BIOL 286 EXAM 1

what factor would make the relationship between offspring and mid parent trait values a poor predictor of additive genetic variance

environment of parent and this affected trait expressions in offspring = high correlation without genetic component for phenotype variance

how does the epistatic interaction effect influence phenotype

epistasis occurs when a gene alters the expression of other genes

define sympatric speciation

evolution of reprodcutive barriers within a single initally random mating population

define allopatric speciation

evolution of reproductive barriers in pops that are prevented by a geographic barrier from exchanging genes at a more than negligible rate

whats factors contribute to differnces between species

evolved to prevent hybirdization others are adapted bc mutation, genetic drift greater genetic distance between 2 species of Drosophila the more likely 2 species were to be reproductively isolated

sex ratio manipulation parasitoid wasp

assuming that the first female depositis a single male and many female offspring if the second female produces only a few offspring the optimal strategy is for second female to produce many sons second female produces many offspring it is beneficial for the second female to produce more female than male

what are recessive alleles?

b white

allopatric speciation Dusky salamanders how does Stephen Tillleys research on dusky salamanders illistrate allopatric speciation

barriers assocaited with geographic distance allowed populations to genetically diverge mate individuals from same locations different more genetic distance less likely they were to mate same / near more likely to interbred data suggests barriers with geogrpahic distance allows pops to diverge resulting in reproductive isolating barriers

why do individuals of the rare/limiting sex tend to have greater reproductive success

bc fewer individuals of their sex to compete with for matings

how can a trait have an "existence of its own"

bc of inheritance independent of particular individual who has that trait genetic influences on a trait can be passes from parent to offspring

why are mass extiniction events important

bc they esstially wipe the slate clean physical and biotic environmental conditions have potential to change a great deal millions of yrs for diversity following an extinction event

what evidence is there for disruptive selection in the black bellied seedcracker

beak size large beaked birds - hard seeds small - soft seeds

why did Ms. Marin and Pfennig hypothesize that tadpoles with intermediate phenotypes would be disfavored by natural selection

because not well specialized to either tritious or fanning shrimp as the extreme phenotypes

california sheephead sequential hermaphrodite

begin female then can become male after growing to larger size

what types of behaviors does NS favor

benefit done selfishness

what are homologous structures

example of an organ or bone that appears in different animals, underlining anatomical commonalities demonstrating descent from a common ancestor. In other words, it's when very different animals have bones that appear very similar in form or function and seem to be related

what is gene flow

exchange of genes between populations though movements of individuals, gametes, spores

what is disruptive selection?

extreme phenotypes are selected greater reproductive success than intermediate phentypes black bellied seed cracker

why do changes in ploidy across generations occur

failure of reduction division in meiois

behavioral prezygotic barriers spadefoot toad spp Spea bombifrons and Spea multiplicata prezygotic behavior

fefemales preference for species specifice songs prevents hybridaization B = faster call rate, short duration M = slow call rate, long duration

how do we know that phalaropes are a sex role reversed species

female bright compete with other female for access to males and perform courtship behaviors males care for eggs and young

sexual dimorphism golden silk spider

female is larger male is small

parasitoid wasp

female parasitoid wasps depositis eggs in other insects offspring develop, consuming host insect hard to find host for eggs 1 female eggs daughters hatch and mate with brother

reinforcement of prezygotic barriers and character displacement collared flycatchers pied flycatchers

female pied flycatchers prefer brown males when they are sympatric with collared flycatchers, but black and white males when their species is geographically seperated from collared flycatchers

how do scientists believe bright male plumage evolved in peacocks

female preference female want elaborate males that were more colorful gained more matings and passed more genes males brighter bc direct mate choice

males parental care sand gobies

female sand gobie prefer to mate with males that already have eggs in their nests males that provide more parental care have more offspring hatch females use the number of eggs depositied by other females as an indicator of the males ability to care for offspring

males parental care red cardinals

females prefer brightly colored males bc brightly body color indicates that they will receive direct benefit of greater parental care direct benefit

what is the response to selection

how deviant the offspring are to original population R is the degree which kids inherit unusual properties of parents uk - mean of offspring size S = us - u = selection differential R = uk - u = response to selection R = h^2S = response to selection S = selection differential h^2 = heritability

what does the selection differential measure?

how deviant those who ate are from average individuals in original population u = mean us = mean of subset of individuals S = us - u = differential selection

question based on observations alternative hypotheses predictions

how do leaf cutter ants avoid disease ants continually clean their nests other living conditions keep out disease if hypothesis 1 is correct, the colony fungus will have no disease if 2 is correct cultures will have disease but it will be under control

what does homozygous mean?

identical AABB, aabb

What is a Mendelian trait?

identifies a single gene as a major contributor to the trait

describe how the proportion of nucleotides of any one type can be used to decide the proportion of every other type of nucleotide in a double strand of DNA

if A = 20% T=20% G=30% and C=30%

why should the normal distribution describe complex traits well

if factors are independent and affects are approximately additive

allopatric speication plethodontid salamanders what does the phylogenetic niche conservation hypothesis agrue

if pops of signle species have prefernces for specific environmental conditions less preferred habitats may act as barrier to gene flow just as effectively as physical barriers

non genetic maternal effects

if trait variation affected the environment of the parent, and this In turn affected trait expression in the offspring you could get. high correlation even without any genetic component for phenotypic variance

costs and benefits of being part of a group european goldfinches

benefit more time eating and less time looking for predators cost large flocks consume food supples faster more time flying between feeding sites + relationship number of flight interbals and flock size flock size incresae new food more frequently flock fly further to find food

why is infant birth weight thought to be under stabilizing selection?

birth weight is around 7 pounds intermediate lower rates of mortality than if born very small or very large

what are some costs of sexual reproduction

breaks up locally adapted genomes is costly

acclimatization bullhead catfish

bullhead catfish a shift in an individuals range of physiological tolerance type of phenotypic plasticity require days or weeks, therefore is a strategic response to seasonal or other long term environmental changes summer - upper lethal 36 degrees C winter - 28 degrees C tolerate warmer/colder temps as environmental changes

acclimatization creosote bush

can tolerate either extreme, but not at same time plants can tolerate both extremes but not at same time successful because has time to adjust between extremes

what is phenotypic plasticity

capacity of an individual to respond to environmental variation within a lifetime is the genetically based capacity of environmental variation by changing its form, function, or behavior

what are the two extreme phenotypes present in spadefoot toads?

carnivore- large jaw, teeth, feed on fanning shrimp omnivore- small jaw muscles, feed on tritious and pond bottom a smaller proportion of intermediate tadpoles had survived relative to the carnivorous and omnivores extreme types

how does the swallowtail caterpillar example exemplify a reaction norm?

caterpillars from Alaska grew more rapidly at lower temperatures than caterpillars from Michigan evolution has improved on the Alaska caterpillars performance under the lower temps found in Alaska grow faster at high temps- Michigan reaction norm show positive relationship between environmental temp and swallowtail growth rate

what is a prezygotic barrier

cause reprodcutive isolation before a zygote is formed tempora habitat behavioral gametic barrier mechanical

conspicious male traits

certain traits allow males to win contests for access to mates there is female preference for particular male traits

what is genetic drift

change in allele frequencies due to random variations

what is genetic drift

change in allele frequency in population due to random variations in fecundity and mortality prevent genetic drift for large deviations from Hardy Weinberg expectations

how is evolution defined

change in genetic composition of population across generations

what is acclimatization

changes in form, function and behavior that occur with changes in season, water availability or elevation reversible change

what is a mutation

changes in genetic material

genetic bottleneck cheetah why do cheetahs have very little variation in genes assiciated with the major histocompatibility complex?

cheetahs experienced a population bottleneck 1000 years ago resulted in the loss of both DNA and protein polymorphisms presently 20,000 cheetahs on planet, almost no protein polymorphisms and very little variation in genes associated with the major histocompatibility complex immune function increased systaility to disease

how do females increase their fitness

choosing males who can give them either direct or indirect benefits

what is symbiosis

close relationship between 2 species physical associations leaf cutter and fungi

what is a coding exon

coding regions code for proteins

what is founders effect

colonization of an island or habitat by a small number of indiviuals, carrying only a portion of the genetic variariotn present in the parent population

what is a founders effect

colonization of an island/habitat by a small number of individuals only a portion of genetic variation present in the parent population

why is peripatric speciation sometimes referred to as "speciation by founder's effect?

colonization of island habitat patch by small number of individuals only a portion of genetic variation present in parent population

what are ecosystems

communities and the physical systems they interact with, such as water or nutrient cycle

how can Hardy Weinberg equilibrium be used to determine whether a population is evolving

compare genotype frequencies to one that is not evolving non evolving populations

what is eusociality

complex organization characterized by sterile adult offspring living and cooperating with one or a few dominant reproductive individuals ants, bees, termites, and wasps

parapatric speciation sweet vernal grass

contaminated area, there is strong sleection for zinc tolerance prezygotic mating barriers such as different flowering times have prevented crossing of sweet vernal grass within and outsdie contaminated areas contaminated - strong selection zinc tolerance uncontaminated - no selection

what does a promoter region do?

controls the time, tissue specificity and level of transcription

social interactions

cooperation + donor + recipient selfishness + donor - recipient altruism - donor + recipient spitefulness - donor - recipient

what is reciprocity

cooperation based on repeated interactions tit for tat individual 1 helps 2

which moth is melanistic?

darker moth

positive assortative mating results in an increase in the proportion of what geotypes

decrease in hetero

benefits of being part of a group woodpigeons

decreased likelihood of predation or increased foraging success predation = more eyes and ears larger group size - less successful hawk attacks were in capturing prey larger flock - earlier they reacted detect hawk when it was further away

biologcial species concept what is a species according to the bioloigcal species concent

defined as reproductively isolated populations western meadowlark and eastern meadowlark almost identical different songs differnt species based on biological concept

what is additive genetic variance

degree to which each allele contributes to trait variation A increases by 2 a decreases by 1 B increases by 3 b decreases by 2

selection coefficient

describes extent to which selection is acting against a particular allele

what is the scientific method?

describes how scientific ideas are developed and tested observations question hypothesis predictions hypothesis testing

what is a reaction norm

describes the relationship between the phenotype and the environment how organisms change their form, function or behavior in response to environmental variation

sympatric specition cichlids in crater lakes of Africa why do scientists believe sympatric speciation must have produced all the species of cichlids in the crater lakes?

