Biology 121 Exam 1

How does development occur in animals?

Single cell -> blastula -> gastrula

______________ are groups that share an immediate common ancestor.

Sister taxa

What body part is specialized to spiders?

Spinnerets

What are spores? What process produces spies in Fungi? What does this process produce in animals?

Spores are haploid cells that form after germinating. Meiosis produces spores during sexual reproduction. Spores are also produced during asexual reproduction. In animals meiosis produces four haploid cells.

In seedless vascular & seed vascular plants which are dominant the gametophyte or sporophyte?

Sporophyte; sizes changed as well (gametophyte got smaller while sporophyte got larger)

Mostly unicellular?

Yes, most protists are unicellular

Which is true? Match the organism with its correct role in the environment. Select one. a. Borrelia burgdorferi causes Lyme disease and is pathogenic spirochete b. Rhizobium is a genus of proteobacteria that are mutualistic with legumes (the pea and bean plant family) c. Cyanobacteria are primary producers (photoautotrophic) d. Methanogens are from the Domain Archaea and use CO2 to oxidize H2, releasing methane e. All four of the answers are correct f. None of the four answers are correct

e. All four of the answers are correct

Has peptidoglycan in cell wall, has a circular chromosome, has gram positive staining Select one: a. Nitrosomonas, a Beta Proteobacteria b. Salmonella, which has a thin layer of peptidoglycan between plasma membrane and outer membrane c. Heliobacter pylori, and Epsilon Proteobacteria d. Rhizobium, an Alpha Proteobacteria e. Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium botulinum, and Streptomyces all have these characteristics

e. Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium botulinum, and Streptomyces all have these characteristics

What is the blastula?

empty cell ball

What is the blastocoel?

fluid filled cavity

What is the blastopore?

future gut

What does Metazoan mean?

multicellular

What does Basal mean?

multicellular but lack tissues

Recent evidence that they have migratory embryonic cells that gave rise to ____________________________________

neural crest cells

What is the desmosome in cells?

spot rivet

What is the tight junction in cells?

prevent fluid from moving across a layer of cells

What are endotoxins?

released when the cell wall breaks down

Several of the tunicates genomes have been ____________________________

sequenced

What is the pharynx?

single opening

What is the ectoderm?

skin

What is the ganglia?

small concentration of nerves not brain

What type of organic compounds to autotrophs make (oxidized of reduced)?

Reduced organic compounds because they have more energy.

What do we mean when we say this group (the protists) is polyphyletic?

Referring to protists as polyphyletic means they come from a group of taxa derived from two or more different ancestors

What are the differences between mono, para, and polyphyletic groupings?

A monophyletic refers to an ancestral species and all of its descendants. A paraphyletic refers to an ancestral species and some of its descendants. A polyphyletic refers to many different ancestors.

What is the hyphae?

A network of tiny filaments in the top portion of a fungus

Who are the Amniotes?

Reptiles, Birds, Mammals

What is the definition of heterotrophic?

Require at least one organic nutrient to make other organic compounds, eats other things

What does obligate mean?

Required

A ________________ includes a branch to represent the last common ancestor of all taxa in the tree.

Rooted tree

Most animals reproduce ______________ and the dominnt form = diploid

Sexually

What is alternation of generations?

Alternation of generations is a life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte, characteristic of plants and some algae. This applies only to life cycles in which both haploid and diploid stages are multicellular.

What is the mycelium?

An interwoven mass of hyphae located in the group and the bottom of the fungus

What is phagocytosis?

An organism engulfs another one

Name an organism with a circular chromosome, has a spiral shape, and cause a sexually transmitted disease.

Bacteria

What roles do bacteria play within the ecosystem (autotroph, heterotroph, etc.)? Which ones require light? Which require reduced organic compounds? Which require oxygen and why? Which do not require oxygen (and how is this possible)?

Bacteria can play numerous roles within the ecosystem. Phototrophs require light. Autotrophs require reduced organic compounds. Obligate aerobes require oxygen because they cannot grow without it. Obligate anaerobes do not require oxygen. They can survive because they extract chemical energy.

A _____________ diverges early in the history of a group and originates near the common ancestor of the group.

Basal taxon

At what phylogenic layer did bilateral symmetry appear?

Bilateria

What is binomial nomenclature? Who is credited with developing this idea? Why is it useful?

Binomial nomenclature is a two-part naming system used to name organisms. It names things based on their genus and species. Carolus Linnaeus is credited with developing this. Binomial nomenclature can be useful because common names can be misleading, and often refer to more than one species.

Where might you find an obligate anaerobic?

Bottom of the ocean

Each _____________ represents the divergence of two species.

Branch point

What is the definition of Phylogenetic trees?

Branching "trees" that depict evolutionary relationships

What are the different kinds of tissues in animals?

Diploblasts - don't have a mesoderm Triploblasts - have all 3 layers (ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm)

Which bacteria may be harder to kill with antibiotics?

Gram-negative bacteria because of its outer membrane and resistance.

What is the definition of aerobic?

Needs O2 for cellular respiration

When going through cleavage do cells stay the same size?

No, they get smaller

Are Fungi motile or non-motile?

Non-motile

What is peptidoglycan?

Peptidoglycan is a polymer composed of modified sugars cross-linked by short polypeptides.

A ____________ is a branch from which more than two groups emerge.

Polytomy

What is the definition of Paraphyletic?

(Beside the tribe) Consists of an ancestral species & some but not all of its descendants

What is the definition of Polyphyletic?

