BIO325

Examples of bioremediaiton include (5)

1) hydrocarbons 2) halogenated organic compounds 3) pesticides 4) herbicides 5) organic solvents

Why are stem cells important (3)?

1) inserting cells with correct gene into humans 2) organ repair 3) degenerative disease damage repair

Microorganisms can be used to benefit humans in various ways. (4)

1) production of medicines 2) food fermentation 3) biological control 4)bioremediation

What is a totipotent stem cell? Give an example.

A fertilized egg is a totipotent stem cell; it can give rise to all the cell types in an adult organism.

_____ ______ is an enzyme involved in purine metabolism. If this enzyme is inactive, lymphocytes of the immune system are destroyed, resulting in severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID).

Adenosine deaminase (ADA)

What is an adenovirus?

Adenoviruses are a group of viruses that infect the membranes (tissue linings of the respiratory tract, the eyes, the intestines, and the urinary tract.

Explain the process of Agrobacterium tumefaciens?

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is found within the soil. A wound on the plant enables the bacterium to infect the plant cells. During infection, the T DNA within the Ti plasmid is transferred to the plant cell. The T( transferred) DNA becomes integrated into the plant cell's DNA. Genes within the T DNA promote uncontrolled plant cell growth. The growth of the recombinant plant cells produces a crown gail tumor.

What is the situation if you have biotransformation without biodegradation?

Alternatively, biotransformation without biodegradation can also occur. For example, toxic heavy metals can often be rendered less toxic by oxidation or reduction reac- tions carried out by microorganisms. Another way to alter the toxicity of organic pollutants is by promoting polymerization. In many cases, polymerized toxic compounds are less likely to leach from the soil and, therefore, are less environmentally toxic than their parent compounds.

An example of production of medicines is _________ and the ______ of _______ _______ in _______ _ _____.

An example of production of medicines is the synthesis of human insulin in recombinant E. coli.

______ ______, known as Bt, has been used to protect crops. The bacterium produces Bt toxin, which protects crops from caterpillars and beetles.

Bacillus thuingiensis

What is biological control?

Biological control refers to the use of living organisms, or their products, to alleviate plant diseases or damage from environmental conditions.

What is bioremediation?

Bioremediation is the cleanup of environmental pollutants such as petroleum hydrocarbons.

What is bioremediation?

Bioremediation is the use of microorganisms to decrease pollutants in the environment?

What is biotechnology?

Biotechnology involves the use of living organisms, or products from living organisms, as a way of benefiting humans.

Defense against pests. E.g. __ corn and __ cotton, which carry bacterial genes that encode toxins that kill certain types of insects. They have dramatically increased their crop share since they were introduced in 1996.

Bt Bt

Describe the process in which the first mammal was cloned, Dolly the sheep?

Donor sheep's mammary cell is extracted and grown in a tissue culture flask. Another sheep's unfertilized egg is extracted, and the nucleus is removed. The cells are fused together with electrical pulses. The donor nucleus from the mammary cell and the maternal proteins within the enucleated egg initiate development of the egg into an embryo. The embryo is transferred into a surrogate ewe. Allow pregnancy to proceed. A lamb genetically identical to the donor sheep is then born.

What is biotransformation?

During bioremediaiton via microorganisms, enzymes produced by a microorganism modify a toxic pollutant by altering or transforming its structure.

What are pluripotent cells? Give an example.

Embryonic stem cells (ES cells) are found in the inner cell mass of the blastocyst. These are pluripotent cells, meaning that they can differentiate into almost every cell type of the body, but they cannot produce an entire intact individual. Another example of pluripotent cells are Embryonic germ cells (EG cells). EG cells are found in the gonads in the early fetal stage of development.

What do you get if the cloned gene is inactive?

Gene Knockout

What is gene addition?

Gene addition occurs when non-homologous recombination results in both the original gene and the cloned gene being present in a chromosome.

What is gene replacement?

Gene replacement involves the replacement of the chromosomal gene with the cloned gene by homologous recombination.

What is gene therapy?

Gene therapy is the introduction of cloned genes into living cells to treat disease.

What are GMOs?

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have received genetic material via recombinant DNA technology.

What is a transgenic organism?

If an organism has received genetic material from a different species, it is called a transgenic organism.

What is biodegradation?

In many cases, biotransformation results in biodegradation, in which the toxic pollutant is degraded, yielding less complex, nontoxic metabolites.

What are mammalian cloning and stem cell research?

In the case of plants, cloning is an easier undertaking, as we will explore later in the chapter. Plants can be cloned from somatic cells. In most cases, it is relatively easy to take a cut- ting from a plant, expose it to growth hormones, and obtain a separate plant that is genetically identical to the original. How- ever, this approach has not been possible with mammals. For several decades, scientists believed that chromosomes within the somatic cells of mammals had incurred irreversible genetic changes that render them unsuitable for cloning. However, this hypothesis has proven to be incorrect. In 1997, Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced that a sheep, named Dolly, had been cloned using the genetic mate- rial from somatic cells.

What are two drugs that are produced by recombinant bacteria?

Insulin and erythropoietin

Why might phenotypic effects be shown after gene knockout has occurred?