despite lack of opportunities for spatial isolation, conspecfiic populations of cichlids can differ genetically over very short distances variation in body shape, jaw and color lakes have little habitat variaiton spatial isolation

genetically differentiated across environments what evident is there that the yarrow plant has genetically differentiated from other populations how does environmental variaiton influence this differentiation

dif pops of yarrow plant have differnt heights depending on the elevation of the habitat grown together in a common environment, plants exhibit charasterisctics that correspond to their elevations of origin suggests that charactertics of the plants are genetically, not environmentally driven

prezygotic matting barrier : gamete incompatibilty

diff species of dea urchin in the amino acid sequence of sperm Bindin bindin allows sperm to penetrat eggs amino acid sequence of Binin is species specific more diverged Bindin amino acid sequence is, less likely is that sperm will be able to penetrate egg eggs and sperm into aq environment neg relationship between bindin divergence and gamete incompatibility fail in closely realted sea urchin species

habitat pre-zygotic barrier Fall armywords

differences in habitat prevent the two races from interbreeding 1 race is corn 1 race is rice associated with habitat

NS in medium ground finch

differences in survival and reproductive success frequency distribution beak depth 1976 and 1978 draught - 1977 second graph = beak depth of individuals after NS has occurred 90 out of 751 survived from 76-78

why might alleles associated with ecological divergence also affect reproductive isolation

different host plants

what two selection pressures result in stabilizing selection in the goldenrod Gail fly?

different predators impose selection of size Gail fly - parasitism -wasps predation - birds

mechanical prezygotic barrier Carabus beetles

different species of Carabus are unable to mate with eachother due to incompatible genitalia key and lock hypothesis

factor that affecting Ne

differential mating success variation in population size inbreeding

multiple isolating barriers in monket flower species

differnces in habitat prevented the two species from interbreeding when two species are sympatric and interbreed, hybrids have reduced seed germination anf the viability of their pollen is reduced by more than 60% Dr. Ramsey found that differences in habitat prevent 2 species from interbreeding prezygotic both- habitat related prezygotic barrier and an inviability past

what are the three general ways that selection acts on a trait?

directional - favors one extreme stabilizing - favors average traits disruptive - favors both extremes

why is the peppered moth scenario considered a good example of directional selection?

disruption of traits shift toward new optimum across time new optimum reached - selection become stable pale and dark color = 2 extremes each favored depending on environment

sympatric speciation and disruptive selection Pea aphids what are two differnt host plants pea aphids utilize what evideence is there that pea aphids are undergoing sympatric speciation

disruptive selection and specialization on specific host plants has led to a prezygotic habitat barrier between the two populations alfala and clover prezygotic habitat barrier

how do Galapagos mockingbirds exhibit the branching pattern of evolution that Darwin and Wallace proposed?

distinct populations distinct species

adaptive radiation - darwins finches

diversitification of many species from a common ancestor within a relatively short time

extreme inbreeding and the sex ratio why does a female parasitoid wasp benefit fomr prodcuing many females and only one son

doesnt benefit form prodcuing all soons need to fertliize female eggs benefits when producing more females male offspring mate with sister and single male has unlimited sperm moms reprodcutive success is limited to how many daughters 4 daughters and 4 sons is 16 sets of genes 7 daughters and 1 son is 49 genes to grand offspring

donors and recipients

donor- individual that directs a behavior to another individual who is called the recipient NS benefits the donor of the behavior attack is donated to the recipient

benefits of being part of a group meerkats

larger groups size greater proportion of time guard is keeping look out for predators negative relationship group size and time foraging meerkats spend looking for predators meerkats benefit increase time spent looking for food without risking predation

what is mRNA

leaves nucleus, enters cytoplasm, undergo translation to produce a polypeptide

why is Basiolosaurus a transitional form

like whale - terrestrial and aquatic

what evidence of we have that neither the saltbush nor Arizone honey sweet evolved to be highly plastic

live in environments that vary littler in termparture and not evolved to acclimate in temp extremes Atriplex saltbush is unable to increase its photosynthetic rate when maintained in the greenhouse at 40 degrees C Tidestromia does not perform well at low temps Atriplex and Tidestromia species that live in environments that vary littler, and therefore have not evolved to acclimate to temperature increases

why are vestigial organs evidence for the theory of evolution

living fossil functionless version of a body part has purpose Mexican tetra- eye socket but no eyes and north island brown kiwis useless wings ancestors have eyes and wings descendants modified versions

prediction

logical consequence of a hypothesis

what does the inbreeeding coefficient quantify

loss of heterozygosity resulting from inbreeding in a population inbreeding coefficient is F F= (Hhhwe - Hobs) / Hhwe

territoriality anole lizards

male anole lizards the dewlap size is an honest indicator of the males fighting ability bite force is postively correlated w area of dewlap

sexual dimorphism Peahen

male elaborate tail feathers used to attract female dull uniform tail feathers

contests between males elephant seals

male elephant seals are larger in size than females larger size allows males to defend their territores against other males therefore selection favors large male body size larger size allows to win competition bc larger size allows males to defend territory

how did inbreeding influence the fitness of the monkey flower?

male fertility and female ovule number decreased progressively over the 5 generations of selfing inbreeding results in expression of deleterious recessive alleles inbreeding decreased in hetero offspring more likely deleterious recessive alleles expressed in greater proportion of offspring than if alleles were mating randomly

what factor determine whether Kakapo parrots have male or female offsprng

male larger and costly to produce female given supplmentary food to produce kakapo are endangered

sexual dimorphism widow birds

male longer tail than females females want male with longest tail

what is polygyny?

male mates with more than one female elephant seal

what is a sex role reversed species

males care for young, females are flashier and compete for males female red phalaropes pipefish

why is monogamy common in birds

males just as likely as females to incubate eggs and feed young female indigo buntings engage in extra pair copulations with males on neighboring territories raptors are socially and sexually monogamous

how do we know pipefish are a sex role reversed species

males pregnant female produce more eggs male pipefish exhibit attracted to more ornamented females

what is handicap principle

males that survive the handicap of a longer tail must have a superior genotype

describe how communities differ from organisms and populations

mant populations of different species living in same place predators, prey, species benefit nd species compete with each other do not have boundaries more between regions and habitats

describe how populations differ form organisms

many organisms of same kinda living together birth and death of individuals

continuous distribution

many traits are influence by multiple genes and exhibit a continuous distribution

what is monogamy?

mating between a single male and female and subsequent care of offspring ex boreal owl and indigo bunting

what is random mating

mating takes place at random w respect to genotypes under consideration

what is selfing

mating with one's self most extreme form of inbreeding

what are the most important properties of the normal distribution

mean and average variance standard deviation

how does the climate in the Galapagos archipelago change across time? How does this influence the number of seeds available for finches to eat?

dry climate El Nino years = rainfall and plant growth increases = greater number of seeds and insects available for finches to eat draughts occur = decrease in number of seeds

the peppered moth and natural selection

during industrial revolution, lichens were dying due to pollution pale peppered moths were more easily found by predatory birds than dark moths as a result dark moths has higher fitness and the proportion of dark moths increased in the population pale moths - eaten more frequently by birds in polluted woods melanistic - eaten in unpolluted woods

how is an RNA strand produced from a DNA strand?

during transcription one strand of DNA is copied into the complementaryy nucleotides of an RNA molecule

how do animals differ from plants

eat plants, animals or dead remains don't need light depend energy produced by plants

ecologcial divergence influences reprodctuve isolation Three spined sticklebacks

ecological divergence influences reproductive isolation diff size females choose based on morphology ecological speciation drove the evolution of ecomorphs

what charactertistics make it more likley that a species will go extinct

ecological specialization small geographic range

effective population size Ne

effective pop size < actual pop size variation in the number of progeny produced by males, females or both unequal sex ration natural selection overlapping generations fluctuations in population size from year to year

Consider that the frequency of the p allele is 0.6. The observed frequency of heterozygotes is 0.2. What is the inbreeding coefficient? a. 0.583 b. 0.765 c. 0.480 d. 0.375 e. 0.59

A- 0.583 F = (2p (1- p) -h )/ 2p(1-p) If p is 0.6, q = 1- 0.6 = 0.4, 2pq = 2 x 0.4 x 0.6 = 0.48 If observed heterozygote frequency is 0.2, F = (0.48 - 0.2) / 0.48 = 0.583

When a population is divided by a physical barrier which prevents mixing, the divided populations may evolve to become reproductively isolated from each other. This is known as - a. Allopatric speciation b. Parapatric speciation c. Sympatric speciation d. Polyploidy e. None of the above

A- allopatric speciation

You go to Australia and measure the body mass entire population of rusty numbats. You then find that only a subset of these anteaters breed. Given that strength of selection for body mass in the population = -12, and heritability of body mass = 0.5, calculate the response to selection. Show your work.

R = h2 S = (0.5)(-12) = -6

what are DNA polymorphisms

SNPs single nucleotide polymorphisms Indels Microsatellites genetic differences common among organisms of some species

population genetics

Scandinavian wolves conservation concern - DNA important genetic diversity was low 10-100 individuals in 10 years

why are homologous structures evidence for the theory of evolution

Scientists compare the anatomy, embryos, and DNA of living things to understand how they evolved. Evidence for evolution is provided by homologous structures. These are structures shared by related organisms that were inherited from a common ancestor. Other evidence is provided by analogous structures. These are structures that unrelated organisms share because they evolved to do the same job.

Which genotype has the highest selection coefficient? What does this mean?

Selection coefficients: AA = 1-0.544 = 0.456; aa = 1-0.741 = 0.259; Aa = 1-1 = 0 AA has the highest selection coefficient. The selection coefficient describes the extent to which selection is acting AGAINST a particular genotype. AA individuals are selected against during the insecticide treatment, possibly because AA individuals were more susceptible to the insecticide

New Zealand snails are found to reproduce sexually more in areas where trematode infection rates are high. Explain why this supports the red queen hypothesis.