(Many tribes) Includes taxa with different ancestors

What is the definition of Monophyletic?

(Single Tribe) Consists of an ancestral species and all of its descendants

What are the general vocal terms about body plans?

*Dorsal - top Ventral - bottom Anterior - front posterior - back

Hexapoda Characteristics

- (30+ orders include beetles, flies, ants, bees, wasps, termites, lice, fleas, dragonflies, caddisflies, and more) - 3 body regions - head, thorax, abdomen - Appendages (WINGS) - Antennae, Legs (3 pairs), mouthparts (specialized) - Compound eye - many photoreceptor units * Grasshopper: Gas exchange - tracheal tubes, excretory organ - malpighian tubules, concentration of nerve tissue (cerebral ganglion

Myriapoda Characteristics

- All terrestrial - Appendages (antennae, mandibles - jawlike mouthparts) - Many legs (millipede - 2 pairs/segment; centipede - 1 pair/segment) - Feeding (millipede - herbivores; centipede - carnivores)

What are the Derived Characteristics of Amniotes?

- Amniotic egg - allowed animals to move from the pond - 4 extra embryonic membranes - Amnion - membrane forms the amniotic sac - Chorion - gas exchange - Allantois - stores waste material - Yolk sac - nutrition - Shell

Phylum Ectoprocta & Brachiopoda Characteristics

- Anatomy: Coelomate (body cavity lined with mesoderm), Alimentary canal is U-shaped, Lophophore - ciliated tentacles surround mouth - Nutrition: Suspensions feeders - Ectoprocts: bryozoans, colonial reef-builders (lophophorates) - Brachiopods: lamp shells, fossil evidence

Phylum Mollusca Characteristics

- Anatomy: Coelomate, Foot (muscular, movement), Visceral mass - contains the internal organs (reduced coelom), Mantle - tissue secretes shell, Radula - tongue with teeth (rasping, scrapes food), Trochophore - ciliated larval stage - Reproduction: most separate sexes, some hermaphrodites

Phylum Arthropoda "Jointed Feet" Characteristics

- Anatomy: Coelomates; Segmented (each has a different job); Jointed Appendages; Open circulatory system w/hemolymph; Gas exchange organs (gills, tracheal system, booklungs-look like pages in a book); Hard exoskeleton: chitin, protection, prevent desiccation, hard/flexible/strong, support muscles - Trilobite fossils (extinct) - segmentation is apparent, but isn't shown in basal groups

Phylum Rotifer Characteristics

- Anatomy: Pseudocoelomate, Alimentary canal = digestive tube with separate mouth and anus (through gut), "wheel bearer" (rotifer) crown of cilia draws in food - Nutrition: Suspensions feeders - Reproduction: Partheogenesis (female eggs can develop without being fertilized -> female lineages continues)

Phylum Nematoda (round worm) Characteristics

- Anatomy: Pseudocoelomate; Alimentary canal; Cuticle - Feeding: free-living; parasitic - Reproduction: mostly asexual, separate sexes - Caenorhabditis elegans - Trichinella spiralis (causes trichinosis, hate in intestine and burrow into other tissues)

Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) Characteristics

- Anatomy: acoelomate (no coelom), no circulatory system, flat (dorsal = ventral), gas exchange and waster eliminated via diffusion (limited, only efficient up to a mm, why they are flat), gastrovascular cavity (one opening, branches) - Feeding: free-living, parasites - Reproduction: asexual, sexual, parasites require 2 hosts - Specialized features: planaria (eyespots), tapeworm (scolex (in order to not break lose from the host), proglottids (fake segments reproductive structure))

Phylum Annelida Characteristics

- Anatomy: coelomate, segmented (repetition of systems in segments), organs, have a cuticle but do not have to molt to grow

Crustacea Characteristics

- Aquatic - mostly - Body in 2-3 parts - Appendages include: antennae (2 pairs); chewing mouthparts of 3 or more pairs of appendages, with mandibles; 3 or more pairs specialized as legs; other specialized for: swimming, copulation, others - Compound eyes - Gas exchange: gills - Cuticle/exoskeleton hardened with calcium carbonate - Reproduction - sexual, separate sexes

What are the characteristics of Phylum Glomeromycota (Glomeromycetes)?

- Arbuscular mycorrhizae - 90% of plants

What are the classes of Echinodermata?

- Asteroides (Sea stars) - Ophiuroidea (Brittle stars) - Echinoidea (sea urchins) - Crinoidea ( basket stars) - Holothuroidea (sea cucumber)

What are the pros of fungi?

- Bakers yeast - Brewers yeast - Decomposers - Morels, truffles, cheeses (blue, Roquefort) - Penicillin - Mycorrhizae

How is phylogeny reconstructed using molecular methods?

- Based on molecular sequence of DNA - Bacteria/Archaea Classification based on sequence comparisons of rRNA genes (conserved; code for RNA components of ribosomes)

Ecdysozoa Characteristics

- Bilateria -Protostomes - Names for molting trait (AKA ecdysis), cuticle or exoskeleton shed in order to grow

What are the cons of prokaryotes?

- Cause 1/2 of human diseases - 2 + million die of tuberculosis & diarrheal diseases (cholera) - Exotoxins & Endotoxins - Also Lyme disease, Salmonella, Helicobacter (stomach ulcers), Chlamydia (blindness, STD), Clostridium (botulism-exotoxins), leprosy, anthrax, Streptococcus, Mycoplasma (walking pneumonia), plague, Antibiotic resistance

Why do protists matter?

