Biology of Marine Systems Final
What is biomagnification?
The process by which toxins move up in the food chain, as they are progressively accumulated by consumers at higher trophic levels
rip current
currents that carry large volumes of water from the shore to the sea, formed by irregularities that cause regular currents to run offshore
Re formula
(velocity*size*density)/viscosity
upwelling type food web
-1 or 2 trophic levels -high nutrient concentration -highest primary productivity (~300gC/m^2y) because of large phytoplankton
Gulls, terns and auks
-Can form very large breeding aggregations -Feed mostly on small fish, but can also fish on zooplankton
How does fishing affect seagrasses?
decline in species that prey/consume epiphytes
physiological responses
dependent on activation of proteins, enzymes and hormones
Krill is sold commercially as a
dietary supplement
Wavelength
distance between crests
Phytoplankton: Diatoms
dominant group in temperate and polar zones -can be centric (radial) or pennate (bilateral) in symmetry -characterized by silica shell
CO2
not as bad as methane or sulfur hexafluoride in retaining heat, but it is the by-product of burning fossil fuels and deforestation. It's more abundant
where do plastics concentrate?
The great ocean garbage patch (North Pacific gyre). -at least 21 tons floating on surface
iron fertilization
The intentional introduction of iron fines to iron-poor areas of the ocean surface to stimulate phytoplankton production, thereby reducing CO2
major nutrients
nutrients required in relatively large amounts Ex. Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium, calcium
Trace nutrients
nutrients required in small amounts Ex: Iron , copper, vanadium
coral bleaching
occurs when corals and their symbionts disassociate. This is almost exclusively caused by thermal stress -thermal stress induces the symbionts to produce an excess of toxic "free-radicals", and are then expelled out of the coral host tissue
Threats to both polar regions
oil drilling, overfishing, species expanding ranges poleward, loss of ice coverage, increase in metabolic demands for cold-adapted organisms, increased transit around polar regions
polyspermy
one egg might become fertilized by multiple sperm, which will not lead to development of the egg
Parasitism
one species live at the expense of individuals of another species
Refractometer
optimal instrument that determines salinity based on light refraction through a seawater sample -salinity increases with increased light refraction
rete mirabile
organ in bony fishes that moves gases (esp. oxygen) from the blood to the gas bladder
Trophosome
organ with dense concentration chambers that contain sulfide-oxidizing bacteria.
Bentho-pelagic coupling
organic matter and nutrients go from water column to the benthos. Mixing of the water and resuspend particles back to the surface.
poikilotherm
organism with a body temperature that varies according to the temperature of its surroundings
Pleuston
organisms in the water that can portrude to to the surface (man-o-war)
conformers
organisms that change their internal conditions with the external environment
secondary productivity (heterotrophs)
organisms that consume primary producers
foundational species (ecosystem engineers)
organisms that contribute to the structure of the local habitat. -ex: seagrasses, coral reefs, mangroves
plankton
organisms that live in the water column and are too small to swim against the ocean currents, essential role in food webs
Mixotrophs
organisms that photosynthesize but also can ingest other plankton
Homeotherms
organisms that regulate their body temperature, usually above sea water temperature
Meroplankton
organisms that spend only part of their lives as zooplankton (crabs, fish, etc.)
Myoglobin:
oxygen-binding protein also with iron, skeletal and cardiac muscle in marine mammals
Bohr effect
oxygenated hemoglobin tends to release O2 into the blood when CO2 is abundant (lower pH) and O2 is lacking
Cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
photosynthetic bacteria that produce ~50% of the O2 in the world
phytolankton
photosynthetic protists and bacteria that are primary producers in marine systems
In most marine ecosystems, these are the base of the food web
phytoplankton -have diversity of pigments depending on the species or depth they live at
Chromatophores
pigmented cells found in cephalopods that can be rapidly enlarged or contracted, which are controlled by nervous system.
