachea forks into two bronchi, one leading to each lung.
Reproductive System
Gamete producing portions of ovaries and testes; animals can live without this system; purpose is for the species to survive; in females ovaries produce egg cells and release them into oviducts (Fallopian tubes) to be fertilized; fertilized egg develops into embryo in uterus; vagina accepts penis during intercourse and acts as birthing canal; testes produce sperm in males and other organs keep sperm viable and convey it into female body;
Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones into blood, blood transports hormones throughout the body; hormones affect behavior and regulate activities like digestion, metabolism, growth, reproduction, heart rate, water balance; pancreas tissue produces hormones regulating sugar in blood and other tissues produce juices aiding in digestion;
White blood cells (Leukocytes) classification:
Granulocytes a. Neutrophil b. Eosinophil c. Basophil Agranulocytes a. Lymphocyte (B or T cell) b. Monocyte (Precursor to Macrophage)
diagnosis based on protruding eyeballs and growth of neck
Graves disease
Tissues
Groups of specialized cells that are similar in structure and that perform common functions.
Connective tissues
Have a spare population of cells in an extracellular matrix. The matrix consists of a web of protein fibers within a uniform foundation that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid. - The structure of connective tissue is correlated with its function: to bind and support other tissues
Endocrine Glands
Hormone producing organse
closed
In a __________ circulatory system, blood is confined to vessels and is distinct from the interstitial fluid, the fluid that fills the space around cells.
open
In a __________ circulatory system, the circulating fluid is pumped through open-ended vessels and flows out among the cells.
Moist, Thin Membrane, Extensive Surface Area
In order for exchanges to take place between cells and body fluids, 3 requirements:
Where does Meiosis 1 & 2 occur?
In the *Adluminal Compartment* of the seminiferous tubules
Where does the formation of Spermatocytes occur?
In the *Basal Compartment* of the seminiferous tubules
Digestive System
Ingests food and breaks it down into smaler chemical units; food enters the mouth and travels via esophagus to the stomach; digestion occurs mainly in the stomach and small intestine and nutrients are absorbed into bloodstream through small intestine; large intestine absorbs water and compacts indigestible material into feces(leaves through anus);
One of the secretions from the Seminal Vesicle contains fructose. What is it for?
It is an *energy source for sperm* and once the tails are functional, it supplies the energy the sperm needs to hopefully reach the egg.
Smooth Muscle
Lacks striations; found in the walls of digestive tract, urinary bladder, arteries, and other internal organs; cells(fibers) are shaped like spindles; they contract more slowly than skeletal muscles but can sustain contractions for longer periods of time; mostly involuntary; not generally subject to conscious control; can decide to use them to step forward but can pump blood without our command;
Liver
Largest organ in the body and has multiple functions; as part of the digestive system it discharges bile (aids in fat digestion) into the small intestine; it carries out metabolic reactions involving carbohydrates and lipids, produces important blood proteins and removes toxins/worn out cells from the blood;
Positive feedback
Less common is positive feedback in which the results of a process intensify that same process, such a uterine contractions during childbirth.
Synovial membranes
Line the very thin cavities between bones in movable joints. these membranes secrete a watery fluid that lubricates the joint.
What is the function of the Greater Vestibular Gland, which is located just posterior to the Vagina?
Lubricates the vagina
B cells and T cells
Lymphocytes =
Respiratory System
Made of the trachea, larynx, pharynx, and lungs. It helps the body take in oxygen from the air (when you breathe in) and release carbon dioxide (when you breathe out).
Dense Connective tissue
Main tissue of tendons and ligaments
Fibrous Connective Tissue
Matrix of desnely packed parallel bundles of collagen fibers; forms tendons and ligaments
diffuse
Metabolic wastes, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), _____________ from the cells to the circulatory system for disposal.
Loose Connective Tissue
Most common connective tissue in the body; its matrix is a loose weave of fibers. Many of the fibers consist of the strong ropelike protein collagen; serves mainly as a binding and packing material, holding other tissues/organs in place;
Negative feedback
Most mechanisms of homeostasis depend on a common principle called negative feedback, in which the results of a process inhibit that same process, such as a thermostat that turns off a heater when room temperature rises to the set point.
The endocrine system shares communication functions with which other system
Nervous
Neurons
Nervous tissue cells that generate and transmit electrical impulses. these can be as long as the distance from your spinal cord to the tip of your toe.
What is one of the main differences between Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis?
Oogenesis begins prior to birth in females whereas males don't start Spermatogenesis until puberty. Oogenesis stops once the female is born and does not continue again until puberty.
Every organism is a ___, continuously exchanging chemicals and energy with its surroundings to survive.
Open system
Respiratory Sytem
Organ system for exchaning gases with environment; supplies blood with oxygen and removes CO2 waste product; air enters the nose/mouth, passesthrough larynx(voicebox) into trachea (windpipe); O2 diffuses into blood and CO2 diffuses out through air sacs in lungs
A mature egg [fertilized completed Meiosis 2 Secondary Oocyte] is known as?
Ovum
hormone which is the antagonist of calcitonin
PTH
Nervous system
Processes sensory information and controls response - brain; sense organ (ear); spinal cord; nerves
Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs and provides a framework the muscles use to support movement. Made up of bones and joints.
Skeletal System
Provides body support and protects organs (brain, lungs, heart, etc)
What is the function of the Prostate Gland?
Releases 2 types of milky secretions during ejaculation into the Prostatic Urethra: - Secretes an alkalinic substance that reduces the pH of the vagina allowing sperm to survive. -Secretes a substance that activates sperm tails.
Muscular System
Responsible for movement of the body. Includes smooth, skeletal, and cardiac muscles.
Digestive System
Responsible for the breaking down and absorption of food; includes teeth, mouth, esophagus, stomach, small, intestine, large intestine, and colon.
Trachea
Single, large air tube that branches into smaller tubes called bronchi which enter lungs;
Temperature, pH, Salt concentration, CO2 and O2 levels, water, nutrients/waste
Six conditions for homeostasis
Barriers
Skin, mucous and hairs work together to keep invaders out! First line of defense is the skin, which is rich in IgA antibodies. If invaders get past the skin, they need to get by nonspecific defenses like the Macrophages, Natural Killer cells, and complement proteins.
Anything that goes into the testis or comes out of the testis comes through the ________ ________ from the pelvic cavity.
Spermatic Cord
Describe Oogenesis also labeling diploid (2n) vs haploid cells (n)
Stage 1: Fetal Period - Formation of Oocytes (2n) Stage 2: Completion of Meiosis 1 (n) Stage 3: Completion of Meiosis 2 when fertilization occurs (n)
Describe the process of Spermatogenesis also labeling diploid (2n) vs haploid cells (n).