- Causes disease - Basis of food webs - Experiments in eukaryotic living

What are the subphylum of Chordata?

- Cephalochordata - Urochordata - Vertebrata

Chelicerata Characteristics

- Chelicerae - "lip arm", claw-like feeding appendages - 2 body parts - cephalothorax (fused together), abdomen - 6 pairs of appendages (4 pairs of legs, 1 pair of chelicerae (clawlike feeding appendage), 1 pair of pedipalps (sensory, feeding, or reproductive)) - Eyes - single lens (2-8, most with 8) - Gas exchange: booklungs (spiders) - stacked membranes -Elias lab

What are the Major Subphyla of Arthropods?

- Chelicerata (horseshoe crabs, and arachnids such as spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites) - Myriapoda (millipedes, centipedes) - Hexapoda (Insects) - Crustacea (lobster, crab, crayfish, shrimp, barnacles)

What are the different kinds of body cavity/coelom in animals?

- Coelomate (body cavity lined with mesoderm everywhere) - Pseudocoelomate (only lined with mesoderm on one side) - Acoelomate (doesn't have a coelom)

What are the cons of fungi?

- Dutch elm disease - Plant pathogens (smuts & rusts, ergot-rye, bananas) - Ringworm, athletes foot, yeast (AIDs) - Citric acid (Aspergillus) - colas - Largest organism 2,200 acres, honey mushroom Oregon

What are some general characteristics of protists?

- Eukaryotic (but prokaryotic-like organelles) - Polyphyletic - Unicellular (mostly) - extremely specialized structures - Habitats - worldwide, damp to aquatic - Reproduction - mostly asexual - Nutrition - autotroph, heterotroph, mixotroph - Movement using: *Flagellates (jerky movements in steps) *Ciliates (smooth movement) *Amoebas (pseudopods) *Sporozoa (corkscrewy) - Convergent evolution - different amoebas in different groups

What are the Ancestral (Primitive) traits shared by algae and 1st land plants?

- Eukaryotic, photoautotrophs - Cellulose in cell walls - Chlorophylls a & b - Gametophyte dominant/division of labor - Flagellated sperm (limits plants to wet environments) - Relatively small (supported by water) [Lack lignin/true vascular tissue] - Alternation of generations (alternating multicellular haploid/diploid forms - Some multicellular - Division of labor (roots, leaves, stems; different cells specialized to do different things)

What are the characteristics of Phylum Zygomycota (Zygomycetes)?

- Fast growing food molds (breads, fruits) - Philobus aiming sporangia

Characteristics of the Class Myxini

- Hagfishes - Carilaginous skull - No jaws - No vertebrae - Craniates not vertebrates - Scavengers

Characteristics of the Class Mammalia -- Mammals

- Hair - Mammary glands (feed young) - Endothermic - 4 chambered heart - Diaphragm (muscular)

What are the general characteristics of Eurkaryotes?

- Heterotrophic - Absorptive - Secrete enzymes to break down organic materials - Cell walls made of chitin (more closely related to animals) - Mostly multicellular, nonmotile - Evolved from aquatic, unicellular, flagellated protist

What are the classes of Cnidaria?

- Hydrozoa (have both polyps & medusa) - Scyphozoa (moon jellyfish) - Cubozoa (unusual, 4 corner bell, very venomous, box jellies) - Anthozoa (corals, anemones, restricted to just the polyp stage)

What are the main structures of Fungi?

- Hyphae - Mycelium

What do you know about Binomial Nomenclature?

- Invented by Carolus Linneaus - It is a 2 part naming system comprised of the Genus (to which the species belongs; first part of the binomial) and species (specific epithet, species within the genus, second part of binomial)

What are the characteristics of Phylum Chytridiomycota (Chytrids)?

- Lakes and soils - Decomposers/parasites - Contributed to the global decline of amphibian populations - Live in digestive track of sheep & cattle and help break dow plant matter

Characteristics of the Class Petromyzontida

- Lampreys (jawless fishes) - Skeleton - made of cartilage - No jaws - Larval stage looks very much like a lancelet (cephalochordate) - Adults retain notochord

Subphylum Cephalochordata Characteristics

- Lancelets aka amphioxus - Larval and adult stages have chordate characteristics - Develop somites - give rise to muscle and bone (form muscles in amphioxus; form vertebrae, ribs, back muscles, and more in vertebrates

What are the characteristics of Phylum Ascomycota (Ascomycetes)?

- Marine, freshwater, terrestrial - Produce spores in saclike asci - Truffle, morels - Plant pathogens - Yeasts, athlete's foot, ergot, lichens

What are the derived characteristics of Vertebrates: "with a backbone"?

- More extensive skull - Backbone/vertebrae and internal skeleton - Paired muscle masses - Central nervous system - Heart with 2 or more chambers

What are some characteristics of the Kingdom Plantae?

- Multicellular - Eukaryotic - Autotrophic (photo) - Cellulose in cells - Chlorophylls a & b

What characteristics did early terrestrial plants evolve (derived traits that define land plants)?