This species is an important link in Polar food webs, as it eats most of the zooplankton, and then Arctic cod is eaten by birds , seals, squid, whales, etc.
polar cod
Negative ecological interactions
predation, parasitism
Cryoprotectants
prevent cell and tissue damage when freezing. This includes Anti-freeze glycoproteins: help with maintaining fluidity of blood
laminar flow
The movement of water particles in straight-line paths that are parallel to the channel. The water particles move downstream without mixing. Re is low
diatom reproduction
• Usually asexual by binary fission -smaller half of one cell becomes larger half on new cell • When minimum size is reached, sexual reproduction occurs resulting in the formation of an auxospore -auxospore synthesizes new large valves and discards small one
Examples of fisheries "crashes"
•Anchovies in Peru and Chile (Pacific) collapsed in 1972 as a result of overfishing and El Niño events •Fishermen transitioned to other species, that later collapsed in the 80's again due to the same causes
Pelicans
•Boobies, pelicans, cormorants •Most of them stay close to land •Feeding is restricted to fishes •Great capacity for diving
Why is coral triangle so diverse?
•Center of origin: the old age and stability of the region makes it an amazing location for speciation, and species can be exported from here to other areas •Center of accumulation: species arise in the periphery of the Indian or the Pacific Ocean, and they all accumulate in high numbers in the Coral Triangle as they expand their range •Center of Overlap: during glaciations, the Indian and Pacific ocean populations were separated, causing species to appear in both sides
Diversity of symbionts
•Certain types of symbionts confer different thermal tolerances to their host •Example: Corals hosting predominantly Durusdinium are more thermally tolerant but less common
Coexistence is possible thanks to...
•Competitive Network: there is no clear dominance of one species over another. Thus outcomes can vary greatly •Habitat complexity: coexistence can happen as species might specialize on different microhabitats •Lottery Colonization: by chance some species might get there first •Predation/herbivory: keeps some species form dominating
Coral Calcification and Growth
•Coral generate skeletons made from calcium carbonate •Live coral tissue remains on the surface layer, coral skeleton accumulates underneath -20mm-200mm per year
Communities: Direct vs Indirect effects
•Direct effects: when one species directly influences another one. Predation, territoriality, etc. •Indirect effects when one species affects another one, but the process is mediated by a third species.
Penguins
•Flightless and use flippers for swimming •Antarctic and Southern Hemisphere •Countercurrent heat exchange
Salps
•Gelatinous group that can be solitary or form large colonies •Consume particles by trapping them in mucus and ingesting it.
Zooplankton- Ciliates
•Highly abundant plankton that is easy to recognize because they are covered in cilia. •Help wit feeding and locomotion
Zooplankton: Gelatinous plankton
•In some case they can swim, but technically cannot swim against currents. •They can form large blooms if conditions are optimal. They feed on phytoplankton and small animals Ex: Jellyfish, Siphonophores, Ctenophores
Petrels
•Include albatrosses , petrels and diving petrels •Hooked bills to catch fish •Developed sense of smell, can detect phytoplankton and fish aggregations for long distances
fish
•It is the most diverse group of vertebrates (>30,000 species) • Found in every ecosystem, from surface to deepest points in the ocean -Jawless or jawed
Barriers between provinces
•Land masses •Long expanses of deep water (impossible for coastal species to survive) •Thermal differences (latitude or strong upwellings) •Differences in Salinity (areas with large rivers, or areas of high salinity due to evaporation)
Species at higher risk of extinction with climate change:
•Low populations sizes •Small geographic ranges •Low potential for adaptation
Cephalopods
•Mostly carnivorous and trap prey with tentacles (many cases have suckers). •Mouth has powerful beak -complex nervous system with central brain and nerve endings
Biodiversity can be directly measured as:
•Number of species (species richness) and individuals of that species in an area •The genetic diversity of a particular region •The number of different ecosystems that are present in a particular area
Threats to deep marine environment
•Oil and gas industry •Fishing •Deep-sea mining
Traits of species that are especially vulnerable overfishing
•Overexploited species that are very attractive and commercially valuable (tuna, salmon) •Long lived species (red roughy) •Slow growing species (groupers) •Species that reach sexual maturity at later age (Chilean seabass)•Species that form large spawning aggregations (totoaba in Gulf of California) •Slow moving species that are easy to catch in shallow water (sea cucumbers, queen conch & lobster in the Caribbean)
stages of decomposition for whale falls
•Scavenger stage: large scavengers tear flesh apart (fish, sharks, crabs, etc) •Enriched sediment stage: invertebrates living on leftover flesh, ligaments, tissues, etc. and the enriched sediments from decomposing organic material (up to 2 years!) •Sulfide stage: organisms that rely on hydrogen sulfide, which derives from anaerobic bacteria living in anoxic sediment (decades) •Reef stage: where the remaining bones give support for benthic organisms