Stage 1: Formation of Spermatocytes [2n] Stage 2: Meiosis [n] Stage 3: Spermiogenesis [n]
Neuron
Structural and functional unit of nervous tissue uniquely specialized to conduct nerve signals; transmission usually brought about by chemicals that diffuse from one cell to the next; not made up entirely of neurons, also contains support cells that nourish the neurons or surround and insulate to promote faster transmission
Skeletal system
Supports body and anchors muscles - Bone; cartilage
which is the most active form of thyroid hormone
T3
Nervous System
The body's "fast" communication system; it tells the body what to do. Made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.
Endocrine System
The body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
Immune System
The body's defense against infectious organisms and other harmful invaders. Includes bone marrow, spleen, and white blood cells.
Homeostasis
The body's tendency to maintain relatively steady conditions in the internal environment when the external environment changes.
Osmoregulation:
The control of the gain or loss of: - Water - Solutes
What happens if the Secondary Oocyte does get fertilized?
The fertilized Secondary Oocyte becomes an Ovum through Meiosis 2 and travels down the uterine tube, implanting itself in the endometrium of the uterus. In response to implantation, the Corpus Luteum does not degenerate and continues producing progesterone thus preserving the uterine lining (endometrium) throughout pregnancy.
Interstitial fluid
The internal environment of vertebrates is the interstitial fluid, which fills the spaces between cells and exchanges nutrients and wastes with microscopic blood vessels.
What happens if the Secondary Oocyte does not get fertilized?
The ovulated secondary Oocyte passes through the uterus, the corpus luteum degenerates causing a drop in progesterone, which signals a switch in the Uterine Cycle from Secretory to Menstration, degenerating the endometrium causing a flow of blood.
tricuspid valve
The right atrioventricular valve which consists of three cusps
What happens in Stage 3 of Spermatogenesis: Spermiogenesis?
The stage where *spermatids differentiate into sperm,* a cell with a head, midpiece and tail. The tails of the sperm generate in the tubules but develop in the lumen.)
Sensory nerve endings
These provide information about the outside environment. Separate receptors exist to detect heat, cold, light touch, deep pressure, and vibration.
Blood Vessels
These supply the cells of the dermis and epidermis with nutrients and remove their wastes. These also help regulate body temperature, they dilate to facilitate heat loss when we are too hot and constrict when we are too cool. The dermis also contains lymph vessels, which drain fluids and play a role in the immune systems.
Mucous Membrane
This is in air tubes and helps keep lungs clean by trapping dust pollen and other particles in its secretions; the beating cilia on this sweeps the trapped materials upward and out of the breathing passageways
Simple Squamous
This type of epithelium is thin and leaky, suitable for exchanging materials by diffusion; found in places like blood vessels and air sacs in the lungs
Stratified Squamous
This type of epithelium regenerates rapidly by division of the cells at its attached surface; new cells move toward free surface as older ones slough off; well suited for covering/lining surfaces subject to abrasion;
What is the function of the hormone estrogen?
To keep the vagina and other female reproductive parts looking the way they do.
Axon
Transmits signals away from the cell body, often to another neuron; some can be half a meter or more in length;
(T or F) Even the heart, intestines, and kidneys produce hormones
True
atria
Two superior chambers of the heart, serve as receiving chambers
Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
Types of Muscle
Excretory System
Waste disposal; Kidneys remove nitrogen containing waste products of cellular metabolism from the blood; in urine the wastes pass through ureters to bladder for temporary storage; leave body through urethra; kidneys regulate osmotic balance of blood
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
Uses no xray or other high energy radiation; takes advantage of behavior of hydrogen atoms in water molecules; nuclei of hydrogen atoms are usually oriented in random directions but in magnetic field align in same direction; uses powerful magnets to align hydrogen nuclei then knock them out of alignment with brief pulse of radio waves; hydrogen atoms immediately spring back into alignment giving out faint radio signals of their own picked up by scanner and translated by computer into an image;
What is the most successful site of Fertilization and Implantation?
Uterine Tube
Nervous System
Works with endocrine system to coordinate body activities; brain receives info from sense organs (ex: eyes) and brain sends signals to muscles or glands via spinal cord and nerves in response; also responds to internal info from the body itself;
T cells
____________ mature in the thymus : The thymus is an organ that is found near the heart. "T" stands for thymus. The thymus is like a nursery or a school.
Phagocyte
_______________ means, "eating cell", or "cell eater". The monocytes are phagocytes that circulate in the blood. When monocytes migrate to tissues, they become macrophages. Special macrophages can be found in the lungs, kidney, brain, and liver. Neutrophils are similar to macrophages, but smaller.
B cells
____________________ complete maturation in bones. They are later found in Lymphnodes. Major battles take place at Lymphnodes. Lymphocytes can travel in blood vessels or lymphatic vessels. Lymph is a clear fluid that bathes the body's tissues.
atrium
a cavity or chamber of the body, especially one of the chambers of the heart that receives blood from the veins and pumps into ventricle
myelin sheath
a chain of bead-like supporting cells
neurotransmitter
a chemical that carries information from a nerve cell to another cell that will react
epiglottis
a flap of cartilage and connective tissue that keeps food out of the trachea
tissues
a group of cells that perform a single function
organs
a group of different tissues that work together to perform a single function
organ systems
a group of organs that perform closely related functions
cerebral cortex
a highly folded layer of tissue that forms the surface of the cerebrum
retina
a layer just inside the choroid that contains photoreceptor cells
Three parts of neurons: 3. axon
a long extension that transmits electrical impulses over long distances. `
cochlea
a long, coiled tube
saliva
a mucus and enzyme-containing liquid secreted by the mouth that begins to break down starches and makes food easier to swallow
pyloric sphincter
a muscular ringlike valve that regulates the passage of food out of the stomach and into the small intestine
synaptic cleft
a narrow gap separating the synaptic terminal of the sending neuron from the receiving cell
action potential
a nerve signal that carries information along a neuron
What is the function of the Vagina, which connects the cervix to the Labia Minora and Labia Majora?
a receptacle for sperm and serves as the birth canal during labor and delivery
Bone
a rigid connective tissue that has a matrix of collagen fibers embedded in calcium salts; this combo makes bone hard without being brittle; may contain repeating circular units of matrix each with a hollow central canal; blood vessels and nerves enter bone through the canal and keep the bone cells alive and grow within the animal;
pacemaker
a specialized bit of heart tissue that controls the heartbeat located in the wall of the right atrium - generates electrical impulses - impulses pass to a relay called the AV (atrioventricular) node - once impulses reach ventricles, they contract strongly driving blood out of the heart
sclera
a tough whitish layer of connective tissue on the outer surface of the human eye
macrophage
a type of phagocyte
pulmonary veins
a vein carrying oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart
most hormones are: a. amino acid based b. steroids
a. amino acid
__________ stimuli will cause the release of adrenalin. a. neural (nerves) b. hormonal (hormones in response to another hormone) c. humoral (blood) d. all of the above
a. neural
immunity
ability to resist an infectious disease
infectious disease
abnormal condition associated with specific symptoms and signs, and caused by a pathogen
small intestine
about 7 m long, where most of chemical digestion and food absorption take place
lacrimal gland
above the eye secretes tears, a dilute salt solution that is spread across the eyeball by blinking and that drains int ducts that lead into the nasal cavities
Melanin
accumulates inside keratinocytes and protects us against the sun's ultraviolet radiation. exposure to sunlight increases the activity of melanocytes, accounting for the ability of some people to develop suntan. because all humans have about the same number of melanocytes, racial differences in skin color reflect either differences in melanocyte activity or differences in the rate of breakdown of melanin once it is produced.
