Biology Final

Functional relationship between DNA, genes, alleles, and chromosomes and their roles in inheritance

Chromosomes are made from DNA. Genes are short sections of DNA. Alleles are different forms of a gene. They can be dominant or recessive

Population

A group of individuals that belong to the same species and live in the same area

Silent mutation

A mutation that changes a single nucleotide, but does not change the amino acid created.

Natural selection

A natural process resulting in the evolution of organisms best adapted to the environment.

Meiosis

Cell division that produces reproductive cells in sexually reproducing organisms

Prokaryotes are classified based on the following criteria

Cell shape The way they obtain energy Endospore formation

Evolution

Change over time

What information could be gathered from a karyotype

Extra or missing chromosomes, or abnormal positions of chromosome pieces, can cause problems with a person's growth, development, and body functions.

Which parents gametes determine the sex of the child? How?

Father. They are the only ones with a Y

recessive inheritance

For a recessive allele to produce a recessive phenotype, the individual must have two copies, one from each parent

What are Prokaryotes

Unicellular, asexually reproducing, cell wall containing, cells that do not contain a nucleus

Nuclear division

What a parent cell divides to produce two identical daughter cells

What information can be gained from conducting a test cross

What an organism's alleles are

Function of fimbria in a bacteria cell

an appendage that can be found on many bacteria that is thinner and shorter than a flagellum.

punctuated equilibrium

The theory that species evolve during short periods of rapid change

Explain how gel electrophoresis separates DNA molecules from each other in agarose gel

There are small holes in the gel through which DNA molecules move through. Electrophoresis is how to punch the DNA through the holes. By adding an electric current we allow the DNA to move. Short stands move through the holes more quickly and over time the shorter strands will move farther away from the starting point than the longer strands

Describe how chromosome separation in meiosis different form chromosome separation in mitosis

There are two divisions within meiosis, meiosis 1 and meiosis 2. During meiosis 1, chromosomes line up in homologous pairs in order for the feel to be reduced from diploid to haploid. They then line up end to end in meiosis 2 in order to separate sister chromatids. In mitosis, chromosomes separate only once. They line up end to end. This results in two identical, diploid cells.

Why is DNA replication semi-conservative

because each helix that is created contains one strand from the helix from which it was copied

Dynamics

branch of mechanics which treats of the motion of bodies

Translocation

part of one chromosome breaks off and attaches to another

Vestigial structure

remnants of an organ or structure that functioned in an earlier ancestor

Selective breeding

the human practice of breeding animals or plants that have certain desired traits

Genetic migration

is the transfer of genetic variation from one population to another

How many chromosomes are in a normal sperm and egg cell

1

multiple alleles

A gene that has more than two alleles

How many chromosomes are contained in a normal human cell

23

chromosomal mutation

A change in the chromosome structure, resulting in new gene combinations.

Genetic drift

A change in the gene pool of a population due to chance

Karyotype

A display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape.

A large molecule made of amino acids is referred to as

A protein

Extinction

A term that typically describes a species that no longer has any known living individuals.

Endosymbiosis

A theorized process in which early eukaryotic cells were formed from simpler prokaryotes.

Function of flagella in a bacteria cell

Allows organism to move

Who was Gregor Mendel

An Austrian monk who taught math and science, a caretaker of monastery garden, a meticulous record keeper

dominant inheritance

An individual with one dominant and one recessive allele for a gene will have the dominant phenotype.

missense mutation

An insertion, deletion, or substitution that would make the message different

What are the 3 nucleotides on the coding end of tRNA referred to as

Anticodons

Prokaryotes are divided into two of the three domains of living things

Bacteria and archaea

Difference between bacteria and archaea domain

Bacteria: live in moderate environments Cell walls contain peptidoglycan Archaea: live in extreme environments Cell walls lack peptidoglycan DNA and RNA sequences more closely ramble eukaryotic sequences

Analogous structure

Body parts that share a common function, but not structure

What is tRNA

Brings back the amino acids to make the proteins

What is mRNA

Carries the information format eh nucleus to the ribosomes

What if the heterozygous flowers had a phenotype of red and white spotted flowers? what pattern of inheritance occurred then

Codominance

S phase

Copying of chromosomes

What are the steps in creating a transgenic organism

DNA extraction Gene cloning Gene design Transformation Backcross breeding

Describe a DNA molecule

DNA is made up of molecules called nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a phosphate group, a sugar group and a nitrogen base. The four types of nitrogen bases are adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order of these bases is what determines DNA's instructions, or genetic code

Deoxyribonucleic acid

DNA: nucleic acid polymer produced from covalent boding of nucleotide monomers that contain the sugar deoxyribose; genetic material of all organism

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm following mitosis and meiosis

Where is the next destination for a protein after translation has taken place

Golgi apparatus

Why didn't Mendel's work show such phenomena such as incomplete dominance, co-dominance, gene linkage, or sex-linked traits

He chose easy traits to recognize; or it is thought he may have lied and not showed all his work

Function of DNA in a bacteria cell

Holds genetic material

Pairs of chromosomes are referred to as

Homologous pairs

Suppose that a certain type of flower has red and white varieties. R is the allele for red and W is the allele for white. A homozygous red flower is crossed with a homozygous white flower and all the offspring have a pink phenotype. What is the term that explains what pattern of inheritance occurred?