- Multicellular dependent embryos (embryophyte - fertilization -> zygote -> embryo, protected within female gametophyte organ) - Walled spores produced sporangia (spores develop into gametophytes, sporangium = protective covering less likely to desiccate and die) - Multicellular gametangia (structures in which gametes formed; Female - Archegonia, Male - Antheridia); (Archegonia & Antheridia protect from UV & desiccation) - Apical meristems (allow plant to grow, rapid cell division) - Cuticle w/stomata/stomatal like pores (cuticle protects from desiccation; stomatal pores = allow CO2 in) Mycorrhizal symbioses (fungi have symbiotic relationships with plants getting them Phosphorous) - 2 compounds-anti-herbivory, anti-microbial (new adaptations to stressors on land)

What are the characteristics of Phylum Basidiomycota (Basidiomycetes)?

- Mushrooms, puffballs, shelf fungi, mycorrhizae, rusts, smuts, decomposers of wood

What are the pros of prokaryotes?

- N fixers and other mutualism - Intestinal bacteria synthesize - Decomposition (nutrient cycling) - Engineered (antibiotics, hormones) - Cheese and yogurt - Transgenic plants - Bioremediation - Mining metal ore - Symbiosis - Mutualistic bacteria

Phylum Chordata Characteristics

- Notochord (firm, flexible, fibrous); (rod-shaped); (provides support); (allows embryo to straighten out); (in some species this persists in adults) - Pharyngeal slits/gills (invertebrate chordates - filter feeding); (vertebrates - gills still form); (tetrapods - ear, head, neck; move onto land) - Dorsal, hollow nerve cord - central nervous system - Post-anal tail

Phylum Porifera (Sponges) Characteristics

- Nutrition: Suspension feeders (feed on particles suspended in the water - Lack all tissue - Habitat: Marine - Body plan: Pores (water enters), Spongocoel (opening to outside), Choanocytes (engulf bacteria and other food particles through phagocytosis), Ameobocyte (numerous functions), Osculum (larger opening) - Cells: 2 layers - Reproduction: most sequential hermaphrodites (both male/female can change between sexes) - NOT SELF FERTILIZATION - Development: Zygote flagellated dispersal, sessile adult (no movement)

Phylum Cnidaria (jellies, corals, hydras) characteristics

- Nutrition: carnivores, tentacles with cnidocytes, some with nematocysts (harpoon that is mechanically triggered), noncentralized nerve net (no brain) and contractile tissues (can swim) - Body plan: radial symmetry, central gastrovascular cavity, form: polyps (lives on the bottom & has tentracles on top), or medusae (opposite of polyp), cells: diploblastic - Reproduction: asexual - budding hydras/polyp or medusae, sexual: medusae form gametes

What are the basic characteristics that define these groups? In general, how do they reproduce?

- Oldest - Most Numerous - Prokaryotes - Unicellular (Spherical, rod, or spiral shaped) - Lack nuclear envelope - Lack membrane-enclosed organelles - Have cell wall (Bacteria has peptidoglycan in it) - Circular chromosome Both groups reproduce asexually.

What are the classes of Annelida?

- Oligochaeta: "few hairs" (earthworms and leeches); chaetae - chitin bristles; Alimentary canal - has a distinct mouth and a distinct anus *Leeches: No chaetae; predators or parasites; Hirudin - secreted chemical keeps blood from coagulating; well adapted to their lifestyle - Polychaeta: "many bristles"; Parapodia - ridges/paddles used for moving have chaete; free-living or tube dwellers (secreted by them or built)

What are the major groups of mammals?

- Order Monotremata (egg laying) - Order Marsupialia (pouched) - Eutherians (placental mammals) - facilitates exchange between mother and embryo

What are the major fungal groups?

- Phylum Chytridiomycota (Chytrids) - Phylum Zygomycota (Zygomycetes) - Phylum Glomeromycota (Glomeromycetes) - Phylum Ascomycota (Ascomycetes) - Phylum Basidiomycota (Basidiomycetes)

What are the phylums of vascular seed plants (Gymnosperms)? And what are their characteristics?

- Phylum Ginkgophyta *Ginko biloba, Medicinal properties Chinese good for heart and lungs (asthma), interferes with action of platelet activation factor involved in asthma (bronchial constrictions, arterial blood flow) - Phylum Cycadophyta *Zamia - only one native to N. American, male/female, large cones, palm leaves, cycads - Phylum Gnetophyta *Gnetum (35 species, tropical trees, shrubs, vines native to Africa and Asia); Ephedra (40 species, mostly arid-adapted, "Mormon Tea", produce compound ephedrine; Welwitschia (most bizarre plant, native to SW Africa, Nambia, 2 leaves, split) - Phylum Coniferophyta *(Pine, Fir, Larch, Spruce, Hemlock, Cypresses, Junipers); (needles, sunken stomata, thick cuticle, shed snow); (tallest trees - Sequoia sempervirens); (largest trees - Sequoia giganteum); (oldest trees - bristlecone pines)

What are the phylums of nonvascular plants (Bryophytes)? And what are their characteristics?

- Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts), Marchantia - Phylum Bryophyta (mosses), Sphagnum (Peat Moss) *tons of Carbon if decomposes releases C; antibacterial; extremely absorptive) - Phylum Anthocerophyta (hornworts) Nonvascular characteristics: -no xylem or phloem, no transport system, very small

What are the phylums of vascular seedless plants? And what are their characteristics?

- Phylum Lycophyta *not big, fairly small; arctic to the tropics, extinct woody lycophytes (carboniferous), non-woody/herbaceous lycophytes, epiphytes, club mosses - Phylum Pterophyta (ferns) *tropical, epiphytes, tree ferns, sporophyte dominant, fronts, rhizomes, fiddleheads, differentiation of labor Derived traits: - Increased differentiation - true roots and leaves - True vascular tissue (xylem, phloem) - Lignin - polymer gives xylem strength - Sporophyte dominant Limits: - Still have flagellated sperm

What are the classes of Mollusca?