AIDS
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
diagnosis based on enlarged hands, feet, and mandible
acromegaly
humoral immune response
action taken by B cells as part of immune response
cell-mediated immune response
action taken by T cells as part of immune response
basal cells
actively dividing keratinocytes located near the base of the epidermis.
Breasts are primarily made up of
adipose tissue
what gland is probably at fault in virilism and precocity
adrenal cortex
pharynx
air passes through the __________, where the digestive and respiratory systems meet
mineralocorticoid which conserves sodium
aldosterone
muscle tissue
along with bones enables the body to move
inferior vena cava
brings oxygen poor blood from the lower part of the body to the right atrium
Loose connective tissue
also called areolar connective tissue, is the most common type. it surrounds many internal organs, muscles and blood vessels. this contains a few collagen fibers and elastic fibers in no particular pattern, giving it a great deal of flexibility but only a modest amount of strength.
red blood cells
also called erythrocytes. gradually become filled with hemoglobin, forcing out their nucleus and other organelles
white blood cells
also called leukocytes. almost colorless and contain no hemoglobin, have a nucleus and live for years. main function is to protect the body from invasion by foreign cells or substance
Tissue
an integrated group of similar cells that perform a specific function
target organ of the hormone- TRH
anterior pituitary (notice RH, releasing hormone)
which endocrine organ might be considered a master gland?
anterior pituitary gland
pathogen
any agent that causes disease
stimulus
any factor that causes a nerve signal to be generated
Glands
are epithelial tissues that specialized to synthesize and secrete a product.
Organ systems
are groups of organs that together serve a broad function that is important to survival either of the individual organism (such as respiration, movement, or excretion of wastes) or of the species (reproduction).
arteries
are muscular blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart branching into smaller arterioles.
Organs
are structures composed of two or more tissue types joined together that perform a specific function or functions.
Fibroblasts
are the cells responsible for producing and secreting the proteins that compose the collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers.
capillaries
arterioles branch into these. they are so small that cells must pass through in a single file line and is the spot of diffusion
adipose Functions
as a heat insulator beneath the skin
Smooth Muscle
attached at the base of the hair follicle, it contracts when you are frighted or cold, causing your hair to become more erect.
thyroxin is a. water soluble b. fat soluble
b. fat soluble
___________ stimuli will cause the release of ACTH a. neural (nerves) b. hormonal (hormones in response to another hormone) c. humoral (blood) d. all of the above
b. hormonal
molars (+premolars)
back teeth that grind and crush food
mouth
begins chemical and mechanical digestion
incisors
bladelike, for biting
veins
blood moves form the capillaries into these. collect blood form every part of the body and move it back to the heart
heart, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, heart
blood vessels in a cardiovascular system, name the correct order in which is goes from the heart, back to the heart.
Arteries
blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart
Veins
blood vessels that carry blood to the heart
Capillaries
blood vessels that exchange nutrients, gas, and waste.
brain anatomy
brain anatomy
brain lobes
brain lobes
Digestive system
breaks down food and absorbs nutrients - mouth; esophagus; liver; pancreas; gallbladder; stomach; large intestine; small intestine; anus
Columnar
brick/cone shaped
___________ stimuli will cause the release of insulin a. neural (nerves) b. hormonal (hormones in response to another hormone) c. humoral (blood) d. all of the above
c. humoral (blood)
hormone produced by parafollicular cells of thyroid
calcitonin
Pulmonary Circuit
carries blood between the heart and the lungs
Systemic Circuit
carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body
pulmonary arteries
carries oxygen poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs to pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide waste
arteries
carry blood from the heart to the body
absorption
cells lining digestive tract take in small molecules which travel in blood to other cells
Fibroblasts
cells responsible for producing and secreting the proteins that compose the collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers, fibrous CT
plasma cells
cells that make antibodies (can produce up to 30,000 per second)
immune system
cells that recognize and attack pathogens
neurons
cells that transmit impulses from one spot in the body to another
chemical digestion
change food particles into molecules the body can use
receptor potential
change in membrane potential
neurotransmitter
chemicals used by a neuron to transmit an impulse across a synapse to another cell
steroid hormones made from ___________
cholesterol
blood
circulating fluid
Interstitial Fluid
clear fluid that is the internal environment that surrounds the cells, provides nutrients to the cells,
Bone
contains few living cells, matrix mainly hard mineral deposits of calcium and phosphate, has numerous BV, specialized CT
blood
contains large amounts of fluid and lacks fibers
Computed Tomography (CT)
computer assisted technique that produces images of a series of thin cross sections through the body; Can detect small differences between normal and abnormal tissues in many organs but are especially useful for evaluating brain problems; can aid surgeons in planning strategies for surgery
Eustachian tube
conducts air between the middle ear and the back of the throat, allowing air pressure to stay equal on either side of the eardrum.
brainstem
conducts data to and from other brain centers; helps maintain homeostasis; coordinates body movement
Collagen Fibers
confer strength and are slightly flexible
Fibrous connective tissues
connect the various body parts, providing strength, support and flexibility.
recticular fibers
connective tissue also contains thinner fibers of collagen that interconnect with each other. often serve as an internal structural framework for some of the "soft" organs such as liver, spleen, and lymph nodes.
Cell Junctions
connects some epithelial cells together, made up of proteins
corpus callosum
connects the cerebral hemispheres, enabling them to process information together
optic nerve
connects the retina with the brain
Skeletal Muscle
connects to tendons, contraction causes body parts to move, voluntary muscle
Skeletal muscle tissue
connects to tendons, which attach to bones. when these muscles contract, they cause body parts to move. The individual fibers are thin cylinders too small to be seen with the naked eye, but they may be as long as the entire muscle.