Sexual reproduction allows for a parent to produce offspring that are genetically more diverse than a parent that produces asexually. This results in a faster response to an evolving parasite population because at least some phenotypes are likely to be adapted to the parasite. In short: sexual reproduction would allow the snail populations to evolve parasite resistant traits faster than asexual reproduction.

red queen hypthesis New Zealand snails

eggs enter envionment in duck feces and are ingested by snails eggs hatch into hundreds of encysted larvae. infected snails are sterilizaed cysts hatch when snail is ingested by a duck adult worms reproduce sexually in ducks snails in deeper water are infected, but their parasites rarely cycle back to shallow water snail pops

under what circumstances do Daphnia reproduce asexually sexuall?

environment conditions are stable femate reproduce parthenogenically conditions deteriorate females produce males that can engage in sexual reprodcution

social interactions humans describe complext sociality of humans

all part of supportive society inter dependent roles student needs cooperation of teachers, parents balance competition and cooperation within groups

what is the biosphere

all the environments and organisms on earth

peripatric speciation Paradise kingfish

allele frequency data of Paradise king gishers are consistent with founder effect source population is distributer across New Guinae founders from source pop gave rise to localized speices on Biak Island and Numfor Island not all alleles will make it to new environemnt

what do micro satellites, SNPs and indwells all have in common

alleles different forms of genes

what are mutation, natural selection, genetic drift, and migration able to do

allelic frequency change over time processes cause allelic frequency to change no differential reproductive success between alleles

what are alleles?

alternate forms of genes

what is a hypothesis

an educated guess about what the answer to the question might be

what is the effective population size why is it so important

an ideal population that undergoes genetic drift at the same rate as the observed population pop vary in size across years true size of a pop relative to suspectibility to drift

what is mutation

any change in genotype of organism occurring at gene, chromosome, or genome level

what is a secondary hybrid zone?

are formed when two formerly allopatric species are reintroduced ex are eastern European fire bellied toad and the western European yellow bellied toad

what is a treatment

are the different categories of conditions which scientists administer to study subjects

what is territory

areas defended by 1 or more individuals defend for hrs our years

what does it mean when our calculated chi square value is greater than our critical value

argued that observed genotype frequency statistically different from HW expectations 1 or more assumptions violated

why do years when the population is small impact genetic diveristy disproprtionately?

as genes in population have to be transmitted through smallest pop size

how can disruptive selection result in sympatric speciation

assortative mating

kin selection south african meerkats

meerkat only takes up guarding once it has finished its own foraging, and only guards when it has a safe escape route nearby there behavior is not altrustic not considered altrustic? live in groups some watch guarding meerkat does not suffer a decrease in personal fitness by guarding little cost to this behavior

describe the fire bellied toad and yellow bellied toad hybrid zone

meet in hybrid zone hybrid offspring - lower rates of survival due to genetic drift

Peppered moth

melanism is controlled by a single dominant allele pale coloration is due to the recessive allele ole moths were found in larger numbers than dark moths pale moths perch on lichen on trees and the pale coloration of the moths blends in with the lichens

describe how organisms modify their environments

membrane exchanges energy, nutrients, water with environment all modifies environment

what did Gregor Mendel contribute to the concept of NS?

mendelian inheritance independent assortment alleles

what are complex traits

mendelian traits are influenced by single genes complex traits are affected by a relatively large number of genes and the environment height, weight, and skin color in humans bill depth in Galapagos finches, movement in response to light in Drosophila expression of complex traits in a population - frequency as a function of trait level- follows a normal distribution

how are alleles inherited?

mom and dad

monozygotic and fraternal twins studies are used to separate out genetic and environmental effects

monozygotic = identical genetically fraternal = 50% genetically identical when the degree of correlation for monozygotic twins is much greater than the degree of correlation for fraternal twins it indicates a high degree of genetic influence relative to the environmental influence

describe why the correlation between parental maternal care and offspring maternal care was not due to heritability

more caring mothers offspring of high maternal moms raised by low material foster moms - relationship broke

what mechanism does Banksia spinulosa use to minimize the negative effects of inbreeding

more seeds were produced from outcrossing than through self pollnation indicating inbreeding depression selectively aborts seeds that are the result of inbreeding

potential outcomes of allopatric apeciation

most common 2 are seperated, diverge, then reintrodcued reproductive isolation complete 2 species live in sympatry without gene flow reprodictive isolational not complete individuals from 2 species mate and form a hybrid zone

how can migration alter allele frequencies across generations

movement of gametes, new alleles change in allele frequency NS acting on frequency of alleles will not follow Hard Weinberg

how do protists and bacteria differ from animals, plants and fungi

multicellular - plants, animals and fungi bacteria and protists are unicellular bacteria is without a nucleus protist- algae protozoan

what are the agents of evolution

mutation natural selection genetic drift migration evolution - the change of allelic frequency over time

what is evolution caused by

mutation, NS, genetic drift, genelfow

what is heritability

necessary for natural selection to occur additive genetic V = what drives evolution greater heritability of that trait the faster the selection will occur narrow sense heritability is the variability between individuals that is accounted for by the additive effects of alleles h^2 = Va (additive genetic variance) / Vp (total phenotype variance)

inbreeding in natural populations grey wolves

negative relationship between two variables the number of surviving pups per liter by the inbreeding coefficient of the pups expression of deleterious alleles has resulted in inbreeding depression in this popultion, only partially combatted by the addition of the new male in 91

what is fragmentation

new individuals grows frmo a fragment of parent starfish algae

what does it men when our calculated chi square value is less than our critical value

no evidence that genotype frequency are significantly different from HW expectation very small difference could be due to chance

how can differences in reproductive success between alleles alter the allele frequencies in the next generation

no natural selection more contribution

are all phenotypes influenced by dominance effects?

no not true all genetic variation has an additive component additive genetic variation Va is defined as the fraction of the total genetic variation that is explained by the best fit line Vg = Va + Vd but Vd = 0

what is a non coding intron?

non coding regions are spliced out during RNA processing

why are father/ offspring trait correlations sometimes best for estimating heritability

non genetic maternal effect are common better to look at father offspring traits

Hardy Weinberg is particular sensitive to which assumption being voilated?

non random mating

what is the cause of sickle cell anemia

non synonymous polymorphism is a single nucleotide polymorphism present in the coding region that alters a codon to result in an amino acid replacement in the polypeptide chain

degrees of freedom

number of classes 1-1 degrees of freedom 3-1-1

what does ploidy refer to

number of copies of genome that species has haploid - 1 diploid -2

optiml outcrossing yarrow plant

number of seeds per flower was greatest when the pollen came from 10 m away which is optimal crossing individuals mate with individuals too closely realted to them, increases the likelihood that deleterious alleles will be expressed in the offspring individuals mate with individuals too different from them it result in loss of genes adapted to their environment and the breakdown of coadapted gene complexes

direct benefits ornate moths what gift do ornate moths provide to females

nutrition, territoy with resource, parental care

what is sexual reprodcution

occurs when a female gamete and a male gamete joing together to form a zygote

postzygotic barrier hybrid sterility mules

occurs when hybrid individuals grow to adulthood but cannot reproduce male donkey and female horse = perfect mule mule cant produce offspring of its own

define parapatric speciation

occurs when spatially distinct pops where there is some gene flow diverge and become reproductively isolated

what is sperm competition bluegill sunfish

occurs when the sperm of two or more males have the opportunity to fertilize a females egg at the same time sometimes outcome is a raffle

postzygotic barrier - hybrid inviability sheep and goats

occurs when zygote forms but developmental problems cause reduced survival and reduced fitness

allopatric speciation ratite birds

oceans are barrier of gene flow

what is parthenogenesis

offspirng produced from unfertilized eggs that are diploid whiptail lizard allotriploid salamander females produce eggs that are diploid eggs can be completely identical or differ somewhat die to recombination

Hamilton Zuk hypothesis red stickleback fish

offspring of bright red feathers had greater resistance to infection by tapeworms red male color comes from having more carotenoids female red stickleback fish prefer males with more intense red coloration on the males belly ability to successfully forage for carotenoids may be heritable

asexual reproduction

offspring produced from a signle parent, and are often genetically identical to that parent

what is blended inheritance

offspring reflect half trait of each parent

when is acclimatization not a good strategy

once organisms has increased tolerance to particular extreme tolerating opposite extreme can be difficult

what is a repliacte

one of multiple experimental units that are exposed to the same treatment

why do traits closely related to fitness tend to have low hertiabilities

only alleles with superior phenotypes will persist in populations

irreversible developmental response African grasshopper

only live a single season and the season that are born in influences their coloration wet = green = green vegetation dry = brown = dead vegetation fires= black vegetation black in color

costs of being part of a group cliff swallows

only maintained when benefit greater than cost greatest cost - competition for resources and mates among group memebers other costs increase disease and parasite transmissions

what is a postzygotic barrier

operates after zygote is form hybrid inviability hybrid sterility

mass extinction events

ordovician devonian permian triassic cretaceous

what is the smallest unit of ecology why are organs, cells not units of ecology

organisms smaller units exist

what is a primary hybrid zone

originate when NS alters alleles frequencies in an otherwise continuously distributed population

how did passenger pigeon, dodo, and Stephens Island Wren go extinct?

overhunting overhunting cat

negative relationship

oxygen consumption decreases as air temperature increases independent decreases as dependent increases oxygen is dependent air temp is independent

imagine a population where the dominant allele is present at a frequency of 0.75 what is the homozygous recessive genotype frequency

p = 0.75 q = 1-p = 1=0.75 = 0.25 the homozygous recessive genotype is q^2 which is (0.25)^2 = 0.0625

hawk dove game

p proportion of hawks 1-p proportion of doves avg payoff depends how many individuals are displaying each strategy

What is the Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium equation

p+q=1 p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1 heterozygote = 2pq homozygote = q^2 homo + = p^ p is the dominant q is recessive

red queen hypothesis planarian flatworms

parasits are found more frequently in parthenogenic individuals parhtenogenic individuals seems unable to evolve as quickly as their parasties resulting in higher infection rates

parent offspring conflict male stickleback and red necked grebes

parent and offspring both benefit frmo parental care fitness of parents is dependent on offspring surviving and reproducing themeselves

what are other ways sperm can compete with one another

parental blue gill sperms are faster than sneaker sneaker parental reach before sneaker

tropical species costa rican variable harlequin toad panamanian golden frog

particularly likely to be lost, as tropical forests support a great deal of diversity but also are being destroyed at an ever increasing rate 1/3 worlds amphibians extinct/ endangered

is there any reason to be concerned by an extinction event that is driven by humans?

