biogeography midterm

Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of the temporal and spatial patterns of past and present organisms and the processes that generated these patterns.

Know what humus is

Bioweathered organic matter

Know definition of cartographic scale

Cartographic scale refers to the depicted size of a feature on a map relative to its actual size in the world

Know what the ultimate limiting factor is (based on our lecture)

Water

Know the three different photosynthetic pathways and what general types of plants they are associated with (this will be multiple choice or matching pathways)Know definition of natural selection

*C3 Photosynthesis :* C3 plants. Most plants that we think of, when we think of photosynthesis, are C3 plants. Called C3 because the CO2 is first incorporated into a 3-carbon compound. Photosynthesis takes place throughout the leaf. Woody vegetation. *C4 Photosynthesis :* C4 plants. Called C4 because the CO2 is first incorporated into a 4-carbon compound. C4 plants include several thousand species in at least 19 plant families. Example: fourwing saltbush pictured here, corn, and many of our summer annual plants/ grasses. *CAM Photosynthesis :* CAM plants. CAM stands for Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Called CAM after the plant family in which it was first found (Crassulaceae) and because the CO2 is stored in the form of an acid before use in photosynthesis. CAM plants include many succulents such as cactuses and agaves and also some orchids and bromeliads.

Be able to distinguish between the morphological species concept, biological species concept, phylogenetic species concept, and geographical species concept if given an example from the lecture (multiple choice or matching)

*Morphological species concept*-based on physical characters. For example, we can distinguish between a chicken and a duck because they have different shaped bills and feet. This is the oldest way species have been defined. *Biological species concept*- species can interbreed freely to produce viable offspring under natural conditions *Phylogenetic species concept* -shares an ancestor with other species but is distinctive from them by the acquisition of distinctive new traits. *Geographical species concept* -Niche or location becomes the criteria for species. This definition may also include feeding behaviors and morphology. Molecular markers may also help delineate.

Know the three components of Haggett's Scale Coverage Problem

1) Nature has an immense extent and a fine grain 2) To make even small descriptions of it, we have to sample and sacrifice grain for extent or extent for grain. 3) Scale standardization problem-we need to be able to compare different locations or datasets!

Know when the Great American Interchange occurred (T / F or multiple choice)

3 mya Isthmus of Panama raised out of the ocean-and connected South America, which was isolated from ~35 mya to 3 mya. This resulted in unique fauna, such as seen in modern-day New Zealand and Africa.

Know what a cation is, and that it has a positive charge

A cation is an ion with fewer electrons than protons, giving it a positive charge.

Know definition of keystone species

A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its biomass. An example of a keystone species is a sea otter. The sea otters eat the sea urchins in the water, and if they were not there to eat the urchins, the sea urchins would consume all of the kelp that the rest of the habitat needs to survive.

Know and distinguish between genotype and phenotype

A phenotype is the physical appearance of an organism. The genotype is the genetic makeup of a cell, an organism, or an individual (i.e. the specific allele makeup of the individual).

Population

A population is all of the organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same geographical area.

Know and distinguish between proximate and ultimate causation

A proximate cause is an event which is closest, or immediately responsible, for causing some observed result. This exists in contrast to a higher-level ultimate cause which is usually thought of as the "real" reason something occurred.

Know what a rainshadow is

A rain shadow is a dry area on the lee side of a mountainous area. The mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems, casting a "shadow" of dryness behind them.

Know definitions of dispersal and vicariance

A vicariance event is when there is an ancestral population, and suddenly a barrier occurs that separates the population. The population eventually evolves into two different populations because the barrier created a permanent separation. A dispersal event is when there is an ancestral population, but there is a barrier near the population. Some of the population starts to disperse over the barrier, thus creating differentiation of the populations. One on one side and a now a different population on the other side.

Be able to distinguish between absolute scale and relative scale if given definitions

Absolute scale: Distance is physical, measureable Relative scale: Distance is not a directly physical, measurable property but a more intangible construct, often similarity.

If given a figure/diagram or descriptions, be able to identify the type of speciation (remember we looked at four types!)

Allopatric Peripatric Parapatric Sympatric

Be able to distinguish between allopatric speciation and sympatric speciation

Allopatric Speciation: Speciation that occurs when biological populations of the same species become isolated due to geographical changes such as mountain building or social changes such as emigration. The isolated populations then undergo genotypic (their genetic makeup) and/or phenotypic (their physical appearance) divergence. Sympatric Speciation: Does not require geographic isolation. Isolation initiated through: Disruptive selection and assortative mating. Sympatric speciation - behavioral or mating isolation drives speciation event Vs. Allopatric speciation driven by geographic isolation.

Know and be able to distinguish between the two types of ecosystem engineers if given an example or definition

An ecosystem engineer is any organism that creates or modifies habitats...(2 types!) Allogenic engineers (physically modify the environment ) Autogenic engineers (modify the environment by modifying themselves)

Know definition of trophic cascade

Are modification of abundances of organisms in a trophic web due to increases or decreases of predators. Trophic cascades occur when predators in a food web suppress the abundance of their prey, thereby releasing the next lower trophic level from predation (or herbivory if the intermediate trophic level is an herbivore).