Fibrous CT
connects various body parts, provides strength, support and flexibility, consists of several fiber types
Epithelial tissues
consist of sheets of cells that line r cover various surfaces and body cavities. often they are smooth to reduce friction; the smooth tissue lining your blood vessels helps blood flow more easily through your body, highly specialized for transporting materials. absorb water and nutrients across your intestines into your blood also secret waste products across the tubules of your kidneys so that you can eliminate them in urine.
Tissue membranes
consisting of a layer of epithelial tissue and a layer of connective tissue line each body cavity and form our skin. There are four major types of these.
Hypodermis
consisting of loose connective tissue containing fat cells, it is flexible enough to allow the skin to move and bend, the fat cells insulate against excessive heat loss and cushion against injury.
ground substance
consisting of water, polysaccharides,and proteins that ranges in consistency from gel-like to almost rubbery. contains several types of cells, among them fat cells, mast cells, various white blood cells (macrophages, neutrophils, lymphocytes, and plasma cells).
Tissue Membranes
consists of a layer of CT and a layer of epithelial cells that line each body cavity and form out skin. Four major types: serous, mucous, synovial, cutaneous
peripheral nervous system
consists of all the nerves and associated cells that are not part of the brain and spinal cord
Blood
consists of cells suspended in fluid matrix called plasma, RBC transports oxygen and nutrients and waste products, WBC function in immunity, platelets function in blood clots, specialized CT
Blood
consists of cells suspended in fluid matrix called plasma. it considered a connective tissue because all b
Muscle tissue
consists of cells that are specialized to shorten, or contract, resulting in movement of some kind. is composed of tightly packed cells called muscle fibers.
inner ear
consists of fluid-filled channels in the bones of the skull
Nervous Tissue
consists of mainly cells that are specialized for generating and transmitting electrical impulses throughout the body,
stratified epithelium
consists of multiple layers (or strata), thicker and provides protection for underlying cells.
Squamous epithelium
consists of one or more layer of flatted cells, forms the outer surface of the skin and lines the inner surfaces of the blood vessels, lungs, mouth, throat and vagina.
respiratory system
consists of several organs that facilitate gas exchange
outer ear
consists of the flap-like pinna and the auditory canal
Cardiovascular System
consists of the heart (pumps blood) and blood vessels that transports it; Blood supplies nutrients and O2 to body cells and carries CO2 to the lungs and other wastes from body cells to other disposal sites such as the kidneys;
Immune System
consists of white blood cells that protects body by attacking foreign substances, infections, microbes, and cancer cells; lymphocytes and specialized proteins they secrete (antibodies) are transported through body in blood and lymph; Thymus, bone marrow, and spleen also play roles in immune system
Nervous tissue
consists primarily of cells that are specialized for generating and transmitting electrical impulses throughout the body. it forms a rapid communication network for the body. this is located in the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves that transmit information to and from various organs.
Glial Cell
contained in nervous tissue, doesn't transmit electrical pulses, surround and protect neurons and supply them with nutrients
diagnosis based on hump on back and "moon face"
cushings disease
cerebrospinal fluid
cushions the CNS and helps supply it with nutrients, hormones, and white blood cells
Both Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis do what?
cut the chromosome number in half or Haploid.
best known of the second messengers
cyclic amp
Release of hormones is brought about by ______ stimuli. a. neural (nerves) b. hormonal (hormones in response to another hormone) c. humoral (blood) d. all of the above
d. all of the above
Melanin
dark-brown pigament, protects us against sun radiation,
Lymphatic and immune system
defends against disease - thymus; spleen; lymph nodes; lymphatic vessels
areolar tissue forms
delicate , thin layers between muscles
cytotoxic T cells
destroy cells that have been infected by a pathogen (a.k.a. killer T cells)
What is the function of the Uterus, which consists of the Myometrium, Perimetrium and Endometrium and attaches superiorly to the uterine tube and inferiorly to the cervix?
development of the fertilized egg
Cuboidal
dice shaped
The 4 cells resulting from Meiosis 2, called early spermatids are genetically?
different
alimentary canal
digestive tube with 2 openings
Basement Membrane
directly beneath the cells of an epithelial tissue, noncellular layer, anchors epithelial cells to the stronger CT underneath
basement membrane
directly beneath the cells of an epithelium tissue is a supporting noncellular layer, and beneath that is generally a layer of connective tissue. composed primarily of protein secreted by the epithelium cells, and although noncelluar, it is a cellular membrane that is a part of every living cell.
asthma
disorder that causes airways of the lungs to narrow
septum
divides left and right hear
herbivore
eat mainly autotrophs
carnivore
eat other animals
Neurons
electrical impulses conducted by nervous tissue, has three parts: cell body, dendrites, axon
lipase
emulsified fat droplets-->fatty acids and glycerol
bile
emulsifies fats
What layers of the uterus undergo cyclic changes?
endometrium layer
What does the Acrosome, sperm head contain that allow it to penetrate the egg?
enzymes
part of the bone stimulated by growth hormone
epiphyseal plate
Four major types of Tissues:
epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous
Cell junctions
epithelium cells may be connected to each other may several different types of these, made up of various proteins. these may hold the cells together, depending of the type of epithelium tissue.
What is the function of the Clitoris, which is just anterior to the vestibule.
erectile tissue, which is sensitive to touch and swells with blood during sexual stimulation.
ulcer
erosion of digestive tract lining. usually in stomach, can be in duodenum and esophagus if bad GERDS
hormone which increases rate of erythropoiesis
erythropoietin
essential fatty acids
ex: linoleic acid (construction of phospholipid membrane)
capillaries
exchange nutrients with tissue; network of tiny vessels; converge into venules
Respiratory system
exchanges O2 and CO2 between blood and air - nasal cavity; pharynx; larynx; trachea; bronchus; lung
suspension feeders
exctract food suspended in water, ex: whale, clams, oyster
microvilli
extensions on epithelial cells on villi for more surface area
rods
extremely sensitive to light and enable us to see in dim light, though only in shades of gray
H. pylori
extremophile (can survive low ph) which releases chemical in stomach that reduces mucus production-->white blood cells try to fight infection-->gastritis(inflammation of stomach). also linked to stomach cancer
eye diagram
eye diagram
circulatory system
facilitates the exchange of materials, providing a rapid, long distance internal transport system that brings resources close enough to cells for diffusion to occur
(T/F) Blood hormone levels are mostly controlled by positive feedback
false
(T/F) diabetes mellitus type II requires insulin injections
false
(T/F) most endocrine organs have tubules which transport their hormones to the target organ(s)
false
(T/F)taking synthetic thyroxin is generally prescribed for routine weight loss?
false
which type (water or fat) soluble hormones cause transcription of mRNA
fat
bile salts
fat globules-->emulsified fat droplets (not enzyme, in small intestine)
Male or Female, we all begin life as a?
female. The Y chromosome is activated at a specific developmental period.