patricular and moral humans benefit unjust that species suffer from advancement of humans

define character displacement

pattern where bicharacters differ more where 2 species are synpatric than where they are allopatric

when have mass extinctions occurred

permian - loss 80-90% all marine following this ancestors of dinosaurs arose

outcomes of hybrid zones

persist indefinitely species become completely sexually isolated two species merge into one hybrids form a third species

how do irreversible developmental responses differ from acclimatization and behavior phenotypic plasticity

phenotypic modifications that last for entire lifespan of individual

how do plants produce energy

photosynthesis sun energy water and CO2 leafs- sunlight stems- support roots- take in water

what separates one ecosystem from antoehr

physical and chemical environment

measuring heritability

plotting trait in the offspring as a function of the average trait even in the parents slop equals heritability

red winged blackbirds avoid agreesive confrontation while keeping intruders from invading their territories

plumage and songs to protect

how do Plethodontid salamander sister species present on differnet mountain tops provide evidence for phylogenetic niche conservation

prevent gene flow promote speciation of A and B on seperate mtns

slsection for traits to prevent hybridization

prezygotic isolating barriers evolve much more quickly in sympatry bc of the potential for hybridization and selection resulting frmo decreased offspring fitness

what type of hybrid zone exists for black capped chickadees and Caroline chickadees

primary each location

why are Sinosauropteryx prime and Archaeopteryx transitional species

primitive feathers

what is the coefficient of the relationship

probability relatedness

genetic drift

process by whcih allele frequencies change and genetic varaition is lost due to random fluctuations in fecundity, mortality, and inheritance of gene copies through male and female gametes

sex ration manipulation Kakapo parrot

produce male or female offspring depending on their own body condition birds have ZW sex determintion system ZW females ZZ males female birds can alter sex ratio of offspring during egg formation by controlling whether a Z or W chromosome goes into eggs

what is a control treatment

produces all aspects of experiment except variable of interest one of multiple experimental units

what does it mean when genotype frequencies differ significantly from Hardy Weinberg expectations

provides evidence that 1 or more assumptions are being violated and population is evolving

what are befits to sexual reproduction

purges deleterious mutations creates genetic variability in offspring

haploidiploid sex determination ants, bees, and wasps

queen ant produce male and female fertilized = workers and queens unfertilized = males

what is the Hardy- Weinberg assumptions

random mating no differential reproductive success between alleles large population size no mutation no migration

how does NS result in a sex ration of 1:1

rarer sex greater reproductive success

territorial males red winged black birds

red winged black birds male song and size of red patches are assocated with male condition other males use these cues to gauge whether or not they should compte for the males terriotry

kin selection

refers to effects of interactions among relatives on their fitness

what is parapatric speciation

represents a mode of speciation intermediate to allopatric and sympatric speciation occurs when 2 pops are adjacenet to one another 2 pops gene flow weak, NS strong and opposite direction - parapatric occurs

what evidence is there that optimal outcrossing applies in humans

reproductive success related at 1,2,3,4 cousins 3 or 4 is optimal

describe translation

ribosomes move along the mRNA and read codons translation begins at the start codon which is made up of AUG specifying the amino acid methionine transfer RNA brings amino acids to the site of the start codon each tRNA is equipped with an anticodon which is a sequence of three bases that is complementary to each mRNA codon

how can non random mating alter genotype frequencies

same genotype then homozygote will be over represented with heterozygote being under represented

sympatric speciation and disruptive selection Drosophila

scientist use lab experiments to disruptively select habitat prefernce and legth of development in Drosophila 30 generation, two subpopulation of flies were reprodcutively isolated by development and habitat prefernce

why are Darwins finches of the Galapagos archipelago a good ex of adaptive radiation? what other ex of adaptive radiation have we discussed

seed eating ground finch colonized Galapagos and successive founder effects followed by local adaptations by differnt habitats lef to diverse array of beak types and feeding capabilities crickets of hawaii sicklets of Africa

what is directional selection

selection for a valuee of a character that is higher or lower than its current mean value selecting flour beetles for greater egg production if additive genetic variation is high, the phenotypes can change well beyond the range of variation found in the original population

ecotypic differerntiation and optimal outcrossing vernal grass

self fertility prevents the grass from mating with individuals that are too genetically differentiated from themselves, to prevent having offspring not adapted to the zinc heavy environment evolved tolerance to zinc

describe how botanists Vaughton and Carthew found that more seeds were produced by outcrossing than by selfing

self pollinate and outcross hand pollinated clusters with pollen from the same plant and from another plant some were 1/2 self pollinated 1/2 cross to identify the effect of competition aborted seeds was higher in clusters of self pollinated plants can to some extinct distinguis between developing fruits by their genotypes and discriminate against inbred fruits

what is an anticodon

sequence of 3 bases that is complementary to each mRNA codon

what are communities

sets of co existing populations

what are populations

sets of interbreeding individuals

what is the red queen hypothesis

sexual reporudciton prodcues variable offspring that help ensure a paretns fitness in a constantly changing biological environment, particularly with respect to rapidly evolving parasites and pathogens parents benefit from having genetically diverse offspring bc of parasits offspring that will surivive a parasit community different from the ones parents were exposed to

what is a microsatellite

short sequences repeated in tandem 2-9 base pairs repeats self over and over

how do scientists believe long tails evolved in widowbirds

shortened and elongated tails benefit tail length not have quality territory widowbird does not provide care to offspring do not get direct indirect - genetic female increase chance of having superiod genotype inrease reprodcutive success

what is a stop codon

signs completion of polypeptide chain ribosome releases chain UGA UAA UAG

simultaneous and sequential hermaphrodites half moon groups sequential

simulataneous have male and female parts at the time time sequential are male first then become female or vice versa the largest females in the pop become males they begin as females

dominance effects

since not all genetic variation is explained by the best fit line we acknowledge that dominance genetic variation vD is the fraction of the total genetic variation left unexplained by the best fit line

how many copies of each allele does a haploid organism have

single copy of each chromosome and single copy of each allele unlike diploid - 2 copies of each allele

what is a non synonymous polymorphism

single nucleotide polymorphism present in coding region alters codon to result in amino acid replacement in polypeptide chain

what is a synonymous polymorphism

single nucleotide polymorphism present in the coding region that produces a synonymous codon and therefore does not result in an amino acid replacement in the polypeptide chain

why are skin color and height considered complex traits?

skin is influenced by many genes - tanning height and weight - food you have access to are influenced by genes

is genetic drift more likely to influence large or small population

small

is genetic drift more likely to influence large or samll population

small pops end up with very differnt compositions of genetic material

historical extinictions

small island pops are extremely prone to extinction extincition rates are disproportionately high in areas where human density is increased like Mauritius Island and bc island species have same pops to begin with

what are the different modes of speciation

smypatric parapatric allopatric

dominance chimpanzees

social hierarchy males use charging display to compete for dominance with other males begins with charging away or toward groups of male feet stamping, roll huriling, branch dragging

small geographic range Channel island fox

species with small geographic ranges are also more likely to go extinct

ecological specialization Red cocaded woodpecker

species with very specfic ecological requirements may be more likely to go extinct when their environment changes

what other type of behavioral phenotypic plasticity does the cactus wren display

spring wrens build nests that face away from cold winds coming from west hot summers build nests that face these winds allowing air to circulate through and cool the nest nests orientated properly maintain a suitable temperature for baby birds and ultimately allow more offspring to leave the nest

do populations of conservation concern have smaller effective population sizes than stable populations

stable are just as likely to have smaller effective pop sizes few population have Ne greater than 50% of total pop size Ne is important when we control for the actual population size by plotting the ratio Ne to N is plotted on the x axis youll notice that stable populations are just as likely to have small effective pop sizes as pops of conservation concern

miconia mirabilis simultaneous

stigma is female receptive organ anthers are male pollen bearing organs

how do we calculate the standard deviation from the variance?

subtract mean from each individual value square mean and sum divide by number of individuals = variance take the square root of variance gives the standard deviation

what is the central limit theorem?

summation of many random independent quantities conforms to normal distribution most complex traits have a normal distribution and follow central

costs and benfits of defending a terriory golden winged sunbirds

sun birds were only territorial when the benefit of a greater caloric reward outweighed the cost of maintaining the territory

sympatric speciation and disruptive selection sister palm species

two sister species are reproductively isolated due to their use of differet soil types and differnt flowering seasons

prezygotic and postzygotic barriers - harlequin flies

two species sawrm at diff times hybrid offspring of this cross do not appear to be visible temporal barrier

binary fission

typical made procaryotes replicate themselves

autopolyploidy potatoes

unreduced gamestes fmor individuals of the same species form a new individual

what is an allozyme

variant forms of an enzyme coded for different alleles at same locus ex- allonym polymorphism in Cheetahs loss DNA 20,000 construction

Darwin process of NS

variation among individuals inheritance of variation differences in survival and reproductive siuccess are related to variation between individuals

what are the 3 primary components of natural selection?

variation among individuals inheritance of that variation differences in survival or reproductive success phenotype - influence of genotype and environment

why is the red cockaded woodpecker endangered

very little long leaf pine forest left which is what they eat

what are two diff types of allopartic speciation

vicarance - 2 large pops diverge from 1 another by founders effect - peripatric divergence of small from large

what is vegetative reprodcution

walking fern can sprout an entirely new plant from tip of leaf

irreversible developmental response water flea

water fleas experience environments with many predators develop large helmets over their heads

what developmental response do water fleas exhibit

water helmets- predators cost - decrease feeding efficiency benefit - defend against predators helmets entire lives

why is the beak size of the medium ground finch an example of directional selection?

