Biological Anthropology

Mitosis produces

2 diploid cells (daughter cells)

Hominins

Humans and their immediate ancestors

There are two alleles for the PTC-tasting locus in humans: T, which codes for tasting, and t, which codes for non-tasting. T is dominant and t is recessive. Imagine two parents that are tasters have a child that is a non-taster. Given this information, you know that the genotypes of the parents had to have been

Tt and Tt

One chemical difference between DNA and RNA is that RNA has the base ___ instead of the base T.

U

DNA

directs cellular function.

Chromosome number is reduced during:

meiosis

Morphology

physical shape and appearance

Process of Meiosis

1) Genetic information duplicates and the chromosomes form pairs 2) In the first division, the chromosome pairs line up in the centre of the cell 3) The pairs are pulled apart so each new cell only has one copy of each chromosome 4) In the second division, the chromosomes line up again in the centre of the cell and the arms of the chromosomes are pulled apart 5) Four gametes are formed, each with only a single set of chromosomes in it - each gamete is genetically different from the others

Many traits are affected by both genetic and environmental factors. If everyone in a population had the exact same environment, the heritability would be ____ percent.

100

Imagine a species where there is a locus with two alleles, A and B. Further imagine that A is dominant and B is recessive. How many different phenotypes are possible in this species?

2

Human beings have ____ pairs of chromosomes.

23

Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. The process of sex-cell formation provides _____________ chromosomes to an offspring from each parent.

23

Imagine a species where there is a locus with two alleles, A and B. Further imagine that A and B are codominant. How many different phenotypes are possible in this species?

3

The DNA molecule is made up of ____ chemical bases.

4

Human Karyotype

46 chromosomes, 23 pairs

The ABO blood group has three alleles ( A, B, O) where A and B are codominant and O is recessive. If a man with type O blood mates with a woman with type A blood, the expected proportion of heterozygotes among their offspring is ________ depending on the genotype of the woman.

50-100

Imagine an organism with three chromosome pairs. According to Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment, how many genetically different sex cells could this organism produce?

8

Individuals whose blood type is A and who carry both dominant and recessive genes at this locus have a genotype of:

AO

The alternative forms of a gene found at a given locus are known as

Alleles

Genotype

An organism's genetic makeup, or allele combinations.

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits.

arboreal

Animals that had once lived in trees

Common mutation in humans

Blue eyes Red hair Asian Flush Missing Wisdom teeth

Proteins consist of

Chains of amino acids

The two alleles that result in the expressed phenotype for hemoglobin are equally expressed. This is an example of:

Codominance

Alleles are _________ if both of their effects are shown in the phenotype.

Codominant

sexual dimorphism

Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species.

An allele is _________ if it masks the effect of another allele.

Dominant

What was the importance of Darwins voyage?

During his voyage on the Beagle, Darwin made many observations that helped him develop his theory of evolution. Darwin's most important observations were made on the Galápagos Islands.

Somatic cells are characterized by all of the following EXCEPT:

Each contains half a copy of an organisms DNA

A human karyotype contains 23 autosomal chromosome pairs and one pair of sex chromosomes.

False

DNA replication takes place only during the production of new gametes.

False

Hemoglobin is an amino acid.

False

Mitochondrial DNA is contained within the cell's nucleus.

False

Most human nuclear DNA is coded to produce proteins.

False

directional selection

Form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

Heritability is a measure of the proportion of total variation that is related to ___________ variation.

Genetic

Darwin's contribution to evolution

He wrote The origin of species. His main points were organisms inhabiting Earth today descended from ancestral species. Natural selection is the mechanism for descent with modification.

_________ genes regulate embryonic development.

Homeotic ( Hox)

Why are Hox genes important?

Hox genes help lay out the basic body forms of many animals, including humans, flies, and worms.