Larvaceans
•Solitary tunicates •They are filter feeders that produce complex filtering structures •They generate currents with the appendages to feed
behavioral responses
•Swimming to warmer waters •Diving to deeper waters •Actively evading toxins •Hiding or retreating to a shell/skeleton •Secreting mucus/toxins
seagrass distribution
•Temperate areas have low diversity (<10 species) and usually one species dominates •Caribbean/Gulf of Mexico about 10 species, but usually dominated by Thalassia testudinum •Indo-Pacific: highest diversity (25 species ) and species can co-exist in the same area (when disturbance and grazing are present)
Siphonophores
•They are actually colonial organisms •Polyps have different morphologies and different functions •Portuguese man-of-war: individual is the float, tentacles contain individuals for defense and reproduction •Velella can be found found in great numbers. Colonial organisms where one of the structures is shaped like a sail.
Pterapods
•They are snails that live as plankton, can be very abundant •They swim using their foot, looks like wings •Important in CaCO3 cycling, and are very vulnerable to acidification
strategies for competition in soft sediment
•Vertical stratification in sediment: space competition can be relieved by occupying different depths. •Some emit compounds that are toxic, to keep other organisms away
upwelling
process where deep waters reach the surface due to wind action, bringing cold water and nutrients from the bottom -can disrupt thermocline
Brevetoxin
produced by dinoflagellate Karenia brevis and affects the nerve cells of animals, causing mass mortality of animals and affecting respiration in humans
primary productivity (autotrophs)
produced by photosynthesis
climate
properties that characterize a region over years, decades or centuries. Can vary over long time scales
Mangrove zonation
red, black, white (in Caribbean) -distribution depends on salt tolerance in lower intertidal and competition in upper intertidal
recruitment
refers to the individuals that manage to settle in an existing population or a new population. It can vary by oceanic currents, food availability, etc.
Adaptation
refers to the processes by which species are fitted to their environment thanks to the effects of natural selection
Homeotherms
regulate body temperature. Marine mammals, sea birds. Restricted circulation, insulation, Counter-Current Circulation
type 2 survivorship
relatively constant survivorship throughout life ( sea birds)
The oceanic crust is formed at...and destroyed at...
ridges, subduction zones
sources of microplastics
river run-off, untreated sewage wastes (developing countries), abandoned fishing equipment, industrial waste
Atlantic Ocean
saltiest ocean on average -second largest ocean , between the Americas, Europe and Africa -Drain most of the world's largest rivers -Greatly influenced by terrestrial climates, river borne inputs of dissolved and particulate substances
Plume
section of freshwater that sits on top of ocean
Wedge
section of sea water that sits underneath freshwater
Pycnocline
section of the water column where density changes quickly with depth
Neuromasts
sensory cells with jelly-like structure, that are connected to sensory nerves and respond to displacement by water motion
Frustle
silica shell that characterizes diatoms
Krill
small shrimp-like creatures that dominate the Antarctic ocean and are fundamental for polar food webs -feed with setae bristles that filter food particles
Cocolithophores
small, spherical group of phytoplankton covered in calcium carbonate plates that are abundant in low nutrient waters of tropical oceans
Spartina alterniflora
spartina found most proximate to water, highest tolerance to salinity
sympatric speciation
speciation that occurs when ecological preferences lead to the isolation of two groups that live in the same area
Endemism
species that is only found in a defined geographic location
coral reproduction-broadcast spawning
sperm fertilizes eggs in the water column, where they develop into a prawn chip, gastrulate and eventually develop into a swimming planula larvae around day 3
coral reproduction-brooding
sperm fertilizes eggs internally and fully developed planula are released from the host mother
sequential hermaphrodites
start one sex and later change to the opposite sex ex: clown fish
Thermocline
steep change in temperature gradient between the mixed upper layer and the cold deep water. -influenced by seasons and upwellings
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
strong ocean current that keeps waters cold in the south pole and is hard for organisms to cross
effect of current on grain size
stronger currents -> larger grain sizes
phonic lips
structure below the blowhole that allows sound production, for communication and echolocation. Killer whales use it to find prey. Sounds can be directed and modified by the melon
source
sub-pop that contributes individuals
sink
sub-pop that receives individuals but cannot sustain on its own
Twilight/Dysphotic Zone
sunlight decreases rapidly with depth. Photosynthesis isn't possible here (200-1000m)
Plasticity
takes place when a particular genotype develops a different biological trait due to environmental conditions
Cetaceans are divided based on absence or presence of...