wet years = production of small seed high small birds produce more bc can eat seeds small beak increases dry years =. large seeds large beak can only produce thick beaks = high reproductive success population size of medium ground finch decreases whenever the climate is dry and seeds decrease in abundance beak size increases following years in which only large, hard seeds formed notice the lag between increase in seed hardness and increase in beak size

what is polyandry

whcih a female has more than one mate northern jacana female 1 to 4 mates male = parental care to young

how does the outcome of sperm competition sometimes follow a raffle principle

whcihever male has most sperm is more likely to win

kin slection tiger salamanders

when larvae in a given group are closely relates, it takes much longer for a cannibal to develop in the group cannibal larvae prey on regular larvae larvae closely related takes longer for cannibal to develop kin selection is working against the development of cannibal development response

sympatric speciation polyploidy

when offspring are produced that have a different ploidy level than their parents

what is parent offspring conflict cedar waxwing

when parent and offspring differ over the optimal level of parental investment

when does extinction occur

when species fail to adapt to new environments

independent variable

x axis

dependent variable

y axis

how did Dr Gill and Wolf measure the costs and benefits of terriotory maintenance in hummingbirds what did they determine about when sunbirds maintain territories

yarrow sping increased access to mates other species = food resource was nectar from mid flower cost - defending from intruders in calories per hr how many caloiries gained from nectar whcih behavior required calories needed to get through day faster varied day to day only territorial when greater caloric reward outweighed cost of maining territory

temporal pre-zygotic barrier - Gryllus pennsylvanicus and Gryllus veletis

Penn reaches reproductive age in fall Vele reaches reprodctuve age in spring 2 pops breed at different seasons or times of day

why do prezygotic reprodcutive barriers evolve more quickly in sympatric Drosophila sister species than in allopatric

0 - prezygotic isolation means species breed freely 1- no interbreeding sister allo - positive relationship genetic distance and prezygotic more genetically distinct, less likely to interbreed when introdued into lab sym- prezy barriers much more quickly bc potential for hybridaization and selection resulting from decrease in offspring fitness allo- geographic factor

natural selection in medium ground finch

1 - variation among individuals beak depth in 1976 indeed variation among individuals

explain why gametes will have one of two different alleles for the CCr5 gene

1 from mom 1 from dad 2 gametes sperm and eggs

how quickly can selfing decrease the frequency of heterozygotes in a population?

1/2 each generation does not cause allele frequency to change only the genotype frequency

The response to selection is how much the population mean (this refers to the mean of the ENTIRE population) changes from one generation to the next. Given that the population mean is 160 grams, what will the mass of the average offspring be in the next-generation? Is evolution occurring? Why or why not?

160 - 6 = 154 g Yes. There is a change is this trait (body mass) over a generation. A heritable component to this trait means that the allelic frequency will change from one generation to the next in response to the strength of selection.

why is Hawaiin criecket scenario a good example of peripatric speciation?

1st colonized Kauai then the younger islands as they appeared oceean prevented gene flow oldeest= Kauai younger = island of Hawaii

how many copies of each allele does a diploid organism have

2

how many alleles are at a given locus?

2 alleles

what does a gene code for? what are proteins made up of?

2 copies of the polypeptide chain alpha global 2 copies of beta

what does heterozygous mean?

2 different forms AaBb

how cand genetic drift result in reproductive isolations

2 pops are seperated random alleles and loss of allels result in reprodcutive isolating barriers

allopatric specaition

2 pops seperated by geographial barrier reprodcutive barriers able to form because no gene flow between 2 pops

what is parasitism

2 species, 1 benefits, 1 is harmed tapeworm and pigs/humans

why is it that the more offspring you have the more likely you are to pass on your full set of alleles how does this idea apply to populations

20 kids chance good to carry a fewer kids you have less likely to pass on full gene set if population is small alleles are lost because random assortment of alleles

which portions of the gene are transcribed

3' untranslated region is the end of the gene and is not transcribed this region comes after the stop codon

what is the 2 fold cost of meiosis

50% genetic material passed on to offspring sexual reprodctuion 100% for asexual NS favros traits that produce greatest number of copies of individuals genome

why is the channel island fix endangered

6 island due to exposure to diseases form main land and habitat degradation

A reciprocal cross experiment was conducted where lizards from New Jersey were transplanted to Nebraska, and vice versa. Nebraska is more nutrient rich than New Jersey. Nebraska lizards transplanted to New Jersey decreased in growth rate by 50%. However, New Jersey lizards did not increase their growth rates when transplanted to Nebraska. These results could indicate that: a) growth rate is genetically determined b) New Jersey lizards are maladapted c) growth rate does not show phenotypic plasticity d) All the above are correct

A- growth rate is genetically determined

Red squirrels will adopt offspring of closely related kin if the young are orphaned. The cost to the mother in this case was the reduction in survival of the natal litter. The benefit to the juvenile was probability of survival. If C is equal to 0.2, B is equal to 1 and r is equal to 0.125, which of the following statements are true? a) Inclusive fitness is equal to -0.075 b) The coefficient of relationship indicates that the orphaned juvenile was a full sib c) The conditions have been met under which altruism can evolve among relatives d) All of the above are true

A- inclusive fitness is equal to -0.075Inclusive fitness = (r*B) - C = -0.075 Altruism does not evolve if C> Br. In this case, 0.2 > (1 * 0.125)

Why is the female golden silk spider much larger than the male? a) Larger size allows the female to produce more eggs b) Larger size gives the female an advantage in male-female competition for resources c) Larger size is necessary for the female to provide parental care to the offspring d) All of the above are correct e) None of the above are correct

A- larger size allows the female to produce more eggs

Which of these factors may increase the risk of a species going extinct? a. Limited geographical range b. High genetic diversity c. Generalist behavior d. Lack of competitors e. None of the above

A- limited geographical range

In a population with alleles A and a, if genotype AA individuals consistently mate with genotype aa then this is an example of - a. Negative assortative mating b. Positive assortative mating c. Random mating d. Insufficient information to reach a conclusion

A- negative assortative mating

Identify the correct statement(s) regarding heritability a. When heritability is equal to 1, response to selection is equal to selection differential b. If heritability is equal to 1, offspring mean is equal to the mean of original population c. Heritability is always calculated by correlation between parental (mid-parent) and offspring traits d. All of the above are correct

A- when heritability is equal to 1, response to selection is equal to selection differential

what codon specifies methionine? why is it important?

AUG, bc it is the start codon

which of the two fitness measures is more difficult to measure

Absolute fitness

Assume you have the population described in (b). After spraying an insecticide, the number of surviving individuals is given below. Calculate the absolute fitness, and relative fitness of each genotype. Round up the answers to three decimal points.

Absolute fitness: AA = 80/147 = 0.544 aa = 20/27 = 0.741 Aa = 126/126 = 1 Relative fitness: Best fitness = Aa = 1 AA = 0.544/1 = 0.544 aa = 0.741/1 = 0.741 Aa = 1/1 = 1

Define absolute fitness and relative fitness

Absolute fitness: the survivorship and reproduction of each genotype in a population. i.e. absolute number of each genotype present Relative fitness is the ability of one genotype to survive and reproduce relative to the best genotype.

what does the codon GCA code for?

Ala

who developed the concept of natural selection

Alfred Russell palace and Charles Darwin

sympatric speciation Apple maggot fly what are the two differnet host plants that apple maggot flies utilize

Apple and hawthorn distincly different alleleic profiles indicating limites gene flow

Black-bellied seed crackers have two beak morphs - large beaked birds specialize on hard seeds, while small-beaked birds specialize on very small seeds. Both beak sizes are successful in their environment. This is an example of - a) Stabilizing selection b) Disruptive selection c) Genetic drift d) Speciation e) None of the above

B - disruptive selection

Consider that there are 2 alleles - B and b - that code for height in a plant species. If an individual with genotype Bb mates with an individual with genotype bb, what will be the genotype ratio of the offspring as predicted by the laws of Mendelian inheritance? [*hint: use the Punnet square method*] a- 3:1 b- 1:1 c- 1:2:1 d- none

B 1:1

selfishness

B > C*r condition under whcih selfishness among relatives can evolve

What are dominant alleles?

B purple

The B allele codes for a tall phenotype, and the b allele codes for a short phenotype, and B is dominant. What will be the phenotype ratio for the offspring a- tall 3:1 short b- tall 1:1 short c- short 3:1 tall d- none

B tall 1:1 short

Consider a population of individuals having these alleles B(dominant, tall) and b(recessive, short). Assume that the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium holds true if 98 out of 200 individuals in the population express the short phenotype. What is the percentage of heterozygous individuals in the population a- 70 b- 42 c- 24 d- 49 e- 30

B- 42% q2= (98/200) = 0.49 q = square root of 0.49 = 0.7 (70%) p + q = 1, therefore p = 1-q p = 1 - 0.7 = 0.3 (30%) 2pq = frequency of heterozygotes Therefore frequency of heterozygotes = 2 (0.7)(0.3) = 0.42 or 42%

Which of the following is an example of sympatric speciation? a. Sweet vernal grass species differentiated between contaminated and clean parts of a continuous area due to strong selection for zinc tolerance in the contaminated patch b. Cichlid species in crater lakes are not spatially isolated, but differ genetically over short distances c. Species of dusky salamanders diverged due to the geographical distance separating populations d. Local species of the Numfor paradise kingfishers on Numfor island likely originated from a small founding population of common paradise kingfishers which are distributed across New Guinea e. All the above

B- cichlid species in crater lakes are not spatially isolated, but differ genetically over short distances

A gene associated with an apparently altruistic behavior will increase in the population when the cost of the act (C) is less than the benefit to the recipient (B) multiplied by the coefficient of the relationship (r). Regarding kin selection and inclusive fitness, with which of the following do you agree? a) When the coefficient of relationship is low, the cost to benefit ratio must be very high for altruism to evolve b) If a scientist was studying an altruistic behavior between two cousins, he would assume a relationship coefficient value of 0.25 c) Costs and benefits cannot be measured in offspring equivalents d) None of the above are correct

B- if a scientist was studying an altruistic behavior between two cousins he would assume a relationship coefficient value of 0.25

Which of the following is an example of a postzygotic reproductive barrier? a. The toad species Bufo americanus and Bufo fowleri have overlapping geographic ranges but have different mating seasons b. In plants, hybridization between species of different ploidy can result in embryos with abnormal endosperm that cannot survive to maturity c. Females of green lacewing species consistently prefer mating signals produced by conspecific males d. Hybridization rates between sea urchins of the genus Strongylocentrotus are low because sperm from one species cannot effectively fertilize ova from another e. None of the above

B- in plants hybridization between species of different ploidy can result in embryos with abnormal endosperm that cannot survive to maturity