Muscle fibers
fibers are generally long and thin and aligned parallel to each other. The cytoplasm of this contains proteins, which interact to make the cell contract. Three types of these fibers.
villi
finger like projections on small intestine's surface to increase surface area for absorptions, line jejunum and ileum
lymph
fluid lost by the blood into surrounding tissue
gastrin
food stimulates cells to release this hormone into circulatory system, stimulating further secretion of gastric juice
Nervous Tissue
forms a communication system that rapidly transmits information as nerve signals; when stimuli is sensed, tissue directs and determines responses, enabling the body to function as a coordinated whole;
Hyaline cartilage
forms the flexible soft part of the nasal septum
Elastic cartilage
forms the framework of the outer ear
pain receptors
found everywhere except the brain
Dense connective tissue
found in tendons, ligaments, and lower layers of skin, has collagen fibers. the fibers are oriented primarily in one direction, especially in the tendons and ligaments in and around our joints. is the strongest connective tissue when pulled in same direction as the orientation of the fibers, but it can tear if the tear if the stress comes from the side. There are very few good blood vessels in dense connective tissue to supply the few living cells. this is why, if you strain a tendon or ligament, it can take a long time to deal.
photoreceptors
found in the eye and are sensitive to light
mechanoreceptors
found in the skin, skeletal muscles, and inner ear and respond to touch, pressure, stretching of muscle, sound, and motion
Cardiac Muscle
found only in the heart, fewer fibers but still parallel, involuntary muscle,
Valves
gates in heart that keep unoxygenated blood from mixing with oxygenated blood
What is the function of the Fimbriae?
generates currents to sweep the egg once it is released from the ovary into the uterine tube.
iris
gives the eye its color
thymus
gland (organ), near the heart, that produces lymphocyctes
spleen
gland (organ), on left abdomen, that produces lymphocyctes
hormone which acts antagonistically to insulin
glucacon
which of the 3 groups of corticoids inhibit inflammation
glucocorticoids
Only 2 sources of steroid hormones are adrenal cortex and ________________
gonads
What are the primary sex organs?
gonads
adipose Cells
greatly enlarged with nuclei pushed to sides
Organ System
groups of organs that together serve a broad function that is important to survival either of the individual organism or species
Muscle Tissue
has cells specialized to contract, composed of tightly packed muscle fibers which are lined parallel with each other, 3 types skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Adhesion Junctions
have protein filaments that allow for some movement between cells so tissues can stretch and bend
Gap Junctions
have proteins that permit movement of water and ions between cells, commonly found in the liver, heart, and some muscle tissue
lens
held in position by ligaments, behind the pupil
conjunctiva
helps keep the outside of the eye moist
stomach
helps to agitate and grind food
What is the function of the Ovarian Ligament?
holds the ovary in place.
leptin
hormone linked to control of appetite. lack of it leads to obesity in mice
General term for endocrine messengers
hormones
human endoskeleton
human endoskeleton
HIV
human immunodeficiency virus
blood vessels
humans vascular system
part of the brain which controls endocrine system
hypothalamus
where is the anti diuretic hormone produced?
hypothalamus
opportunistic infection
illnesses caused by pathogens in people with weakened immune systems
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
imaging technology that yields info about metabolic processes at specific locations in the body; patient is injected with biological molecule labeled with radioactive isotope in small quantities; metabolically active cells take up the labeled molecule and emits positrons which collide with electrons in the cells; when this happens high energy radiation (gamma rays) is released to be detected by the instrument; thus it pinpoints metabolic hot spots by highlighting sites of most intensive radiation; Measures activity in various parts of the brain which can provide insight into people with mental illnesses; usually used for research
allergy
immune response to an antigen that produced little or no response in general population
Why is it important for the testis to be located outside the body?
in order for spermatogenesis, the production of sperm, to occur, the temperature must be 3 degrees cooler than body temperature. If sperm generated is too warm, they will not form correctly.
amylase
in small intestine, smarch-->disaccharides
epithelial Tissue
includes gland tissue and tissues that cover interior and exterior body surfaces
nephrons
individual filters inside the kidney
appendicitis
infection and inflammation of appendix
stem which connects the pituitary to the hypothalamus
infundibulum
omnivore
ingest both plants and animals
bulk feeders
ingest large pieces of food usig diverse utensils (claws, jaws, etc) ex: human, birds, snakes
Dermis
inner layer of connective tissue in the skin
Dermis
inner layer of dense CT, has collagen, elastic, and reticular fibers embedded in ground substance of water, polysaccharides, and proteins, contains papillae, hair root/follicle, smooth muscle, sensory nerve endings,
type of diabetes caused by lack of antidiuretic hormone
insipidus
ingestion
intake of food
rugae
interior folds of stomach
which cells in the testes produce testosterone
interstitial cells
bicuspid valve
is a dual flap (bi = 2) valve in the heart that lies between the left atrium (LA) and the left ventricle (LV).
Simple epithelium
is a single layer of cells. So thin that molecules can pass through it easily
Bone
is a specialized connective tissue that contains only a few living cells. Most of the matrix of bone consists of hard mineral deposits of calcium and phosphate. however, contains blood vessels, and for this reason it can heal within four to six weeks after being injured.
Columnar epithelim
is composed of tall, rectangular (column-shaped) cells. lines parts of the digestive tract , certain reproductive organs, and the larynx. Certain cells within this epithelium , called goblet cells, secret mucus, a thick fluid that lubricates the tissues and traps bacteria, viruses and irritating particles.
Cuboidal epithelium
is composed of the cube-shaped cells. forms the kidney tubules and also covers the surfaces of the ovaries.
Cardiac muscle tissue
is found only in the heart. the individual cells are much shorter than skeletal muscle fibers, and they have only one nucleus .
Adipose tissue
is highly specialized for fat storage. it has few connective tissue fibers and almost no ground substance. Most of its volume is occupied by adipocytes (fat cells). located primarily under the skin, where it serves as a layer of insulation. it also forms a protective layer around internal organs such as the kidneys.
the matrix
is synthesized by connective tissue cells and released into the space between them. the strength of connective tissue comes from this, not from living cells themselves.
Cartilage
is the transition tissue from which bone develops. it also maintains the shape of certain body parts (such as the tip of your nose) and protects and cushions joints.
structures within pancreas which produce hormones
islets of Langerhans
What is the function of the Ejaculatory Duct?
it joins the seminal vesicle and ampulla of the ductus deferens.
What happens to the oocyte?
it ruptures out of the ovary during ovulation and gets swept into the uterine tube by the fimbriae.
vitreous humor
jellylike fluid in the large chamber behind the lens
What is the function of the hormone Testosterone?
keeps the testis and penis looking the way it should be.
organ which originates the renin-angiotensin mechanism
kidney
bolus
large ball of chewed, moist food formed as you swallow
superior vena cava
large vein that brings oxygen poor blood from the upper part of the body to the right atruim
Aorta
largest artery leaving heart
meninges
layers of connective tissue that protect the brain and spinal cord
Melanocytes
less numerous cells located near the base of the epidermis produce dark-brown pigment called melanin.