Know what assortative mating is (and be able to distinguish between positive and negative assortative mating, if given an example from the lecture)

Assortative mating is where a sexually reproducing organism chooses to mate with individuals that are similar (positive assortative mating) or dissimilar (negative assortative mating) to itself Gobies use positive assortative mating.

Can atmospheric nitrogen be directly used by plants?

Atmospheric nitrogen cannot be directly used by plants.

Know definition of cation exchange capacity (CEC)

Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the total amount of cations that a soil can retain. The higher the soil CEC the greater ability it has to store plant nutrients.

Know definitions of community and ecosystem (be able to distinguish between the two)

Community: Populations of organisms (of the same and different species and their interactions within a given area. Communities are referring to biotic (or living) interactions only-it is made up of interactions between species. Ecosystem: Collection of interacting species and their relationships with the physical (abiotic) environment, particularly the flows of energy and matter.

Know what the competitive exclusion principle is

Competitive exclusion principle is a proposition that states two species that compete for the same source cannot coexist.

Be able to distinguish between convergent evolution and divergent evolution

Convergent evolution Similar phenotypes, distantly related genetically Divergent evolution Different phenotypes, closely related genetically

Know definitions of cosmopolitan, endemic, and disjunct species distributions (I may ask you to choose which of the following is or is not one of the three types of biogeographical distributions, for example)

Cosmopolitan species: worldwide or very large connect distributions. Example: Fruit flies, pigeons Endemic species: restricted to particular regions Disjunct distribution: taxon that has two or more groups that are related but widely separated from each other geographically.

Dendrochronology and palynology

Dendrochronology is the scientific method of dating by analyzing patterns of tree rings Palynology is the science that studies fossil (and modern) palynomorphs-this includes pollen, spores, particulate organic matter (POM)-to name a few.

Know what disruptive selection is, and if it is useful for driving extreme values of a trait in a population or intermediate values more (i.e., does it diversify a population or make it more uniform)

Disruptive selection (diversifying selection) describes changes in population genetics where extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values. Makes the population more uniformed?

Know definitions of grain size and extent (I may give a figure(s) and have you choose the correct response, or multiple choice)

Ecological scale as a component of our measurement and analysis can be defined in terms of extent and grain. Extent: spatial (or temporal) dimension of an object or process observed or analyzed. Grain: finest level of spatial (or temporal) resolution at which an object or process has been measured or observed.

Know that Elton (1927) emphasized 'bottom-up' controls-species at higher trophic levels are constrained by species at lower trophic levels, our producers (T / F)

Emphasized 'bottom-up' controls-species at higher trophic levels are constrained (limited) by species at the lowest trophic levels (our producers, the autotrophs)....

Know what facilitation is, and be able to distinguish between the three types of facilitation if given definitions or descriptions (habitat amelioration, habitat construction, and modification of availability of resources)

Facilitation is the process by which the establishment of one species changes the environment and allows the subsequent establishment of other species. -habitat amelioration: Occurs when an organism reduces potentially limiting physical stresses on another organism. -habitat construction: Modification of habitat/creation of new habitat -modification of availability:

Know what Taylor's Law of the Minimum is

Factor or range of factors may not be continuously effective but are present only at some critical period during the organisms lifespan

Know what genetic drift is

Genetic drift or allelic drift is the change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling. The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents, and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces.

Know if a higher or lower CEC is better for holding nutrients (T / F)

Higher

Know what our current interglacial period is called

Holocene

Be able to distinguish between the individualistic fallacy and ecological fallacy

Individualistic fallacy: extrapolating to the broad scale based on observations conducted at small, local scales Ecological fallacy: making local-scale characterizations based on broad-scale observations.

Know what interference competition is

Interference competition occurs when two species compete for a similar scare source. It can cause problems with reproduction, physical establishment, and survival.

Be able to distinguish between intraspecific and interspecific competition

Intraspecific (within the same species) and interspecific (between different species) competition

Know what Wallace's Line is

Is a biogeographic boundary between the Oriental and Australian realms/provinces-in some cases, islands falling on either side of the line are only 20 miles apart!

Know definitions of K-selected and r-selected species, and be able to provide an example of each if asked

K-selected species = species with long gestation periods and few offspring. Have a low biotic potential. Stabilize at or near carrying capacity. Good competitors. ex: elephants r-selected species = species which reproduce quickly. Have a high biotic potential. Little parental care, populations fluctuate greatly. Ex: Weeds, insects, bacteria, mice.

Be able to distinguish between large cartographic scale and small cartographic scale (I may give figures or multiple choice)

Large cartographic scale-smaller surface area, more detail

Leaf Area Index (LAI)

Leaf Area Index (LAI) is the ratio of total upper leaf surface of vegetation divided by the surface area of the land on which the vegetation grows. LAI is used to predict photosynthetic primary production and as a reference tool for crop growth.

Know what Leibig's Law of limiting factors is

Leibig's Law of Minimum states that growth is measured not by the amount of resources available, but by the limiting factor or a source that is scarce.