Which of the following statements regarding inbreeding are FALSE? a. Selfing is a type of inbreeding b. Inbreeding results in increase of heterozygosity c. Inbreeding results in expression of deleterious recessive alleles d. Banksia spinulosa produces more seeds through outcrossing than selfing. This is due to inbreeding depression in selfing seeds. e. There is evidence to show that inbreeding decreases offspring survival in gray wolves

B- inbreeding results in increase of heterozygosity

Which of the following characteristics of a population will disrupt the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium? a. Mutation is not occurring b. Population size is finite c. Migration is not occurring d. Individuals mate randomly e. None of the above

B- population size is finite

All California sheephead (fish) are born as females and change into males after about four years. This phenomenon is known as - a. Simultaneous hermaphroditism b. Sequential hermaphroditism c. Asexual reproduction d. Hybridization e. None of the above

B- sequential hermaphroditism

A 'silent' mutation occurs because of a a- non- synonymous polymorphism b- synonymous polymorphism c- dominant allele d- micro satellite e- none

B- synonymous polymorphism

What is a treatment? A- a testable prediction that follows logically from a hypothesis B- one of multiple experimental units exposed to the same conditions C- set of conditions administered to one or more test subjects in the experiment D- same thing as an experiment

C

altruism

C = cost of altruistic act B benefit to recipient r coefficient of relationship C < B*r condition under whcih altruism can evolve

The HIV virus attaches to a receptor molecule on the surface of cells in your immune system. The receptor gene is CCR5. Some people have a 32-base-pair deletion in this gene which makes it nearly impossible for the HIV virus to infect the cell, called CCR5Δ32. Consider a population with a sample size of 300. 130 individuals are homozygous (+,+), 100 individuals are heterozygous (+, Δ32), and 70 individuals are homozygous (Δ32, Δ32). What is the + allele frequency? a. 0.52 b. 0.45 c. 0.6 d. 0.7 e. 0.15

C- 0.6 Frequency of homozygous + (+,+) = 130/300 Frequency of heterozygous + (+, Δ32) = 100/300 + allele frequency = (freq. of homozygous + 1/2freq of heterozygous)/300 = (130 + 50)/300 = 0.6

Consider two statements : 1- A culture of fungus from the ant garden will be free of mold 2- Leaf cutter ants keep their gardens free of mold by continual cleaning which is correct? a- 1&2 are both hypotheses b- 1 is a hypothesis and 2 is a prediction c- 1 is a prediction 2 is a hypothesis d- 1 and 2 both predictions e- 1 and 2 are questions

C- 1 is prediction 2 is a hypothesis

Regarding natural selection on sex ratios, with which of the following do you agree? a) If 2 males and 3 females produce 12 offspring, the females will have greater reproductive success than the females b) Parasitoid wasps benefit from producing offspring that are primarily male because of inbreeding c) Natural selection favors individuals that produce offspring of the rarer sex d) None of the above are correct e) Two of the above are correct

C- NS favors individuals that produce offspring of the rarer sex

Which of the following statements regarding genetic diversity is TRUE? a. Mutation reduces genetic diversity b. Genetic drift increases genetic diversity c. Natural selection reduces genetic diversity d. Selfing increases genetic diversity e. All the above are true

C- NS reduces genetic diversity

With which of the following statements regarding complex traits would you DISAGREE? a. Complex traits are affected by multiple genes and the environment b. Expression of complex traits in a population is normally distributed c. All genetic variation has an epistatic component d. The degree of correlation between fraternal and identical twins is an indicator of the degree of genetic and/or environmental effect on a trait e. None of the above (all are correct)

C- all genetic variation has an epistatic component

Wing length in parrots is influenced by two genes, each of which has two alleles. For gene 1, allele Y increases wing length by 6 inches, allele y decreases wing length by 2 inches. For gene 2, allele Q decreases wing length by 1 inch, and allele q increases wing length by 3 inches. Assuming ONLY additive genetic variance, which of the following are true? a. An individual that is heterozygous at both genes will have its wing length increased by 10 inches b. An individual that is heterozygous at both genes will have its wing length increased by 5 inches c. An individual with the genotype YYQQ will have its wing length increased by 10 inches d. An individual with the genotype YYQQ will have its wing length increased by 6 inches e. Both b and c are correct

C- an individual with the genotype YYQQ will have its wing length increased by 10 inches YyQQ = 6-2-1+3 =6 YYQQ = 6+6-1-1 = 10

Which of the following is an example of irreversible developmental change? a) Seasonal shift in temperature tolerance of bullheaded catfish b) Coloration differences in grasshoppers depending on the season in which they are born c) Development of helmets in water fleas in response to predation d) (a) and (b) are correct e) (b) and (c) are correct

E- b and c are correct

Identify the FALSE statement. a. Sexual reproduction is the joining of male and female gametes to form a zygote b. Asexual reproduction avoids the 2-fold cost of meiosis c. Asexual reproduction may result in breaking up of locally adapted genomes d. Sexual reproduction can increase genetic diversity e. Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction

C- asexual reprodcution may result in breaking up of locally adapted genomes

Which of the following is false? A- A hypothesis is an educated guess based on observation B- predictions are derived logically from the hypothesis C- Hypotheses and predictions are generally one and the same thing D- hypotheses and predictions are part of the scientific method E- none of the above are false

C- hypotheses and prediction are generally one and the same thing

All of the following are benefits of being part of a group, EXCEPT: a) Decreased handling time of food b) Increased flock-wide detection of predators c) Increased resistance to disease d) Communication of prey location e) Decreased individual time spent looking for predators

C- increased resistance to disease

The process of translation begins at a specific 'start codon' on the RNA strand. In eukaryotes, which amino acid does the start codon code for? a- Lysine b- Alanine c- Methionine d- Glutamine e- Leucine

C- methionine

what is an ex of a synonymous polymorphism

CAU to CAC = His

what are the 2 alleles for the CCR5 gene

CCR5 + = no deletion CCR5 delta 32 = deletion

what selection pressure resulted in a change in allele frequencies in the California scale insect population?

California scale insect and natural selection favored reproductive by cyanide resistant individuals more likely to have genes associated with cyanide resistance a small number of scale insects had an innate, genetically based resistance to cyanide cyanide gas imposed selection on the scale insects and cyanide- resistant individuals has greater fitness than individuals that were not cyanide resistant therefore cyanide resistant individuals grew in numbers cyanide resistance gene did not develop in response to the sudden presence of gas

which of the following characteristics must a trait have to allow natural selection to act on it? a- variation within trait b- heritability c- identical survival and reprodcution for all variations of the trait d- a and b e- b and c

D- a and b are correct

Female pied flycatchers prefer brown males when they are sympatric with collared flycatchers, but black and white males when they are geographically separated from collared flycatchers. This is an example of - a. Prezygotic barrier b. Behavioral reproductive isolation c. Character displacement d. (a), (b), and (c) are all correct e. None of the above are correct

D- a, b, and c

Which of the following statements regarding haplodiploid eusocial systems are TRUE - a) Eusocial systems consist of sterile adult offspring living and cooperating with a few dominant reproductive individuals. b) The male offspring are produced from unfertilized eggs c) The sex ratio in such systems can be skewed towards females because relatedness between two female offspring is higher than between a male and a female offspring d) All the above are true e) None of the above are true

D- all above are true

Regarding sexual dimorphism, all of the following are true EXCEPT: a) Females may be larger than males when female size is positively correlated with greater egg production b) Males may be larger than females when male body size is positively correlated with ability to win physical contests with other males for access to females c) Males may be larger than females when male body size is positively correlated with testes mass, and therefore sperm number d) Males may be more brightly colored than females when male coloration is negatively correlated with male parental care e) Males may be more brightly colored than females when females prefer brighter males

D- males may be more brightly colored than females when male coloration is negatively correlated with male parental care

Two species of harlequin flies show swarming (mating) behavior at different times. Hybridization between the species is possible, but offspring produced by hybridization do not survive. The mechanisms of reproductive isolation displayed here are - a. Mechanical and temporal isolation b. Gamete incompatibility and hybrid sterility c. Temporal isolation and hybrid sterility d. Temporal isolation and hybrid inviability e. Gamete incompatibility and hybrid inviability

D- temporal isolation and hybrid inviability

The graph below (Steiner et al., 2007) indicates an interaction between the effect of the Agouti and Mc1r genes on cheek pigmentation in field mice. According to the graph, a. Agouti DD genotype turns off Mc1r, producing light coats irrespective of the Mc1r genotype b. In individuals with Agouti LD and LL genotypes, having an Mc1r LL genotype results in a coat that is lighter than DD and DL genotypes. c. In individuals with Agouti LD and LL genotypes, having either Mc1r DD or DL genotype results in similar pigmentation d. Two of the above are true e. All of the above are true

D- two of the above are correct B and C

central dogma

DNA Transcription RNA Translation Protein

Darwin's fiches diversified into many species from a common ancestor in a relatively short period of time. This is an example of - a. allopatric speciation b. inbreeding depression c. stabilizing selection d. hybridization e. adaptive radiation

E- adaptive radiation

Identify the correct statement(s) a) Evolution is a change in allelic frequencies over time b) Natural selection acts on the phenotypes already present in the population c) In a closed population, random mating maintains constant allele frequencies over time d) If a trait is not heritable, natural selection will not influence it e) All of the above are correct

E- all are correct

Effective population size is reduced if there is: a) Varied mating success across individuals b) Small population size c) Strong variability in population size across years d) Inbreeding e) All of the above

E- all of the above

Which of these factors may play a role in species extinction? a. Predators b. Competitors c. Disease d. Habitat destruction e. All of the above

E- all of the above

sexual dimorphism golden silk spider

larger body size allowes females to produce more egges

Which of the following statements regarding sexual selection is FALSE - a) The larger size of elephant seal males, as compared to females, can be explained by the role of male- male competition in determining mating success. b) Male peacocks have long ornate tails because females are attracted to such tails and female choice is important in determining mating success. c) Female choice can be based on direct or indirect benefits d) Sexual dimorphism can arise as a result of female preference for particular male traits. e) Female preference for a trait is always related to direct benefits gained from mating

E- female preference for a trait is always related to direct benefits gained from mating