Incomplete dominance

Briefly explain Mendel's laws of inheritance

Inherited traits are controlled by factors (genes), which occur in pairs Principle of dominance and recessiveness: one factor (gene) in a pair may mask the other, or prevent it from having an effect Law of segregation: a pair of genes is segregated or separated from each other

G1 phase

Intense growth and activity

G2 phase

Intense growth and activity

Competition

Interaction among organisms that vie for the same resource in an ecosystem

Function of Pili in a bacteria cell

Involved with binary fission

Why was Gregor Mendel's work important to understanding inheritance

It allowed us to discover the fundamental laws of genetics

Bacterial growth curve phases

Lag phase Log (exponential) phase Stationary phase Death phase

What is rRNA

Makes up ribosomes

Explain the following statement: "Genotype controls phenotype"

The physical appearances of an organism depend on what it's alleles are (AA, Aa, aa)

How does mitosis differ from meiosis

Meiosis has two rounds of genetic separation and cellular division while mitosis only has one of each. In meiosis homologous chromosomes separate leading to daughter cells that are not genetically identical

Meiosis is to haploid cells as

Mitosis is to diploid cells

Meiosis is tossed cells as

Mitosis is to somatic cells

How does a mono hybrid cross differ from a dry hybrid cross in both the set-up of the cross and the ratios observed from the cross

Monohybrid is only the crossing of one allele while dihybrid is two alleles; in dihybrid crosses you need to consider all possibilities so if your parents were AATt and AaTt, your gametes on each side would be (for AATt): AT, At, and for (AaTt): AT, At, aT, at For heterozygous- monohybrid= 1:2:1; dihybrid 9:3:3:1

What is the name of the bond formed between amino acid molecules

Peptide

Function of the plasma membrane

Phospholipid bilayer

What is PCR and how does it relate to biotechnolgy

Polymerase Chain Reaction; we are able to test a certain strand of DNA or to make multiple copies for cloning

Fossils

Preserved remains of once-living organisms

Translation

Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced

Transcription

Process whereby a DNA strand serves as a template for the formation of mRNA

allele frequency

Proportion of an allele in a gene pool.

Function of the cell wall in a bacteria cell

Protects the cell

Function of ribosomes in bacteria cell

Protein synthesis

Co-dominance

Situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype of the organism

Incomplete dominance

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele

Which DNA molecules travel the farthest through the gel? Why

Smaller molecules: there's less to fit through the holes

What is a test cross

Something used to determine the genotype of an individual with the dominant phenotype

List functions of proteins

Structural support Enzymes (speed up reactions) Transport (allows substances to enter and exit the cells) Defense (antibodies prevent antigens from destroying cells and upsetting homeostasis) Hormones (regulatory proteins/influences the metabolism of cells Motion (allows parts of cells to move and contracts muscles

Homologous structures

Structures in different species that are similar because of common ancestry.

What would the mutated *THE CAT ATE THE RAT* look like under deletion

THE ATA TET HER AT

What would the mutated *THE CAT ATE THE RAT* look like under substitution

THE HAT ATE THE RAT

Embryology

THE STUDY OF EMBRYOS

What would the mutated *THE CAT ATE THE RAT* look like under insertion

TTH EHA TAT ETH ERA T

Where does each chromosome from the pair come from

The cell

M phase (mitosis)

The division of the cell nucleus and cytokinesis

Compare the effects of a disorder caused by chromosomes failing to separate during meiosis, such as Patau syndrome, to the effects of chromosomes failing to separate during mitosis.

When a mutation occurs during meiosis, the organism in which the mutation occurs in not affected. However, the disorder will be passed to their offspring. Since all the cells in the offspring begin with the two parental gametes, every cell in the body of the offspring will contain the mutation. When a mutation occurs during mitosis, the organism in which the mutation occurs is affected. However, the mutation will only occur in the localized region in which the mutated cell is found.

Gradualism

a policy of gradual reform rather than sudden change or revolution.

Mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Mitosis

cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth.

nonsense mutation

changes a normal codon into a stop codon

Speciation

formation of a new species

Sex-linked

gene located on the X or Y chromosome

Point mutation

gene mutation in which a single base pair in DNA has been changed

Isolating mechanisms

intrinsic characteristics of species that reduce or prevent successful reproduction with members of other species

gene expression

the result of coding information determined by DNA

Polygenic trait

trait controlled by two or more genes

frameshift mutation

when a single base is added or deleted from DNA

Function of the cytoplasm in a bacteria cell

where the functions for cell growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out