- Polyplacophora: "many plates" the chitons; herbivores, radula for scraping algae; foot attaches to substrate - Gastropoda: "stomach foot"; shells, head with eyes, radula, foot; no shell: slugs, nudibranchs, herbivores, and carnivores; simple shell: limpet, herbivores; coiled shell: herbivores and carnivores - Bivalvia: (clam, mussel, scallop, oyster); 2 valves, suspensions feeders, shell - 2 part hinged; no head, no radula - Cephalopoda: "head foot" (squid, octopus, cuttlefish, nautilus); carnivores - active predators w/ tentacles and beak-like jaw; shell reduced or missing (internalized into a beak); well-developed sense organs and brain; closed circulatory system (novelty) - just like us - active lifestyle

What are the super groups of Bacteria?

- Proteobacteria (Gram Negative) *Gamma, Epsilon - Chlamydias - Spirochetes - Cyanobacteria - Gram Positive

What are derived adaptations in Gymnosperms?

- Reduced gametophytes (2-8 cells), small and dependent - Megaspore within ovule develops into Seeds (better than spores), embryo, food supply, protective coat - Pollen (no need for water), wind - No flagellated sperm

Characteristics of the Class Amphibia

- Salamanders (Order Urodela) - Frogs (Order Anura) - Caecilians (Order Apoda) - Gas exchange via lungs and skin - environmental indicators - restricted to moist environments - reproduce in water

Through what processes to fungi reproduce?

- Sexual reproduction - Need two mating types of haploid mycelium - Plasmogamy - Karogamy - Asexual reproduction - spores - Cell division or budding

What is the structure of the trochophore larva?

- Shaped like a top - Cilia (collect particles which sends them to the mouth)

What are the living and their characteristics Gnathostomes?

- Sharks, rays, and ratfishes (Class Chondrichthyes) - Cartilaginous skeleton - Cloaca - common hole for waste, gametes, etc. - Ray fin fishes and lob fin fishes (Class/ Superclass Osteichthyes) *Bony skeleton *Rod shaped pelvic bones in pectoral and pelvic fins *some have lungs - Lobe finned fishes Coelacanth - gave rise to tetrapods

Phylum Echinodermata "spiny skin" Characteristics

- Slow or sessile - Endoskeleton of calcified plates - Water vascular system (Defining characteristics hydraulic pump used to move) - used for moving, feeding, and gas exchange - Ring canal - 5 radial canals (each arm) - Tube feet - ampulla and sucker podium -Madreporite - opening where water comes in - Larva are bilateral -> deuterosome - "Nervous system" - nerve ring and nerve cords - Adult - imperfect radial symmetry, often 5 part - Reproduction: individual male and female release gametes into the water; external fertilization * Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (Sea Urchin) - experimental model for developmental biology, edible conads

Subphylum Urochordata Characteristics

- Tunicates/Sea squirts - Larval stage has chordate characteristics - Adult sessile - Sister to vertebrates - Brain organization

What are the classes of Platyhelminthes?

- Turbellaria (Dugesia) - Planaria - Monogenea - Fluke 1 host - Trematoda (Fluke) - 2 host, parasitic - Cestoda - tapeworms

What are some characteristics of Prokaryotes?

- Unicellular (spherical, rod, spiral) - Lack nuclear envelope - Lack membrane-enclosed organelles - Have cell wall (peptidoglycan is in Bacteria) - Circular chromosome

Lophotrochozoa Characteristics

- United by having either a lophophore (horseshoe feeding apparatus) or a trochophore larva (standard larva) - Bilaterians include the Lophotrochozoa, Ecdysozoa (must molt in order to grow), Deuterostomia - Bilateral Symmetry - Triploblastic development - Most are coelomates

Characteristics of the Superclass Tetrapods "four feet"

- four feet and limbs - head separated from body by neck - Pharyngeal slits - evolve into ears to detect sounds from air, glands, or other parts

What are the derived characteristics of Craniates?

- head with sense organs, brain, all encased in a skull - allows for active predation - neural crest cells (gives rise to teeth, bones, and cartilage of the skull, dermis of the face, certain types of neurons, involved in development of the eye, and other sense organs) - Higher metabolic rate - Two chambered heart - Hemoglobin in red blood cells - Kidneys (removal of toxins) - Pharyngeal slits become respiratory gills

Characteristics of the Superclass Gnathostome "jawed mouth"

- jaws - hinged mouth, gripping - genetic evidence supports evolution from pharyngeal slits - Additional duplications of HOX *supports between openings, openings, mandible & maxilla

Characteristics of the Class Aves -- Birds

- large brain: body size - loss or fusion of bones - highly pneumatic skeleton - hollow bones - no teeth in jaw - 4 chambered heart - high metabolic rate - air sacs for efficient respiration - endothermic - maintain body temp - feathers - not derived (dinosaurs also had these)

Characteristics of the Class Reptilia

- leathery shelled eggs - ectothermic (except for birds) - depend on outside sources for heat - extant lines (not extinct) include: tuatara, Squamates, Turtles, Crocodilians, Birds (Class or Subclass Aves)

What types of cells do animals have?

- multicellular, ECM (extracellular matrix) w/ collagen (protein), supports body tissues - specializaiton (muscle, nerve cells) - intercellular junctions (tight, gap, desmosomes)

What do you know about Hierarchical Classification?