Sometimes alleles for different genes are inherited together, which is due to

Linkage

In his experiments with garden peas, Mendel found that one physical unit is inherited from the father and one from the mother. This provided evidence for:

Mendel's law of segregation

____________ DNA is heteroplasmic, meaning it can differ among different parts of a person's body.

Mitochondrial

mtDNA

Mitochondrial DNA. Evolve rapidly. Maternally inherited only so trace the maternal line of inheritance through time

____________ is the production of body cells, whereas _________ is the production of sex cells.

Mitosis / meiosis

one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis

Modification of the one gene, one enzyme hypothesis; proposes that each gene encodes a separate polypeptide chain.

Where is DNA found in the cell?

Mostly in the nucleus, with a small amount in the mitochondria.

gene flow

Movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population. Results over time decreases variation between groups.

DNA regulates the process of protein synthesis with the help of

RNA

Construtivism

Reality is culturally constructed/Socially situated

Given that humans and apes share over 98 percent of their genetic material, it seems likely that their anatomical differences involve differences in __________ genes.

Regulatory

Each parent contributes one allele at each locus to his or her offspring. This is known as Mendel's Law of

Segregation

stablizing selection

Selection against extreme values, large or small, in a continuous trait.

Somatic cells include all of the following EXCEPT:

Sex Cells

Holism

The anthropological commitment to consider the full scope of human life, including culture, biology, history, and language, across space and time.

The ABO blood group has three alleles ( A, B, O) where A and B are codominant and O is recessive. How can a woman with type O blood have a child with type A blood?

The father has to have genotype AA, genotype AO, or genotype AB.

Allopatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that are geographically isolated from one another.

sympatric speciation

The formation of new species in populations that live in the same geographic area

The MN blood group has two codominant alleles. How can a woman with type M blood have a child with type N blood?

The woman could never have a child with type N blood.

The ABO blood group has three alleles ( A, B, O) where A and B are codominant and O is recessive. How can a woman with type A blood and a man with type B blood have a child with type O blood?

The woman must have genotype AO and the man must have genotype BO.

How does the peppered moth show natural selection

There is also a naturally occurring genetic mutation which causes some moths to have almost black wings. These black forms (called 'melanic') are not as well camouflaged on the lichen as normal 'peppered' forms and so they are more likely to be eaten by birds and other predators.

In order for traits to respond to natural selection, they must be heritable.

True

Malthus, Thomas

Was one of the first to argue that the worlds rate of population increase was far outrunning the development of food population. This is important because he brought up the point that we may be outrunning our supplies because of our exponentially growing population.

Materialism

When culture is mainly seen as an extra somatic adaptation to the environment

monogenic traits

a characteristic that is produced by a single gene or a single allele

regulatory gene

a gene that produces a repressor substance that inhibits an operator gene

Deme

a local population of organisms that have similar genes, interbreed, and produce offspring

Adaptationism

a premise that all aspects of an organism have been molded by natural selection to a form optimal for enhancing reproductive success

Positivism

a scientific approach to knowledge based on "positive" facts as opposed to mere speculation. Reality can be objectively observed and measured

The following are complementary bases in DNA:

adenine and thymine

Darwin's Theory of Evolution

all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.

For the human sex chromosomes, males have

an X chromosome and a Y chromosome

sampling error

an error that occurs when a sample somehow does not represent the target population

Hox genes

appear to function in similar ways across diverse groups of organisms.

In his work on pea plants, Mendel found that plant height was inherited independently of the type or color of the seed coat. This finding:

applies to the law of independent assortment

homologous chromosomes

carry genetic information that influences the same trait.