teeth
latitudinal gradient
temps are colder at the poles and warmer at the equator
The Sargasso sea has no...
terrestrial boundaries -instead it is formed by 4 currents that make a gyre
Which has been more affected by warming, the Arctic or the Antarctic?
the Arctic
Biomass
the amount of biological material at any given time
resilience
the capacity of a community go back to it's original state after a disturbance. IT INCREASES WITH DIVERSITY
acclimatization (acclimation)
the gradual process by which an animal adjusts to changes in its external environment until it reaches a new steady state
trophic level
the position a group of individuals occupy in the food web based on their diet, can be controlled by bottom-up or top down effects
allopatric speciation
the process of speciation that occurs with geographic isolation
Temperature Sex Determination (TSD)
the temperature of the environment determines gender during development
wave height (amplitude)
the vertical distance from the crest of a wave to the trough
Fast swimming fish concentrate movement in...while some depend almost exclusively on fins to move
their tail Ex: tuna
Driver of global conveyor belt
thermohaline circulation
What happens when a wave breaks?
they move water into the shore
Spring tide (syzygy)
tides with maximum tidal range, are generated when the sun and the moon are in line with each other
neap tide
tides with minimum amplitude, are generated when sun, earth and moon form a right angle "canceling" gravitational effects
Period
time of passage of successive crests
Odontoceti
toothed whales; includes orcas, dolphins and porpoises. Hunt large prey (fishes, marine mammals, giant squid), single blow hole, amazing divers.
Hadal-pelagic environments are usually associated with
trenches
T/F Due to the effects of global warming, the global conveyor belt is slowing down
true
T/F High salinity=high density
true
T/F Increasing CO2 levels is causing acidification of the ocean
true
T/F Low temp=high density
true
T/F Spring tides, those with maximum tidal range, are generated when the sun and the moon are in line with each other:
true
T/F The North Atlantic and West Pacific are warming faster than other areas
true
T/F The moon has more influence of tides because it's closer
true
T/F The movement of an organism with low Reynold's number (Re<1) is mostly dominated by viscosity
true
T/F Winds coming from the North Pole move water in the California Coast, and due to Ekman Transport and Coriolis effect the net deflection of the whole water column will be 90 degrees right
true
T/F: Buoyancy control in cephalopods (cuttlefish) is controlled by movement of salts between membranes and chambers
true
T/F: Organisms that live longer tend to push reproduction to later ages.
true
T/F: The distribution of species in the rocky intertidal is dominated by physiology (upper intertidal) and competition (lower intertidal).
true
T/F: some organisms can switch between lecitotrophic and planktonic larvae
true
T/F: some species of kelp can only escape herbivory by growing really quickly
true
T/F: when it comes to competition for food in soft sediments, deposit feeders have more stable food sources, as there are lots of particles in the sediment
true
mixed tides
two high tides and two low tides each day, but the amount of water at each time is different - Pacific Coast of the US
How many low and high tides are there per day (typically)?
two of each
Abiotic Challenge: Oxygen availability
upper layers of sediment might be oxygenated due to contact w/water, but after this there is a zone where sediments are anoxic
Methanogenic Archaea
use CO2 for respiration, producing methane (CH4)
Breeding colonies (marine birds)
usually small isolated beaches / islands for predator avoidance = competition for space
vertically stratified estuary
vigorous mixing, strong tidal control so quick changes in salinity -mostly in shallow estuaries
Which force dominates when Re is <1.0?