-Hierarchy of increasingly inclusive categories - Domain -> Kingdom -> Phylum -> Class -> Order -> Family -> Genus -> Species - Taxon - the named taxonomic unit at any level of the hierarchy

What does cleavage cause?

1 cell, to become 2, 2 cells to become 4, 4 cells to become 8, etc.

Explain the aspects of Deuterostome development

1. Eight-cell stage - radial (top layer directly above bottom) and indeterminate 2. Coelom formation - Outpockets, folds of archenteron form coelom 3. Fate of blastopore - Anus develops from blastopore, mouth from the other end *Second the mouth Deuterostome

Explain the aspects of Protostome development

1. Eight-cell stage - spiral (located over the cleft) and determinate 2. Coelom formation - Skism, solid masses of mesoderm split and form coelom 3. Fate of blastopore - Mouth develops from blastopore, anus from the other end *First the mouth - Protostome

What are the five supergroups of protists?

1. Excavata - lack plastids, modified mitochondria, anaerobic, flagella=alveolates, excavated eating/feeding groove 2. Chromalveolata - engulfed a red algae (color, alveoli), alveolates, stramenopiles 3. Rhizaria - Amoebas with thread-liked pseudopods, Cercozoans, forams, radiolarians); aquatic/marine/freshwater 4. Archaeplastids - red & green algae, plants 5. Unikonta - Amoebas with lobe/tube shaped pseudopods, animals, fungi

Explain Metamorphosis Complete

1. Larva (Caterpillar) - feeding larva, may molt multiple times 2. Pupa - larva develops into pupa larval tissues breakdown, rebuilds itself 3. Pupa - adult built within the puparium (chrysalis) from specialized cells 4. Emerging adult 5. Adult

Explain Incomplete Metamorphosis

1. Series of molts produces winged adult 2. Nymphs - resemble small adults, lack wings 3. Molts = Nymphs Adults = sexually mature Eggs

What is the history of Taxonomy?

1. Two Kingdoms - Animals and Plants *Early taxonomists classified all organisms into two kingdoms: plants and anaimals. Even though they do not do photosynthesis (not photoautotrophic), fungi and bacteria were classified as plants because they all have cell walls (although Bacteria and Fungi cell walls are quite different from plant cell walls) Eukaryotic unicellular organisms with chloroplasts (which are photoautotrophic) were placed in the plant kingdom. Eukaryotic unicellular organismss that moved and ingested food (heterotrophic ingestive) were classified as animals. Organisms that moved and were photosynthetic were a problem and claimed by both groups. 2. Five Kingdoms - Robert Whittaker 1969 Prokaryotic: Monera (lack membrane enclosed nucleus and organelles, Bacteria) Eukaryotic: Protista (single-celled protists -> Algae, catch all), Fungi, Animalia, Plantae *Despite its problems, the two kingdom system was not replaced until the late 1960's when Dr. Robert H. Whittaker from Cornell University argued for a 5 kingdom system. Whittaker recognized two fundamentally different types of cells, prokaryotic and eukaryotic. He named the prokaryotes (bacteria) Kingdom Monera. He kept the plant kingdom for eukaryotic multicellular photoautotrophic organisms and the animal kingdom for eukaryotic multicellular heterotrophic ingestive organisms. He introduced the new Kingdom Fungi for multicellular heterotrophic absorptive organisms. The remaining eukaryotic organisms, which did not fit into animal, plant, or fungi kingdoms, were placed in the fifth kingdom, Protista. These organisms were mostly single celled, but included the multicellular red, green, and brown algae. In general they are "mixotrophs" which means that some are autotrophic and some heterotrophic. 3. Three Domain System - Eukarya, Archaea, Bacteria Each contains multiple kingdoms *We now know that there are three major domains of life each with multiple kingdoms. While the Kingdom Protista is obsolete, because it is polyphyletic (organisms within come from different ancestry), many textbooks still retain a Protist chapter and group the unicellular eukaryotes and the algae together.

How many of those phyla are invertebrates?

34/35

How many phyla are in this grouping?

35

What is the sporocyte?

A diploid cell, also known as a spore mother cell, that undergoes meiosis & generates haploid spores.

What is the definition of Systematics?

A discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships

What is a clade?

A clade is a group that includes an ancestral species and all of its descendants?

What is a phylogenetic tree? What are branch points? What are common ancestors?

A phylogenetic tree is a branching diagram representing the evolutionary history of a group of organisms. Branch points are relationships depicted as a two-way connection. Each branch point represents the divergence of 2 evolutionary lineages from a common ancestor. Common ancestors are the starting points for phylogenetic trees.

What is the definition of Taxonomy?

A scientific discipline concerned with naming & classifying the diverse forms of life

What is conjugation?

A sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid micronuclei, but do not reproduce

What are shared derived vs. shared ancestral characteristics?

A shared derived characteristic is an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade; while a shared ancestral characteristic originated in an ancestor.

What is a lichen?

A symbiotic association between photosynthetic microorganism & a fungus in which millions of photosynthetic cells are held in a mass of fungal hyphae - Helped with colonization of land

What does Bilateria mean?

All other groups (bilateral)

How is phylogeny reconstructed using morphological characteristics?

Ancestral - a characteristic that originated in an ancestor of the taxon Derived - an evolutionary novelty unique to a clade

What is a Rhizoid?

Anchor into ground but have no vascular tissue so just anchor

What kingdom are animals in?