Mucous Membranes
line airways, digestive tract, reproductive passage, contains goblet cells that secret mucus that lubricates
Serous membranes
line and lubricate body cavities to reduce friction between internal organs.
Serous membranes
line and lubricate internal body cavities to reduce friction between internal organs
Mucous membranes
line the airways, digestive tract, and the reproductive passages. Goblet cells within the epithelial layer secrete mucus, which lubricates the membrane's surface and entraps foreign particles.
nasal cavity
lined with hair for filtering and kept moist by mucus secretions
Synovial Membrane
lines the very thin cavities between bones in moveable joints, secretes watery fluid that lubricates joints, doesn't have epithelial layer
Plasma
liquid part of blood, made up of water and dissolved materials
substrate feeders
live on or in food and eat through it, ex: caterpillar, earthworm
pharynx
located at the back of the mouth and is the common passageway for air and food
larynx
located at the top of the trachea, made of cartilage pieces that includes the Adam's apple and the voice box
chemoreceptors
located in the nose and taste buds and respond to chemicals in the external environment
thermoreceptors
located in the skin, core, and hypothalamus and detect variations in temperature
Autocrines and paracrines are like hormones except that their effects are NOT
long distance
alveoli
look like bunches of grapes that separate the gas from the liquid
Adipose Tissue
loose CT highly specialized for fat storage, located mainly under skin for insulation, also a protective layer around internal organs,
Ventricle
lower chambers of the heart
memory cells
lymphocytes that are formed during first encounter with antigen, and recognize antigens during later infections
Elastic Fibers
made of protein elastin, can stretch without breaking
Collagen fibers
made of protein, confer strength and are slightly flexible.
Elastic fibers
made primarily of the protein elastin, which can stretch without breaking.
gastric juice
made up of mucus, enzymes and strong acid
essential nutrients
materials that must be obtained in preassembled form b/c animal cells can't make them from any raw form; deficiencies can lead to undernourishment and malnourishment
digestion
mechanical (physical) and chemical breakdown (hydrolysis)
What is the function of the membranous urethra?
medial part of the urethra that connects the more proximal prostatic urethra with the most distal spongy urethra.
why can lipids (non polar fats) cross the cell membrane
membrane is lipid (non polar)
middle and inner ear
middle and inner ear
group of hormones produced by zona glomerulosa
mineralcorticoids
neutrophil
most abundant type of phagocyte in the body
What happens to the follicular cells around the oocyte?
most of them stay behind forming the Corpus Luteum.
diffusion
movement of molecules along a concentrated gradient, from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration
absorption
movement of nutrients into the blood carries nutrients to cells throughout the body
Muscular system
moves body - skeletal muscles
esophageal sphincter
muscles of esophagus that contract above and below a bolus
cardiac sphincter
muscles of the esophagus that control release of food into stomach (contract below bolus)
tongue
muscular organ covered with taste buds
esophagus
muscular tube that conveys food boluses from the pharynx to the stomach...no digestion her. flexible, behind trachea, 1 foot long
esophagus
muscular tube that leads to the stomach
the adrenal medulla is actually what type of tissue
nervous
glial cell
nervous tissue also includes another type of cell that does not maintain electrical impulses, plays a supporting role by surrounding and protecting neurons and supplying them with nutrients.
Are the tails of sperm active in the Epididymis?
no
adrenalin has same role as what neurotransmitter
norepinephrine
respiratory system
nose--nasal cavity--pharynx--larynx--trachea--bronchi--bronchiole--alveoli
platelets
not cells; rather, tiny fragments of other cells. main function is to clot blood to prevent bleeding
undernourishment
not enough calories
malnourishment
not getting all essential nutrients
nucleus diagram
nucleus diagram
Three parts of neurons: 2. dendrites
numerous cytoplasmic extensions that extend from the cell body and receive signals from other neurons
acid chyme
nutrient rich broth, mixture of food particles and gastric juice
sensory transduction
occurs as a change in the membrane potential of the receptor cell
Epithelial tissue (epithelium)
occurs as sheets of closely packed cells that cover body surfaces and line internal organs; some line the passageways and air sacs of our lungs, tiny tubes where urine forms in kidneys; organs of digestive tract;
"free surface"
one side of an epithelium that forms the actual lining of the passageway
pupil
opening in the center of the iris
vitamins
organic nutrients obtained by diet (but required in smaller quantities than essential AA)
organization of nervous system
organization of nervous system
cerebrum
performs sophisticated integration; involved in memory, learning, speech, emotions; formulates complex behavioral responses
Cutaneous Membrane
our outer covering, the skin
Cutaneous membrane
our outer covering, the skin. and it serves several functions.
Epidermis
outer layer, squamous epithelial, constantly being replaced, made up of keratinocytes (located near base called basal cells) and melanocytes, lacks BV
fibrocartilage
pads between the vertebrae and knees that are shock absorbers
organ very important in both endocrine and digestive systems
pancreas
accessory organs
pancreas, gall bladder, liver (glands!)
Platelets
part of blood that aids in clotting; also called thrombocytes - bits of cytoplasm pinched off from larger cells in the bone marrow
Red Blood cells
part of blood that carries an iron-containing protein (hemoglobin); also called erythrocytes - most numerous type of blood cell
White blood cells
part of blood that fights infections; also called leukocytes - larger than red blood cells - lack hemoglobin but contain nuclei and full complement of other organelles
interneurons
perform integration
motor neurons
perform motor output
effectors
perform the body's responses
fovea
photoreceptor cells are highly concentrated at the retina's center of focus, called the ____________
mechanical digestion
physical tearing and grinding of food
gland that produces melatonin
pineal
canines
pointed teeth used for ripping apart food in carnivores
stomach
pouch-like organ that temporarily stores food, does mechanical (grinds and churns) and chemical digestion, and times the food's release into small intestine
What is the function of the Cervix, which connects the uterus to the vagina?
prevents pathogens from entering the uterus with a thick mucous plug
Once per month during the follicular phase, one follicle starts to develop and becomes a?