One explana- tion is that a single gene may make such a small contribution to an organism's phenotype that its loss may be difficult to detect. Alternatively, another possible explanation for a lack of observ- able phenotypic change in a knockout mouse may involve gene redundancy. This means that when one type of gene is inacti- vated, another gene with a similar function may be able to com- pensate for the inactive gene.

What can be accomplished by gene addition?

Researchers can produce a gene knocking, a gene addition in which the gene of interest has been added to a particular site in the mouse genome. In contrast to knockouts, researchers can introduce genes into a mouse genome to study effects of gene over expression or to examine the effete of particular alleles.

How are stem cells categorized in mammals?

Stem cells are categorized according to their developmental stage and their ability to differentiate.

What are stem cells?

Stem cells have the ability to divide and differentiate into different cell types. Stem cells supply the cells that construct our cells from a fertilized egg.

Explain the process of viral gene transfer.

The DNA-liposome complex carrying the gene of interest is taken into the target cell by endocytosis. The liposome is degraded within the endosome and the DNA is released into the cytosol. The DNA is imported into the cell nucleus. By recombination, the DNA carrying the gene of interest is integrated into a chromosome of the target cell.

What is Agrobacterium tumefaciens?

The bacterium Agrobacterium tumefacients is used to produce transgenic plants.

What was the first cloned mammal?

The first clone of a mammal from somatic cells was done by Wilmut (1997) at the Roslin Institute. The organism was Dolly the sheep.

Describe the process of introducing cloned genes into plants.

The gene of interest is inserted into the T DNA of the T-DNA vector. The recombinant T-DNA vector is transformed into Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Plant cells are exposed to Agrobacterium tumefaciens. The T DNA is transferred and incorporated into the plant cell chromosome. Carbenicillin and kanamycin are then added to kill Agrobacerium tumefaciens cells and plant cells that have not take up T DNA, respectively. The plant cels are transferred to a medium containing growth hormones to regenerate an entire plant.

What is molecular pharming?

The introduction of medically important genes into the mammary glands of livestock is called molecular pharming.

Explain the process of non viral gene transfer.

The retrovirus containing the RNA genome with the gene of interest is taken into the target cell via endocytosis. The viral coat is disassembled in the end some, and two copies of the RNA genome are released into the cytosol. The RNA is reverse transcribed into DNA, which travels to the nucleus. By recombination, the viral DNA, carrying the gene of interest, is integrated into a chromosome of the target cell.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens possesses a plasmid. What is the name and function of the plasmid?

Ti Plasmid (tumor inducing plasmid), which induces tumor formation.

Explain the process of obtaining human hormone through other mammals?

Using recombinant DNA technology, clone a human hormone gene next to a beta-lactoglobulin promoter. This promoter is functional only in mammary cells so that the protein product is secreted into the milk. Inject this DNA into a sheep oocyte. The plasmid DNA will integrate into the chromosomal DNA, resulting in the addition of the human hormone gene into the sheep's genome. Implant the fertilized oocyte into a female sheep, which then gives birth to a transgenic sheep offspring. Obtain milk from female transgenic sheep. The milk contains a human hormone.

Have other mammals been cloned since Dolly?

Yes, including cats.

A functional copy of the CF (cystic fibrosis) gene may be inserted in an _______ vector and inhaled as an aerosol to infect lung cells and add CF function.

adenovirus

Aerosol sprays may be used to treat _______ _______.

cystic fibrosis

Stem cells have the capacity to ________ into one or more specialized cell types, and they have the capacity to _______.

differentiate divide

Genetically engineered strain of pseudomonas syringe is used to control ____ ______.

frost bite

Adenosine deaminase deficiency was the first inherited disease treated with _____ _______.

gene therapy The first gene therapy procedure was performed in 1990 on a young girl with ADA deficiency.

Tolerance to herbicides. E.g. Soybeans resistant to killing by _________, the active agent in the herbicide. Roundup.

glyphosate

What are transgenic organisms?

if an organism has received genetic material from a different species, it is called a transgenic organism.

Lymphocytes are cells involved with the _______ response.

immune

Cloned genes can be integrated into plant and animal cells but for them to be stable from generation to generation they must be _______ into one of the _______.

integrated chromosomes

Researchers can replace a normal mouse gene with one that has been inactivated. In an individual that is homozygous for an inactivated gene, the inactive mutant gene has replaced both copies of the normal gene and the function of the normal gene has been ______ ___.

knocked out

Adult stem cells are either _______ or _______.

multipotent or unipotent.

Ice+ species produce proteins that _____ the formation of ice crystals. Ice- do not produce these proteins.

promote

What is an example of recombinant microorganisms?

pseudomonas syringae

Prior to this clinical trial, the normal gene for ADA had been cloned into a ______ vector tat can infect lymphocytes. The general aim of this therapy was to remove lymphocytes from the blood of the patient, introduce the normal ADA gene into her cells, and then return them to her bloodstream.

retroviral

Reduced _____ sped. E.g. the flavor savr tomato

ripening

Disease Resistance. E.g. Virus-resistant plants such as ones resistant to _____ ______ leaf curl virus.

tomato yellow

Bt genes have been introduced into crops to produce ______ plants.

transgenic

T or F Both ES cells and EG cells are pluripotent.

true

The Ti plasmid can be used as a ______ to introduce cloned genes into plants.

vector

The introduction of genes into humans involves ____ and ______ gene transfer methods.

viral nonviral