With regards to territoriality, with which of the following do you disagree? a) Anoles can defend their territories without physical confrontations because dewlap area is an honest indicator of fighting ability b) Costs of maintaining a territory can include the energy and time it takes to maintain the territory c) Territories may be defended by more than one individual d) Benefits of holding a territory can include increased access to mates and food e) None of the above (i.e. all are true)

E- none of the above

why is the inbreeding coefficient also referred to as the fixation index

F will evenutally reach 1 allele becomes fixed when Hobs = Hhwe F=0 when a populaytion lacks heterozygotes F=1

Assume there is a Mendelian trait determined by two alleles, A and a. The allele frequencies in the population are A=0.7, a=0.3. Assuming that there is no immediate selection on this trait, what are the genotype frequencies? What are the number of individuals with each genotype (Assume population size is 300)

Frequencies: AA = q2 = (0.7) 2 = 0.49 aa= p2 = (0.3)2 = 0.09 Aa = 2pq = 2 x 0.7 x 0.3 = 0.42 Numbers: AA = 0.49 x 300 = 147 aa = 0.09 x 300 = 27 Aa = 0.42 x 300 = 126

what is an ex of non synonymous polymorphism

GUG to GCG

Chi square goodness of fit test

Hardy Weinberg equilibrium equation can be used to calculate theoretical genotype frequencies for a population that is NOT evolving to determine whether the genotype frequencies meet Hardy Weinberg expectations we use the chi square fit test observed values are significantly different from HW expectations

what selection pressure resulted in a change in allele frequencies in the Hawaiian field cricket population

Hawaii's field crickets and the Ormia fly the parasitoid Ormia fly identified ale crickets by their mating calls silent crickets were able to successfully find mates by clustering around calling males and waiting for them to attract females over 2 decades, crickets with the mutant allele produced more offspring than crickets with the normal allele, and the numbers if silent crickets increased in the population adaptation cost- loss of ability to attract females benefit - avoid parasitoid wasps

allopatric speciation by vicariance snapping shrimp why are snapping shrimp sister species found on each side of the Isthmus of Panama a good ex of allopatric speciation by vicariance

Isthmus of Panama closed about 3 million yrs ago whcih point populations of snpping shrimp became isolated gene flow between Carribbean and pacific pops of snapping shrims panama closed 3 million years ago pops of shrime isolated each side - scientists found 7 pairs of sister species diverges form common ancestors

K/T extinction (at end of Cretaceous)

K/T extincition was initaited by a metorite or asteroid that hit off the coast of the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico due to environmental changes caused by the meterorite impact most dinosaur species went extinct a lot of dust sky darker and tems and photosynthetic rates decreased

how does reproductive isolation arise?

NS and genetic drift

why is there a time lag between the imitation of the pollution control programs and the decrease in the melanistic morph?

NS cannot occur instantaneously but works across multiple generations air pollution decreased pale moths were more air pollution increased dark moths were more air pollution decreased lichens were able to grow on trees result- pale peppered moths began to have higher reproductive success than the melanistic moths, and the proportion of melanistic moths in the population decreased lag reflects the time required for forests to return to a more natural unpolluted state, as well as low initial frequency of the recessive allele for typical coloration

reprodcutive isolation how does reprodcutive isolation asrise?

NS favors prezygotic barriers bc it prevents the prodcution of unfit progeny ecolohival divergence when populations are alloatric results in prezygotic and postzygotic barriers as a by product side effect of isolation on other traist occurs when pops are geographically isolated and diverging

why does the Nebraska- New Jersey lizard transplant experiment exemplify a genotype-environment interactions

Nebraska is nutrient rich Nebraska lizards transported to NJ decrease in growth by 50% NJ did not increase in growth when transplanted to Nebraska NJ genetically regulated growth rate that adapted to low resource environment and lost plasticity growth rate Nebraska transported to NJ couldn't gather resources fast enough did not retain plasticity resources fewer in NJ transplanted Nebraska lizards cannot gather resources fast enough to support their natural growth rates NJ lizards have genetically fixed slow growth rate and cannot take advantage of more abundant resources in Nebraska

Selection can act on traits in three different ways - stabilizing selection, directional selection, and disruptive selection. Explain each type and give an example of each

Stabilizing selection occurs when individuals with intermediate traits have greater reproductive success than individuals with extreme traits. Therefore, intermediate traits are found at a greater frequency than extreme traits. E.g. Human birth weight b. Disruptive selection: Individuals with extreme phenotypes at either end of the distribution have greater reproductive success than individuals with intermediate phenotypes. Therefore, we get a bimodal distribution of phenotypes. E.g. beak size in the black-bellied seedcracker in West Africa. c. Directional selection: individuals with an extreme phenotype at one end of the distribution have greater reproductive success than individuals without that extreme phenotype. E.g. directional selection in the peppered moth

What is the red queen hypothesis?

The red queen hypothesis proposes that organisms must constantly be evolving to keep up with competing organisms that are also evolving. If one of them stops changing, it will be driven extinct by the other. Hence species must constantly change to "stay in the same place," evolutionarily, with respect to each other.

which nucleotide bases are complimentary to one another

Thymine and Adenine Cytosine and Guanine

blue tits exhibit which form of assortative mating

UV chroma is correlated with brightness positive relationship between UV chroma of males and UV chroma of females, suggests brightly colored blue tits prefer mates who are just as bright as they are positive assortative mating in blue tits

What is a gene?

a gene is the physical entity transmitted from present to offspring during reproduction

what is a polypeptide?

a large molecule made up of many amino acids joined together proteins are made up of more or more polypeptides bonded together Hemoglobin 4 polypeptide chains- a1 a2 B1 B2

what is a locus?

a location on a chromosome - genes are found on a chromosome at a particular locus

what is a hybrid zone

a region where two species similiar enough to mate produce hybrids

what is a SNP

a single nucleotide polymorphism alternative of amino acid differences of one base at a particular site in the DNA

inbreeding in natural populations

a small pop of sparrows was confined to a small island limiting mating opportunities 671 mated pairs, fixation index was 0.031 when subgroup of 51 mating pairs was considered the average F of offspring exceeded 0.125 similar to if all the mating individuals were 1st cousins survival of offspring decreased as the inbreeding coefficient increased offspring with an F of 0.031 sirvived 8% as well as outbred individuals with an inbreeding coefficent of 0.125 survived 29% less well than individuals will an F of 0

how does tRNA align the appropriate amino acid with the appropriate RNA codon

a tRNA appears with an amino acid amino acid chain is transferred to the new tRNA

There are three critical components of the theory of evolution by natural selection. Explain what they are and why all three must be present in order for natural selection to act on a trait

a. Phenotypic variation among individuals b. Inheritance of that variation c. Differences in survival and reproductive success related to that variation If all individuals in the population have the same value for a trait, i.e. there is no variation, then that trait will have no effect on their survival and reproduction. Differential reproductive success associated with variation in traits ensures that individuals whose phenotype is more suited to their environment produce more offspring. Heritability ensures that the phenotypes that cause increased survival and reproduction are in part passed on to offspring.

what are direct benefits

access to high quality territores, food, parental care

peripatric speciation and phylogenetics Hawaiian crickets how and how long ago were the Hawaiian islands formed

according to phylogeny a single cricket species first colonized Kauai and then subsequently colonized the younger islands the ocean between the islands prevented gene flow leading to allopatric speciation Kauai - 5 million early, hit hot spot volvanic action - occured as tectonic plate moved across hot spot of the focean

re mutations expected to cause large deviations from Hardy Weinberg expectations

add new alleles very low rates small deviations

genetic variance can be broken down into 3 main effects what are they

additive dominance epistatic interaction Vg = Va + Vd + Vi

what evident is there that inbreeding influences offspring survival in gray wolves

all pack members related diversity low pop never exceeded 10 individuals 10 to 100 in 10 year single pair of wolves founded the pop in 1983 and genetic diveristy was low 1991 new breeding male joined pack, pups born were more genetically diverse new genes introduced by the new male increased the number of surivivng offspring

pregygotic mating barriers Spadefoots toads Spea bombifrons and Spea multiplicata why might female preference for conspecific male calls have evolved in spadetoad toads?

females prefer conspecific calls, if hybridization their offspring are less fertile it is likely that selection on the male calls and female prefernce for those calls to prevet prodcution of less fit hybrid progeny bc females and males under selection o effectively adverstise and idntify conspecific mates and prevent reproduction of less fit progeny

behavioral prezygotic barrier Green lacewings

females preference for species specific sounds prevents hybridization initiated by male

why are eusocial socoieites primiarily female?

females workers who help to rasie primarily male offspring wouldnt gain same level of inclusive fitness due to lower coefficeient of relationship Kin favors eusocial socities of female rather than males

haplodiploidy

femlaes parasitoid wasps can store sperm that can either be used to fertilize eggs or not controlling sex ration of offspring fertilized eggs become female, while unfertilized eggs become male parasitoid wasps are haplodiploid

inclusive fitness

fitness of an individual + fitness effects of that individual on its relatives, weighted by the coeffieient of relationship of those affected by kin

positive relationship

flight interval increases as the flock size increases independent increases and dependent decreases

founder effect Paradise kingfish when is genetic drift most likely to result in speciation?

following foundation event founder pop did not have all genetc variation of the source pop genetic drift in speciation of locallized kingfish NS most important in speciation Genetic drift plays secondary

why do ornate moth females prefer larger males

food gift with sperm eggs fertilized and gets snack females want larger males

what vestigial structures exist in humans

forelimbs human, mole, horse, dolphin, bat

dominance european wood pigeons great tit social rank in European wood? great tits?

form flocks in whcih low ranking individuals are pushed to peripheral more vulnerable to predatios shunt younger birds to poorer habitat and deny ability to hold a territory in a prime habitat more daughters/ poor position

what evidence did Cuvier provide that species could go extinct?

fossil record Irish elk skeleton mastodon skeleton

what are bottlenecks

founders pop is typically small and therefore genetic variation can be lsot in the years following the conoloization due to genetic drift

why does it benefti a parent to prodcue offspring of the rarer sex

frequency increase fitness less rare sex ratio close 1:1

how did altered pollution control programs result in a change in allele frequencies in the peppered moth population

frequency of melanistic moths decreased air pollution, decreasing lichens able to grow on trees pale moths increased in success

how do fungi make nutrients available to other organisms?