primary follicle
Koch's postulates
procedures for determining the cause of an infectious disease
digestion
process of breaking down food into molecules the body can use
xray
produce photographic images of hard bodies like bones/tumors
liver
produces bile
liver
produces bile (emulsifies fats, NOT an enzyme)
Reproductive system
produces gametes and offspring - oviduct; ovary; uterus; vagina/seminal vesicles; prostate gland; vas deferens; penis; urethra; testis
pancreas
produces pancreatic juice (digestive enzymes + alkaline solution to neutralize HCl in chyme), digestive gland below stomach
two hormones controlling milk production and release
prolactin and oxytocin
One can lower blood pressure by:
proper eating, exercise and weight control
The skin
protection from dehydration (helps prevent our bodies from drying out), protection from injury (such as abrasion), defense against invasion by bacteria and viruses, regulation of body temperature, synthesis of an inactive form of vitamin D, sensation: provides information about the external world via receptors for touch, vibration, pain, and temperature.
mucous membrane
protective barriers that secrete fluid to block or trap pathogens
Integumentary system
protects body - hair; nails; skin
Skin
protects from dehydration and injury, regulates body temperature, synthesizes vitamin D, provides sensations
fibrinogen
protein found in the plasma - threadlike protein called fibrin
antibody
protein that binds to a specific antigen, inactivate pathogen and label it for destruction
interferon
protein that causes nearby cells to resist infection
histamine
protein that increases blood flow to injured area
interleukins
proteins that affect the behavior of immune system cells
What is the function of the Scrotum?
provides a protective sac for the testis
skeletal system
provides anchoring, support, and protection
connective tissue
provides support for the body and connects its parts
immune response
reaction of the body against an atigen
rear view of the brain
rear view of the brain
dendrites
receive incoming messages from other neurons and convey this information toward the cell body
midbrain
receives and integrates auditory data; coordinates visual reflexes; sends sensory data to higher brain centers
hemoglobin
red-colored molecule found in RBCs that carries oxygen
somatic nervous system
regulates activities that are automatic or involuntary
ruminants
regurgitate food to help break plant fibers so microbes can digest them. microbes, multi-chambers and multi-stage food processing-->more energy and nutrition from cellulose
diastole
relaxation phase of the heart cycle
synaptic terminal
relays signals to another neuron or to an effector such as a muscle cell
general name for most hormones which stimulate the anterior pituitary
releasing hormones
gap junctions
represent connecting channels made of proteins that permit the movement of ions or water between two adjacent cells. they are commonly found in the epithelium cells in the liver, heart, and some muscle tissues.
Negative Feedback
results of a process inhibit the process; change in one condition triggers control mechanism to counteract further change in the same direction; prevents small changes from becoming too large;
peristalsis
rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscles in the walls of the digestive tract that propel it through the alimentary canal
Urinary System
rids body of certain waste - kidney; ureter; urinary bladder; urethra
sphincter
ring of muscle at the base of the esophagus prevents material from leaving the stomach
Tight Junctions
seal cells so tightly together, nothing can pass through them, controls movement of substances into or out of the body
Tight junctions
seal the plasma membranes of adjacent cells so tightly together that nothing can pass between the cells. these are particularly important in epithelium layers that must control the movement of substances into or out of the body.(ex. the cells that line the digestive tract, and the bladder, and the cells that form the tubules of the kidneys.
salivary glands
secrete saliva
Endocrine glands
secrete substances called hormones into the bloodstream. one gland is the thyroid gland, which secretes several hormones that help regulate your body's growth and metabolism.
Exocrine glands
secrete their products into a hollow organ or duct. (ex. are the glands in your mouth that secrete saliva, sweat glands in your skin, and glands in your stomach that produce digestive acid.
pancreas
secretes enzymes and sodium bicarbonate
Endocrine system
secretes hormones that regulate body - hypothalamus; pituitary gland; parathyroid gland; thyroid gland; adrenal gland; pancreas; ovary; testis
What are all the secretions collectively from the seminal vesicles, blubourethral gland and prostate gland called?
semen
electromagnetic receptors
sensitive to energy of various wavelengths which takes such forms of electricity, magnetism, and light
eardrum
separates the outer ear from the middle ear
inflammatory response
series of events that suppress infection and speed recovery, part of non-specific immune response
What is the function of the Broad Ligament?
serves as a messentary for uterus, ovaries, and uterine tubes.
hypothalamus
serves as homeostatic control center; controls pituitary gland; acts as biological clock
thalamus
serves as input center for sensory data going to the cerebrum and as output center for motor responses leaving the cerebrum; sorts data
protein compliment system
set of proteins that combine to defend against pathogens
Squamous
shaped like floor tiles
minerals
simple inorganic nutrients required in small amounts
Epithelial Tissue is found:
skin, lining of mouth, inner surfaces of digestive tract, lungs, bladder, BV, tubules of kidneys
epiglottis
small flap of cartilidge
pacemaker cells
small group of cells on the right atria that initiate each heartbeat
both secretin and cholecystokinin are produced by the
small intestines
High blood pressure can be caused by:
smoking, high salt intake, being overweight, having high cholesterol, stress.
Interstitial Fluid
solution that covers body cells for absorption; materials are exchanged between this and body cells;
Adhesion junctions
sometimes called "spot desmosomes" are looser in structure. The protein filaments of these structures allow for some movement between cells so that the tissues can stretch and bend. these in the epithelium in your skin allow you to move freely.
nodes of Ranvier
space between myelin sheath
which type of hormones (steroid or amino acid) require carriers?
steroid
cones
stimulated by bright light and can distinguish color, but they contribute little to night vision
gall bladder
storage of excess bile produced by the liver
adipose provides
stored energy supply in fat vacuoles
gall bladder
stores bile
ligaments
strong fibrous tissues that hold together bones at movable joints
Organs
structures composed of two or more tissue types that perform specific function(s)
antigen
substance the immune system can recognize and attack (typically parts of pathogens)
fluid feeders
suck fluids from host (plant or animal), many are parasitic. ex: aphid, mosquitos, bees
hyaline cartilage forms
supporting rings of the respiratory passages
Connective Tissue
supports softer organs against gravity, connects parts of the body together, stores fat, and produces cells of the blood
connective tissue
supports the softer organs of the body against gravity and connects the parts of the body together. it also stores fat and produces the cells of blood.
bone
supports, protects and provides framework for the body
Smooth Muscle
surrounds hollow organs and tubes like BV, digestive tract, uterus, bladder, involuntary muscle
Smooth muscle tissue
surrounds hollow organs and tubes, including blood vessels, digestive tract, uterus, and bladder. these slim cells are much smaller then skeletal muscle cells and have only one nucleus like cardiac muscle.