viscosity
Indian Ocean
warmest ocean on average -Bounded by Asia, Africa and Australia -Multiple local seas and gulfs with unique conditions -Asia directly influences its temperature
Subtropical/Antarctic convergence
water border where colder, saltier water from the poles mixes with warmer water
El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
weakening of trade winds for weeks to months stops water movement in the Pacific. Pacific's surface quickly heats up, influencing waters around the Americas. -happens on cycles of 2-7 years -caused massive corral bleaching -increasing with global warming
Photoinhibition
when high light availability inhibits photosynthesis
Dispersal
when individuals spread away from each other to avoid competition from other members of the same species, usually happens during juvenile stages, especially larvae
Competence
when larvae have the ability to sense and respond to environmental cues
Glycolysis
when oxygen is unavailable and glucose or glycogen is broken down anaerobically producing lactic acid
Countercurrent heat exchange
where heat moves from blood vessels with warm blood to cooler blood.
vertical zonation
where species are distributed in distinct horizontal bands, controlled by competition, physiology, predation or where they settle as juveniles.
Most waves are produced by... and represent motion of energy not water
wind
Can historical events affect current distribution of species?
yes. Ex: Panama, exposure of land bridge
Zooplankton
non-photosynthetic organisms that feed on plankton
Normoxia
normal levels of oxygen (up to 8 mg/L but open ocean is around 5 mg/L
Dissolved oxygen decreases with...
-increasing temp -increased organic matter -low circulation/mixing
photosynthesis in ocean depends on...
1. Light availability 2. Nutrient concentration 3. Rates of nutrient uptake 4. Seasonal changes
Deep Sea Characteristics
-Environmental conditions are very homogenous worldwide after 2000 m -no productivity from photosynthesis -In most areas of the deep-sea, organisms depend greatly on the organic matter produced in shallow waters
Strategies for burrowing organisms
-Exert great pressure to displace sediment -structures for puncturing into sand -structures for digging
Effects of seasonal changes on productivity
-In mid-latitudes, phytoplankton increases in winter and spring (maximum during spring and early summer) -Productivity declines in summer -increases again in fall *effect varies by latitude: sharper at poles and temperate regions
Effects of temperature on poikilotherms
-Increase in temperature usually increases metabolic rate and activity, which equates to increase in energy requirements -can't compensate if temp. is too high or low
Changes in the water column
-Increased stratification: sharp thermocline and less mixing -Reduction of dissolved oxygen -Intensification of oxygen minimum layers
Effects of temperature on sex and growth
-Larval development is in general faster at high temperatures, but organisms reach smaller adult sizes -temperature sex determination
Fish reproduction strategies
-Most fish hatch from an egg (oviparous), and fertilization is usually external -Some have direct development (ovoviviparity), where juveniles hatch directly from mother. (sharks)
Spartina as a source of organic matter
-Produces large amounts of dissolved and particulate organic matter -Some organisms can eat leaves directly -once detached, leaves processed by bacteria -Bacteria and fungi that grow on decomposing leaves are food source
ice algae
-Sea-ice algal growth occurs even when ice is present -bloom in fall/spring -commonly found on base of ice -Adaptations: ice-binding proteins which form a gelatinous cover to protect from ice, xanthophyll to prevent photodamage
Disturbance and the effect on competition
-The space that is available after disturbance event can control the species that take part on the succession -differences in patch size promote diversity
Warming in the Antarctic-Invasions
-Warm temperatures affect metabolism and calcification of Antarctic animals -increase in king crab density (cold water usually interferes w/Mg+ ions)
Adaptations to elevated pressure
-absence of air filled sacs in deep-sea organisms -collapsible ribs and lungs in mammals -cell membrane with more unsaturated fatty acids -Piezolytes protect large molecules (gives seafood its smell) -changes in protein structure to avoid bending
eDNA advantages
-allows us to understand the diversity of a particular site, even when we cannot see the organism directly -techniques showed a higher number of detected species when compared to other techniques.