Animalia

How does Domain Archaea differ from Domain Bacteria? What are extremophiles? halophiles? thermophiles? Methanogens? Sulfolobus?

Archaea does not have peptidoglycan in the cell walls. Each has numerous unique characteristics. An extremophile is an organisms that lives in extreme conditions. Halophiles live in highly saline environments. Thermophiles thrive in very hot environments. Methanogens release methane as a by-product of their unique ways of obtaining energy. Sulfolobus thrives in volcanic springs.

How were Archaea/Bacteria separated?

Archaea does not have peptidoglycan while Bacteria does

What two domains make up the old kingdom Monera?

Archaea, Bacteria

What are Gemmae cups?

Asexual reproduction in liverworts & mosses, when wet sprout small buds inside of a grown plant

What does facultative?

Can switch between

What characteristics/structures help microbiologists identify types of bacteria (shapes, cell wall types, metabolism)?

Cell wall types and what they are composed of can help microbiologists identify types of bacteria.

What is vascular tissue?

Cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body

What is chitin? What other organisms have chitin? What does this suggest about evolutionary relationships of fungi?

Chitin is a strong but flexible nitrogen-containing polysaccharide. Both insects and other arthropods contain chitin. This suggests that fungi was at one time extremely close to both insects and other arthropods.

At what phylogenic layer did radial symmetry appear?

Cnidaria

What is a mixotroph?

Combine photosynthesis & heterotrophic

What is convergent evolution? Why are fungi, water molds, and slime molds considered examples of convergent evolution?

Convergent evolution is the evolution of similar features in independent evolutionary lineages. These are considered examples because all three share traits, but exist evolutionarily independent.

What is endosymbiosis and how does endosymbiosis events explain why this group is so confusing?

Endosymbiosis is the procession which certain unicellular organisms engulf other cells, which become endosymbionts and ultimately organelles in the host cell. The protists continually engulf one another, therefore a mix of protists were created. This evolutionary line has created immense amounts of diversity.

Are Fungi prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

Eukaryotic

In general, how do we describe the group known as the "protists"? Are they prokaryotic or eukaryotic?

Eukaryotic

At what phylogenic layer did tissue level organization arise?

Eumetazoa

What domain is Fungi from?

Eurkarya

Name an organism that is eukaryotic, unicellular, heterotrophic, in a group that lack plastids, are anaerobic, and have flagella. These are parasitic and transmitted through contaminated water.

Excavata - Giardia intestinalis

What is the ECM?

Extracellular matrix - information rich, signals are sent here

What are the characteristics of the domain Archaea?

Extremophiles, thermophiles, Halobacterium, Sulfolobus, Methanogens, Anaerobic

How can you differentiate Fungal, Bacterial, and Plant cell walls? What compounds differ in their makeup?

Fungal, Bacterial, and Plant cell walls all have extremely different structures. Fungal, Plant cells both contain chitin. Bacterial walls contain peptidoglycan.

What roles do fungi fulfill within the environment?

Fungi acts as decomposers, mutualists, and pathogens.

What do we typically call an obligate symbiotic relationships between and ascomycetes and a Cyanobacteria?

Fungus - bacteria symbioses

What is Karogamy?

Fusion of 2 nuclei

What is Plasmogamy?

Fusion of cytoplasm

In nonvascular plants what is dominant the gametophyte or sporophyte?

Gametophyte; sizes changed as well (sporophyte got smaller while gametophyte got larger)

How are gram-positive bacteria different from gram-negative?

Gram-positive bacteria have simpler walls with a relatively large amount of peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan and are structurally more complex, with an outer membrane that contains lipopolysaccharides.

What does being Gram Positive mean?

Has a thick layer of peptidoglycan

Describe Fungi mode of nutrition? Autotrophic or heterotrophic? Ingestive or absorptive?

Heterotrophic, but fungus absorb nutrients from the environment outside of its body. Absorptive.

Through what nutrition process do animals gain nutrition?

Heterotrophic, ingestion

What type of organic compounds do heterotrophs need for their metabolism (oxidized or reduced)? What do heterotrophs do to extract energy from these compounds?

Heterotrophs can not make their own reduced compounds so they must oxidize in order to extract energy.

What is hierarchical classification? What are the different levels?

Hierarchical classification is a way to identify an organism based on its taxons. Domain -> Kingdom -> Phylum -> Class -> Order -> Family -> Genus -> Species

How do most reproduce?

Highly varied, some reproduce asexually, some reproduce sexually, or at least employ the sexual processes of meiosis and fertilization

What are hyphae and mycelium? Why are they important for the fungus lifestyle? What are they used for?

Hyphae is a network of tiny filaments. Mycelium is an interwoven mass formed by hyphae. Both make feeding very efficient, by increasing absorptive surfaces.

What do n and 2n refer to?

N refers to haploid and 2n refers to diploid

What are extremophiles?

Live in extreme conditions

What are Halophiles?

Live in highly saline environments

What are Sulfolobus?

Live in sulfur rich volcanic springs

What are the characteristics of the domain Bacteria?

Majority of prokaryotic species, Gram negative vs. Gram positive

Where do we find them (what habitats?)?

Marine, aquatic, oceans, freshwater, ponds, lakes, and streams

What process results in the 2n part of the life cycle?

Meiosis

How are merozoites produced?

Merozoites are produced because of sporozoites undergoing multiple divisions

What process results in the n part of the life cycle?

Mitosis

What all is apart of the Fungi kingdom?