Elastic connective tissue
surrounds organs that have to change shape or size regularly. Examples include the stomach, which must stretch to accommodate food; the bladder, which stretches to store urine; and the vocal cords, which vibrate to produce sounds. Elastic connective tissue contains a high proportion of elastic fibers, which stretch and recoil easily.
cells with specific receptors are called ______ _______
target cells
positive feedback
tends to increase the event that caused it gives the system the ability to access new points of equilibrium
negative feedback
tends to reduce the input signal that caused it and helps to maintain stability in a system in spite of external changes
which hormone increases libido in human females
testosterone
cells
the basic unit of structure and function in living things
pinna
the bendable structure we commonly refer to as our "ear"
bronchioles
the bronchi continue to divide smaller and smaller and finally lead to the ____
spinal cord
the communication link between the brain and the rest of the body
resting potential
the difference in charge (voltage) that exists across the plasma membrane of a resting neuron
Blood Pressure
the force exerted by blood against the walls of the artery.
heart
the human central pump
integration
the interpretation of the sensory signals and the formulation of responses
vaccination
the introduction of antigens into the body to cause immunity to pathogens
aorta
the large trunk artery that carries blood from the left ventricle of the heart to branch arteries
synapse
the location in which a neuron can transfer an impulse to another nerve cell
threshold
the minimum change in a membrane's voltage that must occur to trigger the action potential
When does fertilization occur?
the moment the chromosomes from the male and female gametes come together within the Ovum.
Why does the pH in the urethra need to be neutralized?
the normal pH of the urethra is very acidic and must be neutralized so that sperm can survive.
Basement Membrane
the other side of the epithelium is anchored to underlying tissues by this; extracellular matrix that is a dense mat of fibrous proteins and sticky polysaccharides;
Epidermis
the outer layer of the skin's epithelial tissue
brain
the place to which impulses flow
homeostasis
the process by which organisms keep internal conditions relatively constant despite changes in external environments
sensory input
the process of sending signals from receptors
motor output
the process of sending signals from the integration centers to effectors
What is the function of the prostatic urethra?
the proximal part of the urethra and is the widest and most dilatable part running through the prostate. Where urine and semen enter the urethra.
Integumentary System
the skin and its accessory structures
Anatomy
the study of a structure of an organism Example: study of the structure of the heart
Physiology
the study of the function of an organism's structural equipment Example: study how the heart pumps the blood
sensory adaptation
the tendency of some sensory receptors to become less sensitive when they are stimulated repeatedly
Why is it difficult for sperm to get to the uterine tube?
the thick mucous plug in the cervix plugs everything including sperm. The sperm heads have to chew their way through and only can make it at midcycle when the plug is less viscous. This causes a lot of sperm death.
bronchi
the trachea divides into 2 branches, the left and the right ____
cornea
the transparent front of the eye
ventricles
the two lower chambers of the heart, and they pump blood out to the lungs and body.
cuboidal and columnar
these epithelium types have cells with relatively large amount of cytoplasm where secretory products are made and large surface area where substances are secreted/absorbed; form the mucous membrane
Sweat glands
these produce sweat, a watery fluid containing dissolved ions, small amounts of metabolic wastes, and an antibiotic peptide called dermicdin. Sweat helps regulate body temperature and protects against bacteria.
Where do sperm cells go once they reach the lumen?
they are released into the epididymis where they are stored and allowed to mature.
septum
thick wall of muscle that separates right and left sides of heart
aqueous humor
thin fluid in the small chamber in front of the lens
Reticular Fibers
thinner fibers of collagen, serve as an internal structural framework
arteries, capillaries, veins
three main types of blood vessels
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
three regions of small intestine (in order from first to last)
pharynx
throat, where food entering the mouth passes into, is blocked when you choke
What is the function of the spongy [penile] urethra?
to expel urine and semen. It is the most distal end of the urethra.
What is the function of the Bulbourethral Gland that are pea sized glands inferior to the prostate gland?
to lubricate and neutralize the pH of the urethra for the passage of sperm
What is the function of the Testis located within the Scrotum?
to make sperm
What is the purpose of the Uterine Cycle?
to prepare the endometrium for the fertilized egg
What is the function of the Ovary, which are small, almond-shaped organs held in place by ligaments and mesenteries?
to produce eggs once per month
What is the function of the Ductus Vas Deferens that travels from each Epididymis to merge into the Ejaculatory Duct?
to propel the sperm towards the penis.
What is the function of Labia Majora and Labia Minora?
to protect the vagina
What is the function of the Seminal Vesicle located on the posterior side of the Urinary Bladder and merging into the Ejaculatory Duct?
to send secretions into the Vas Deferens
What is the function of the Epididymis, which is located around the testis within the scrotum?
to store and allow sperm to mature.
What is the function of the uterine tube, that begins laterally near the ovary and ends medially emptying into the superior part of the uterus?
to transfer the sperm to the egg
blood functions
to transport substances, help maintain stable internal environment.
atrium
top half of heart accepts blood and pumps to the ventricles
Cartilage
transition tissue which bone develops, maintains shape of some body parts, protects and cushions joints, mainly collagen fibers, produced by chrondoblasts, have small chambers called lacunae, no BV, specialized CT
nervous tissue
transmits nerve impulses throughout the body
axon
transmits signals toward another neuron or toward an effector
blood
transports nutrients, dissolved gasses, enzymes, hormones, and waste products
Circulatory system
transports substances throughout body - heart; blood vessels
(T/F) both FSH and LH function in both men and women
true
(T/F) many hormones have stimulatory effects but some are inhibitory
true
(T/F) thyroxin receptors are found on cells in many organs
true
mouth
two important structures in the mouth are the teeth and salivary glands
stratified epithelum
type of epithelium with multiple layers
simple epithelium
type of epithelium with single layer of cells
elimination
undigested material (feces) passes out of digestive tract
feces
undigested waste
Atrium
upper chamber of heart
circulatory system
vena cava--right atrium--right ventricle--pulmonary arteries--lungs--pulmonary veins--left atrium--left ventricle--aorta
larynx
voice box, controls the opening to the esophagus and trachea (goes up, epiglottus down, trachea closed, sphincter relaxed; larynx down, epiglottis up, trachea open, sphincter contracts)
Keratin
waterproof protein, makes skin tough,
peristalsis
wavelike motion, 2 muscles alternate contractions to push bolus down esophagus
GERD
weak cardiac sphincter-->stomach acid travels into esophagus
When does the lactiferous system develop
when a female becomes pregnant
diarrhea
when colon absorbs too little water from feces
constipation
when large intestine absorbs too much water from feces
autoimmune disease
when the immune system attacks the organism's own healthy cells
Three parts of neurons: 1. the cell body
where the nucleus is located in a neuron.
Keratinocytes
which produce a tough, waterproof protein called keratin.
B cells
white blood cells grown and developed in bone marrow
T-cells
white blood cells grown in bone marrow and developed in thymus
phagocycte
white blood cells that ingest and destroy pathogens
lymphocytes
white blood cells, including B-cells and T-cells
trachea
wind-pipe
trachea
windpipe
location of receptors for fat soluble hormones
within cell
zone of adrenal cortex which produces cortisol
zone fasiculata