Ctenophores (comb jellies):
-are gelatinous zooplankton belonging to the phylum Ctenophora, are transparent •They have 8 rows of plates with combs, that allow for movement•Some groups have long tentacles for prey capture •Very effective predators•Many groups have cilia in the combs, which refract light when moving
Sea Water Properties
-asymmetric in charge -universal solvent -attraction to other molecules because of hydrogen bonds -stores lots of heat
Low productivity in world's oceans
-center of ocean -Indian and Central Pacific
Foraminifera
-cilliate zooplankton -Well-known because they secrete a CaCO3 skeleton. -When they die they sink to the bottom, and the shell can provide a record for chemical and climatic conditions through time
Radiolaria
-cilliate zooplankton •Common in tropical waters•Have a shell made out of silica which can have spines to avoid predation and increase flotation •They can have photosynthetic symbionts (mixotrophs) -When they die off they can produce "siliceous ooze" which form ocean sediment, important part of the fossil record
Shelf type food web
-close to the coast(nutrient input from land) -~3 trophic levels -primary productivity is high (~100gC/m^2y)
How does temperature affect species distribution?
-differences in tolerance (polar and tropical species less tolerant -thermal sensitivity can change with age
Breeding Strategies
-direct development -larval dispersal
Marine Bird Adaptations
-diving ability -webbed feet -salt glands to excrete water with high salt concentrations
oyster reefs
-ecosystem engineers -Larvae choose to settle on hard surfaces, specially other oysters, creating large accumulations -Accumulate disproportionate amount of diversity -Feed on phytoplankton, and thrive in shallow waters with low salinity (10-20ppt)
Survival of larvae is dependent on...
-environmental conditions -predation -needing optimal conditions to survive
Nutrients: Phosphorus
-essential for nucleic acids and ATP -occurs as inorganic phosphate (PO4) which comes from rocks -passes through food chain, where it can cycle many times (including excretions)
Seagrass bed services
-foundational species that provides structure -area of settlement and nursery -can obtain N2 from symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the rhizome
High productivity in world's oceans
-frequent upwelling zones (Eastern pacific, Arabian peninsula) -High mixing (North Atlantic, Arctic and Antarctic)
What are some considerations when designing MPAs?
-have to take into account if there are people that depend on that site for subsistence -sometimes MPA's can be isolated from other such areas, which can reduce population connectivity (diversity)
Phytoplankton: Dinoflagellates
-highly abundant in the tropics and in the summer -have two flagella that can be used for movement (transverse and longitudinal) -Theca give them their shape -reproduce asexually by binary fission but sexual reproduction is also possible -some are able to bioluminesce
Costs of sexual reproduction
-individuals only contribute half of their genetic material -Energetically costly to find a mate -More time consuming to expand populations when compared to cloning organisms
Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes):
-jawed fish skeleton made out cartilage, some areas reinforced by bone (jaws, vertebrae, etc.). Includes sting rays, sharks, chimeras
Bony fish (Osteichthyes)
-jawed fish skeleton made out of bone. Represent 96% of all fish.
Sverdrup Model (late winter/spring)
-light availability increases -mixing stops and water stratifies -nutrients available after winter mixing -phytoplankton blooms at surface
Nutrients: Nitrogen
-limits growth of plankton -required for protein and nucleic acid synthesis as well as enzyme co-factors -can be found as atmospheric nitrogen (N2) or fixed nitrogen (NH4, NO3, NO2)
Adaptations to life at depth
-move slowly -blindness -red pigmentation -larger stomachs *bioluminescence
Ocean system type of food web
-open ocean(stable conditions) -~5 trophic levels -primary productivity is low(~50gC/m^2y)
What are some of the negative effects of plastics on marine organisms?
-organisms feel satiated -inhibited growth -reduced reproductive output -Mortality due to intoxication
coexistence is maintained by
-predation -attack by viruses and bacteria -differences in nutrient uptake -differences in reproductive cycles
Oyster reef services
-reduce turbidity -influence nitrogen cycle, eventually reducing primary productivity -stabilize sediments -provide habitat for multiple species
What are some characteristics of invasive species?
-reproduce quickly -have few pathogens/predators -can outcompete native species
Characteristics of a sea
-restricted connection to oceans -usually shallow compared to oceans -influenced greatly by conditions of surrounding land
Influx of nutrients comes from...