Know definition of natural selection

Natural selection is the gradual, nonrandom process by which biological traits become either more or less common in a population as a function of differential reproduction of their bearers.

Are neutral genetic drift and natural selection random or nonrandom processes?

Neutral genetic drift: random process Natural selection: not random

Ontology

Ontology is the study of how we categorize and name things

Know the four types of dispersal-be able to select the correct mode of dispersal if given a description or example from the lecture (choices will be given for this)

Passive - requires outside force; wind, water, or another organisms Active - via own mode of locomotion These passive or active types can reflect certain types of distributions in terms of dispersal Diffusion - continuous distribution Jump - discontinuous distribution

Know the six rules of ecological scale (I may have T/F or multiple choice for these) /F)

Patterns are dependent upon the scale of observation! The important explanatory variables change with scale Statistical relationships may change as scale changes. Patterns are generated by processes acting over various temporal and spatial scales. 5. Scale can be used to justify or refute certain management practices and ideas about nature 6. The scales experienced by an organism define what it sees and responds to. For example, what might constitute a patchy resource to an insect, could be perceived by a larger vertebrate as homogeneous.

Know what the term phenology means

Phenology is the study of periodic plant and animal life cycle events and how these are influenced by seasonal and inter-annual variations in climate. Phenology has been principally concerned with the dates of first occurrence of biological events in their annual cycle.

Know definition of photosynthesis (make sure to know what the inputs and outputs of photosynthesis are-CO2 + water = ?)

Photosynthesis is a chemical process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight. Carbon Dioxide + water= sugar + oxygen

Zoogeography and phytogeography

Phytogeography is the science dealing with the geographical relationships of plants. Zoogeography is the science dealing with the geographical distribution of animals.

Know the four different types of negative interactions and be able to distinguish between them if given definitions or examples (predation, parasitism, competition, amensalism)

Predation: Interactions in which one organism consumes all or part of another. Predator-prey, Herbivore-plant Parasitism: Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species where one organism, the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Competition: Costs are incurred due to common pursuit of resources (sunlight, water, nutrients, mates Amensalism: One species impedes or restricts the success of the other with neutral impacts on itself

Be able to distinguish between producers and consumers (know that secondary consumers eat primary, and so on...)

Producers (autotrophs; our plants and green algae!) Consumers (primary consumers eat producers, secondary consumers eat primary, tertiary consumers are often top predators)

Know definition of ecological (=operational) scale

Refers to the spatial and temporal dimensions of an object or a process Ecological scale also applies to how we slice up the world and measure it. It also applies to how we analyze the data.

Know what Shelford's Law of Tolerance is

Shelfords Law of Tolerance states that the different types of resources and conditions to which an organism is adapted controls its success.

Know what speciation is

Speciation is the development of two or more genetically differentiable species from a single common ancestor species.

Know what the Red Queen Hypothesis is (I may give a definition or example from lecture)

The Red Queen hypothesis is a way of explaining the continuously evolving relationship between predators and their prey. Prey evolve different qualities in order to protect themselves from their prey, however in due time the predators will adapt and evolve allowing them to fight back. I do believe it is a good example of the Red Queen hypothesis. The original example of the small multicellular organisms all of a sudden adapted spines and more defense looking parts. This continued with other organisms too later on. As more organisms started adapting hard shells and other ways to protect themselves, the predators started developing claws or sharp limbs to pierce through the shells.

Know definitions of elevation and aspect

The elevation of a geographic location is its height above a fixed reference point (such as sea level). Aspect generally refers to the horizontal direction to which a slope faces (such as East, West, etc..)

Know (and be able to distinguish between) the fundamental niche and the realized niche of a species

The full range of environmental conditions (both biological and physical) under which an organism can exist describes its fundamental niche As a result of pressure from, and interactions with, other organisms (e.g. superior competitors), species are usually forced to occupy a niche that is narrower than their fundamental niche, and to which they are mostly highly adapted. This is termed the realized niche.

Know what the Green World Hypothesis is

The green world hypothesis developed its name with basic meaning, the terrestrial world is green, and full of plants, and the predators keep the herbivores in check, The hypothesis itself was a different take on the food chain. Elton proposed the bottom up perspective, and the HSS decided to added great weight at the top of the pyramid. Their biggest problem was they lacked actual proof. They used plagues and other one-time catastrophic events as evidence

Know what plant blindness is

The inability to see or notice the plants in one's own environment—leading to: (a) the inability to recognize the importance of plants in the biosphere, and in human affairs; (b) the inability to appreciate the aesthetic and unique biological features of the life forms belonging to the Plant Kingdom; and (c) the misguided, anthropocentric ranking of plants as inferior to animals, leading to the erroneous conclusion that they are unworthy of human consideration.

Know and distinguish between epizoochory and endozoochory

epizoochory- where seeds can be transported on the outside of vertebrate animals (mostly mammals) Endozoochory is seed dispersal by ingestion by vertebrate animals (mostly birds and mammals). It is the dispersal mechanism for most tree species.

Know what the concept of punctuated equilibrium is (slide 4)

some paleontologists have argued that species usually remain unchanged over long stretches of time, and that speciation occurs only over relatively brief intervals