fungi decompose dead plant material and make nutrients available to other organisms

what are indirect benefits

genes

the phenotypic variation around the population mean can be portioned into what two componenets

genetic and environmental genetic genes cause to differ in valuee of phenotype trait environmental exposure to sun and other factors variance due to different effects of environment and developmental noice Vp= Vg + Ve

what does it mean when the reaction norm shows no change across environments

genetic factors phenotype influence genetically and no sensitive to environmental change

allopolyploidy JJl mole salamander

genomes from two dfiferent species

what concept did Charles Lyell contribute Darwins work on NS?

geological evidence erosion, sedimentation, earthquakes, volcanoes, cause of production of geological structures

differential mating success lowers Ne

greater prairie chickens

If the offspring inherit all of the deviance of their parents

h =1 R = S uk = us higher the heritability the more kids reflect traits in parents

if the offspring inherit none of the deviance of their parents

h=0 uk = u R = none

how did overfishing of the sheephead influence the age at maturity of the fish

had females that could transition into being males at a younger age argue that ealier age of sex swithcing is favroed bc most large male fish are being removed by fisherman any fish that can transition at earlier age has little competition for other males increase reproductive success

kin selection striped back wrens

helpers gain greater inclusive fitness by helping to rasie their siblings than by trying to raise offspring on their own older offspring care for new siblings helps increase number young produced

what are reciprocal transplant experiments?

helps scientists distinguish between genetic differences compare phenotypes of individual kept in native environment to individual transplanted to different environment

benefits of being part of a group blue herons

herons fishing in pond attracted other herons poor ponds left quickly ponds with lots of fish remained and group size increased grup size communicated info about prey location to other birds

2pq

heterozygous genotype

why was the tetraploid species created by Muntzing an example of speciation

highly fertile and couldnt mate with diploid new reprodcutively isolated species

p^2

homozygous dominant

q^2

homozygous recessive

what evidence from the fossil record is there for the theory of evolution

transitional species archaeopteryx dinosaur and feathers

red queen hypothesis New Zealand snails are asexual mud snails found in areas where trematodes are present or present?

in areas where the trematode infection rate was igh, the mud snail reproduced sexually to keep up with the parasties each mud snail pop was most easily infected by trematoades fomr their same depth this indicates that the parasites are evolving rapidly to overcome the defenses of the asexual snails in their environment absent

kin selection wild turkeys

in wild turkeys males that display together are siblings or half sibilings these paired males sire more offspring than single males males courtship 2 or more males display together but just one mates with female

fixation index

inbreeding coefficient is negatively related ot the size of the population bc the rndom nature of production of gamestes, birth rates and death rates smaller the population the more likely allele will go to fixation due to chance

under what conditions is it unlikely that a selfish behavior will increase in the population

increase in coefficeint of relationship decrease in likelihood of selfish behavior evolving

negative assortative mating results in an increase in the population in the proportion of what genotype

increase in hetero offspring

how can we interpret the response to selection?

increase number of eggs should expect from 1 generation to next

how is it possible that assortative mating changes genotype frequencies, but not allele frequency

increase number of heterozygouse in population proportion of Aa alleles will not change AA aa cross heterozygous have same frequency of Aa alleles as parents

how does inbreeeding effect population heterozygosity and allele frequencies

increases homozygosity at all loci positive assortative mating only increase homozygosity of some loci

how do males increase their fitness

increasing number of mate

what is assortative mating?

individuals choose mates non randomly with respect to their own genotypes

what is sexual selection

individuals of one sex prefer specific characteristics in individuals of the opposite particular male characteristics allow males to win physical competitions for females

what is a genotype?

individuals set of genes that make up genotype

what is positive assortative mating

individuals tend to mate with individuals similar to themselves AA * AA

what is negative assortative mating?

individuals tend to mate with unlike individuals AA * aa

what is directional selection?

individuals with an extreme phenotype have greater reproductive success than individuals with the intermediate phenotype Darwins finches peppered moth

what does it mean when reaction norms cross

individuals with each genotype perform better in 1 environment and worse in others genotype by environment interaction

stabilizing selection

individuals with intermediate traits have greater reproductive success than individuals with extreme traits human birth weight

describe Lanmarks acquired characters

inheritance of acquired characters changes passes on to offspring ex - giraffe long neck because tried to read higher for food theory - flawed muscles not inherited by offspring

NS in medium ground finch

inheritance of variation best fit line between offspring beak depth and parent beak depth - 1978 and 1976 large build parent = large build offspring bill size = heritable trait

what is an indel

insertion or deletion polymorphism

how can social behaviors be shaped by natural selection

interact with many memebrs, mates, offspring, relatives, family, nonrelatives genetic component shaped by NS

what is mutualism

interaction between 2 species benefits both

what are social behaviors

interactions with members of same pop many of them will be related NS favors supportive behaviors between family and many same genes cooperation and competition

what happens during RNA processing

introns are cleaved off leaving the eons to be joined together

what type of behavorial phenotype plasticity does the cactus wren exhibit

is responding to temperature variation in its environment by changing its behavior adaptation to desert environment temperature variation in environment by changing behavior

what is population genetics?

is the study of naturally occurring genetic differences among organisms

why is the Hardy Weinberg equilibrium equation useful to ecologists

it is used to calculate theoretical genotype frequencies for a population that isn't evolving baseline for comparison if genotype frequency is similar to theoretical assume none of the assumptions of the law are being violated

kin selection african white fronted bee eaters

kin selection promotes cooperation among extended family members mated pairs and singles individuals treat closely realted family better than cousins different degrees of relatedness kin favor altruism toward relatives

what is sexual dimorphism

large differences in body size, ornamentation, coloration, and courtship behavior between males and females

false clownfish sequential hermaphrodite why?

large dominant female, if female dies male becomes a female begins as male only becomes male when social constraints allow

genetic signatures giant tortoises of Isabella island

large pop with little genetic variation suggests that the pop has been small in past potentially due to founders effect followed by pop growth small pop with substantial genetic variation suggest historically large population recently decreased in size

allopatric speciation Sun fish scientists Bermingham and Avise found genetically differentiated eastern and western pops of several speices of fish what barrier alllowed diff pops to evolve?

sunfish populations diverged 3 to 4 million years ago, during whcih the seal level was much higher and may have provided a barrier to interbreeded barrier to gene flow genetically distinct pop diverges allopatrically as results genetic diverges - 3 to 4 million years ago sea level high and barrier to interbreeding

character displacement: allopatry and sympatry Drosophila serrate and Drosophila birchil

sympatric states result in similar proprtions whether the results are from wild populations or lab pops the same is true for allopatric states this shows that character displacement associated with reinforcement is predicatble and can occur in as few as 9 generations

why is cooperation among unrelated individuals unusual hawk and dove ex

taken advantage of by selfish individual hawk selfish individual fights over resources and takes all dove cooperative never fight nd share evenly

territoriality hummingbirds what two antagonist behaviors can mediate social interactions

territorality and dominance

what determines whether individuals defend territoires or not

territories are held when cost of defending terriorty is less than the benefits of whatever resources the territory holds cost is energy and time

territoriality yarrows spiny lizard

territories are held when the cost of defending the territoy is less than the benefits of whatever resources the territory holds

polygyny threshold

territory quality of mated male on a higher quality territory exceeds that of an inmated male on a lower quality terrioty and thus exceeds the polygyny threshould for female choice when the terrioty qiality of the already mated male is greater than the territoy quality of the unmated male, female would benefit fomr ssharing her mate with another female

how can we determine whether the genotype frequencies meet Hardy Weinberg expectations

test if the genotype frequency in population are statistically different from Hardy Weinberg

Hamiliton Zuk hypothesis

that there is a negtive relationship between plumage brightness and parasit load females that mate with bright males may benefit from producing offspring able to withstand parasit infection

what is relative fitness

the ability of one genotype to survive and reproduce relative to another genotype

what happens to the inbreeding coefficient as inbredding persists in a population

the closer inbreeding coefficient will be to 1

how can differences in fitness lead to changes in the genetic makeup of a population

the greater the product of descendent over an individuals lifetime, the great the contribution of heritable traits to the next generation, and the greater the individuals fitness heritable traits are associated with greater reproductive success eventually replace traits that confer lower fitness

what concept did Thomas Robert malts contribute to Darwins work on natural selection

the growth and decay of populations population grew greater in size than what could be supported famine population have potential to grow faster than resources

dominant effect

the heterozygotes phenotype is identical to that of the homozygote with two dominant alleles

how is inbreeding define

the mating of individuals in the population that are more closely related than expected by random chance

why do we subtract 2 from the number of classes to calculate the degrees of freedom

the number of classes in the data are 2 1 because finite sampling 1 each independent parameter calculate p & q are not independent values only subtract 1 bc of 1 independent value

what is irreversible developmental response?

the phenotypic modifications that typically last for the entire lifespan of the individual

what is a phenotype?

the physical expression of the genotype

what is fitness

the production of descendants over an individual's lifetime

what is ecology

the study of interactions between organisms and their environment

what is absolute fitness

the survivorship and reproduction of each genotype in a population

polyploidy Galeopsis hybrids

the trtraploid pffspring could not mate with the diploid G pubesens or G speciosa

How were Darwin and Walace similar

theory of NS developed combined all ideas branching evolutionary patterns branch into 2 or more forms descent with modification -- small changes lead to large difference over long periods

additive effect

there heterozygotes phenotype is intermediate to the phenotypes of the homozygotes

NS results in reprodctuve isolation leaf beetles secual isolation index = 0.64 evidnce that reprodcutive isolation between pops of leaf beetles arose as a side effect of ecological divergence

there is a greater sexual isolation index between the willow adapted beetle and both maple adapted beetle pops than there is between the two male adapted pops that are allopatric indicated that NS to survive on diff host plants has resulted in reprodcutive isolation allopatric single gene effects more than 1 phenotypic character

males parents care sedge warblers

there is a postiive relationship between song repertoire size and male visits per chick per hour in male sedge warblers females prefer males who have greater song repertoires bc it indicates that they will receive direct benefits feed young parental care increase female fitness

why are ribosomes important in translation

they read codons

harmonic mean equation

this equation varies over time 1/Ne = 1/t (1/N1 + 1/N2 + ...... 1/Nt) Ni pop size in year i t total number years in sample

what is a complex trait?

traits influenced by many genes and the enivornment