Microevolution vs. Macroevolution

change in the gene pool of a population over several generations / large scale changes in a population that leads to the evolution of a new species

polygenic traits

characteristics that are influenced by more than one pair of genes

DNA sequences are found in long chains known as

chromosomes

Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

condition that occurs when the frequency of alleles in a particular gene pool remain constant over time

Human ABO blood types are:

controlled by multiple alleles

autosomal trait

determined by genes found on one of the first 22 pairs of chromosomes

Mendel's experiments with pea plants showed that crossing plants with yellow seeds with plants with green seeds produced only offspring with yellow seeds. This finding illustrates the principle of

dominance

The shape of a DNA molecule is a

double helix

Microevolution

evolutionary change within a species or small group of organisms, especially over a short period.

point mutation

gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed

structural genes

genes that code for proteins

founder effect

genetic drift that occurs after a small number of individuals colonize a new area

The genetic makeup of an individual is known as the

genotype

Gametes are

haploid meaning they only contain 23 chromosomes

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck

he proposed that by selective use or disuse of organs, organisms could acquire or lose certain traits which are then passed on to their children and future generations, eventually changing the species. Believed that traits experienced over a lifetime are passed on to the offspring.

Transcription occurs

in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm (at the ribosomes)

process of mitosis

interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis

Sociolinguistics

investigates relationships between social and linguistic variation

The expression of polygenic traits:

is determined by genes at several loci in conjunction with environmental factors.

Lamarkian Theory

is the hypothesis that an organism can pass on characteristics that it has acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime to its offspring. It is also known as the inheritance of acquired characteristics or soft inheritance.

A trait's heritability:

is the proportion of its variation that is genetic.

The presence of a recessive allele:

is usually masked in the phenotype.

DNA is important for protein synthesis because

it is biological code for the production of hormones and enzymes. it serves as a template for protein production. it provides the code to produce structural proteins.

Macroevolution

large-scale evolutionary changes that take place over long periods of time

Eukaryotes

organisms made up of one or more cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

Some genes can have multiple effects on an organism, such as affecting different physical and biochemical systems. This is known as

pleiotropy

homoplasmic

refers to nuclear DNA, which is identical in the nucleus of each cell type (except red blood cells)

terrestrial

relating to the land

Gametes

sex cells

Anagenesis

single species evolves into a different species

balanced polymorphism

situation in which selection maintains two or more phenotypes for a specific gene in a population. Heterzygote advantage balances the the two alleles over time so it becomes less dangerous.

Darwainian Theory

states that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.

biocultural approach

studying humans in terms of the interaction between biology and culture in evolutionary adaptation

In mammals, the male parent's gametes determine the sex of his offspring because:

the Y chromosome is present in males only.

Creationism

the belief that God created the world and everything in it, usually in the way described in the Bible

Genome

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Cladogenesis

the formation of a new group of organisms or higher taxon by evolutionary divergence from an ancestral form.

protein synthesis

the formation of proteins by using information contained in DNA and carried by mRNA

A doctor finds that the mammary glands of a woman are not functioning due to a genetic abnormality that influences the structural design of the thoracic cavity. This is likely:

the result of a mutation on a Hox gene.

An individual that is homozygous at the locus that determines ABO blood type may have any of the following EXCEPT:

type AB blood.

Transfer RNA

type of RNA molecule that transfers amino acids to ribosomes during protein synthesis

Nucleotide bases in nuclear DNA include all of the following EXCEPT:

uracil

RNA differs from DNA in that it uses:

uracil instead of thymine

Single Nucleotide polymorphisms

variations in the DNA sequence that occur when a single nucleotide in the genome is altered

The ABO blood group has three alleles ( A, B, O). If a woman with genotype AO mates with a man with genotype BB, the expected proportion of heterozygotes among their offspring is

100 percent

natural selection

A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.

genetic drift

A random change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.

Matriline

DNA, such as mitochondrial DNA, whose inheritance can be traced from mother to daughter or to son

All mammals have the same number of chromosomes

False

who was the first to demonstrate the principles of genetic inheritance.

Gregor Mendel

three patterns of natural selection

stabilizing selection, directional selection, disruptive selection

Mendel's Law of Independent Assortment

when two or more characteristics are inherited, individual hereditary factors assort independently during gamete production, giving different traits an equal opportunity of occurring together.