Molds, rusts, smuts, mushrooms, yeasts, lichens, mycorrhizae

Are Fungi mostly multicellular or single-celled?

Multicellular

Name an organism that is eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic absorptive, produce spores in an asci, and are good to eat.

Mushroom

What does mycorrhizae mean?

Mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots

What are characteristics specific to animals?

Nutrition, Cells, Reproduction, Development, Body plans

What is/are their mode(s) of nutrition?

Nutritionally diverse, some are photoautotrophs (chloroplasts), some are heterotrophs, some are mixotrophs (combine photosynthesis and heterotrophic nutrition)

What is the definition of chemotrophic?

Obtain energy from chemicals

What is the definition of phototrophic?

Obtain energy from light

What does being Gram Negative mean?

Only has a thin layer of peptidoglycan

What is the definition of autotrophic?

Only need CO2 in some form as Carbon

What is the difference between phylogeny, systematics, and taxonomy? What kind of evidence is used to construct phylogenies?

Phylogeny is the evolutionary history of a species or group of species. Systematics is a discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships. Taxonomy is the naming and classifying of the diverse forms of life. Phylogenies are constructed using systematics; specifically, fossils, molecules, and genes.

What is the definition of anaerobic?

Poisoned by O2

What are Methanogens?

Produce methane as a by product of their obtaining energy

Which organisms are the oldest known (most ancient)?

Prokaryotes

What roles do prokaryotes play within the world? How can they be both beneficial and harmful to humans?

Prokaryotes act as decomposers, they also convert some molecules into forms that can be taken up by other organisms. They also increase the availability of nutrients & can decrease the availability of nutrients. They have a large impact on the global nitrogen cycle. Prokaryotes can be beneficial because they live in our intestines, they help to digest food. Prokaryotes also cause about half of human diseases.

What are exotoxins?

Proteins secreted by certain bacteria & the organisms

How do protists move?

Protists use cilia or flagella to move themselves

What are the two kinds of development in animals?

Protostome, Deuterostome

What are the Body plans of Animals?

Symmetry - radial (multiple plane), bilateral (one plane), asymmetrical

What does it mean that the organisms in Domains Bacteria and Archaea are prokaryotes? What characteristics distinguish prokaryotes from eukaryotes?

That means that those domains are the most prevalent. Prokaryotes are unicellular and small, and can appear in numerous shapes.

What is the definition of Phylogeny?

The evolutionary history of a species or group of species

How does horizontal gene transfer differ from vertical gene transfer?

The horizontal gene transfer is a process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms; specifically, viral infections ex. colds Vertical gene transfer is the transmission of DNA from parent to offspring ex. have baby

What is endosymbiosis?

The process in which certain unicellular organisms engulf other cells, which become endosymbionts & ultimately organelles in the host cell *Remnant organelles connecting the new organisms to old organisms *This causes a fairly complicated history

What happens to a sporozoite?

The sporozoite spread through their host as tiny infectious cells

When we "see a mushroom" what is the structure actually used for? Why is it just the "tip of the iceberg" so to speak?

The structure is actually used to produce and store spore structures. A mushroom has a massive network underneath it that absorbs its nutrients.

What is the three domain system?

The three domains are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Every organism fits into a specific domain.

What is Taktaalik?

The transitional form between fish & tetrapods

What are molds, rusts, smuts, mushrooms, yeasts, lichens, mycorrhizae?

These are all basidiomycetes.

What are Thermophiles?

Thrive in hot environments

What is a Rhizome?

Underground stem on fern

What clade are animals in?

Unikonta

Lacks a nuclear envelope, lives in sulfur-rich, very hot, volcanic springs, does not have peptidoglycan in the cell wall select one: a. Domain Archaea b. Domain Bacteria c. Kingdom Plantae d. Domain Eukarya e. Kingdom Protista f. Kingdom Fungi g. Kingdom Animalia

a. Domain Archaea

Which of the following is true about an organism like yeast? Select one: a. These organisms are aerobic and do photosynthesis (use light to make reduced organic compounds) b. These organisms are facultative anaerobic and can ferment sugars c. These organisms require oxygen to ferment sugars d. These organisms use CO2 or HCO3 to oxidize reduced organic compounds for energy e. None of the four answers are correct

b. These organisms are facultative anaerobic and can ferment sugars

What is gastrulation?

cells move inside, multilayered structure is formed

Developmental genes are well _________________ throughout the kingdom (HOX)

conserved

Which of the following are pathogenic to humans? a. Chlamydia trachomatis b. Treponema pallidum, which causes syphilis c. Salmonella d. All three answers are correct e. None of the three answers are correct

d. All three answers are correct

What is the mesoderm?

gives rise to everything else

What is the ectoderm?

gives rise to outside covering and nervous tissue

What is the endoderm?

gut & gut derived organs

What is the endoderm?

gut & related organs

Select the most correct answer. In Fungi, the process of meiosis produces Select one: a. asci b. mycelium c. soredia d. chitin e. basidiocarps f. hyphae g. gametes h. spores

h. spores

Tunicates share genes associated with the development of the ______ and _______ gland in vertebrates, but not with other invertebrates

heart, thyroid

What is the gap junction in cells?

ions & small molecules can pass

What does Radiata mean?

things with radial symmetry

Morphological forms evolve from variations in _________________ of developmental gene expression

time/place

What does Eumetazoa mean?

true tissue

What is the Lophophore used for?

used for filtering stuff out of the water (horseshoe shaped)

Which animals reproduce asexually?

very ancient groups