-rivers and coastal runoff -sand (silica and iron) -organic matter that accumulates at bottom and is made available through upwelling -marine snow
Other mangrove adaptations
-salt glands -ion channel system -tannins -floating seeds and propagules
Antarctic diversity
-shallow waters are physically isolated -high endemism -more benthic organisms than arctic -lack of shell crushing predators
Settlement is dependent on...
-sound -chemical cues -rugosity Ex:Coral larvae settle where there is reef sounds
coral reef services
-structure for other organisms -recruitment of juveniles -protection from storm surges -Primary producers in areas with low nutrients
Fertilization through free spawning depends on:
-timing of egg and sperm release -Avoidance of interspecific fertilization (avoidance of hybridization -polyspermy -environmental conditions: mild turbulence, mild currents, appropriate temperature -distance between males and females -density of individuals
Kelp communities are affected by
-top-down effects and storms -otters (higher productivity w/otters) -Starfish and crabs (California)
Nutrients:trace elements-Iron
-traditionally known as one of the most limiting elements of productivity -Essential for formation of cellular components and as co-factor for enzymatic activity -Found in 2 oxidation states; Fe2 is more soluble but consumed faster while Fe3 is more abundant, less soluble and precipitates to the bottom under normal conditions -Glaciers, rivers, icebergs and sand are sources of input
Adaptations for feeding in fish
-two sets of teeth for holding prey -large plates for grinding invertebrates -sharp teeth for stabbing -modified gill-rakers -large fused teeth for scraping -suction feeding
Copepod feeding
-use sensory cells to detect odors in the water -creates strong flow to pass boundary layer -trap food with hairlike maxillary structures
Causes of glacial retreat
-variations in earth's orbit and tilt around the sun -Atmospheric composition (CO2 and CH4) -solar radiation -tectonic activity: changing circulation of wind and the ocean
General traits of polar regions
-water is very cold -Extreme changes in light availability throughout the year (from almost 0hrs to 24hrs). -extreme changes in ice cover throughout the year
How does oxygen concentration influence movement?
-when oxygen concentrations are low they can reduce their metabolic activity -some organisms don't visit areas with low O2 concentration
Sverdrup Model (winter)
-wind action leads to heavy mixing of water column, surface water gets colder and denser which further promotes mixing -Mixing promotes nutrient cycling -low light and phytoplankton moved to depth=no productivity
Oligohaline
0.5-5 ppt
On average, earth's surface temperature has increased approximately how much since the Industrial revolution
1 degree celsius (actually 0.85 degrees celsius)
Process for formation of GOM dead zone
1. High nutrient input 2. Plankton "Blooms" 3. Once they die, they get decomposed by bacteria 4. Microbial activity increases, depleting oxygen 5. Organisms flee or die
Two hypotheses that explain why diversity changes by latitude
1. Higher energy availability: tropics receive more sunlight, the higher radiation can lead to higher primary productivity, which can feed more species 2. Stable environment hypothesis: lack of seasonal environmental fluctuations are in the tropics allows for more speciation and less extinction
Three main characteristics of Arctic ocean
1. Large expanse of ice that covers the ocean in the winter, but majority of it melts in summer 2. Low temperature year round -2 to 6 degrees Celsius 3. high primary productivity
nitrogen cycle
1. Nitrogen fixing bacteria(cyanobacteria) convert inorganic N2 from atmosphere into ammonium (NH4) 2. Ammonium(NH4) can be oxidized by bacteria to produce Nitrite(NO2) and then Nitrate (NO3) 3. Phytoplankton and bacteria prefer to consume nitrate or nitrite 4. Decomposition produces ammonium, which can be recycled back into the system
Rate of nutrient uptake is dependent on...
1. cell size and surface area -bigger cells can store more nutrients, as seen in upwelling 2. nutrient concentration and taxonomic group -productivity increases as nutrient concentration increases, until it reaches a plateau
Average density of saltwater
1.025 g/ml
The orbital motion of water particles in a wave is propagated to a depth of approximately:
1/2 wavelength
what percentage of the world's population depend on fisheries for their livelihood?
10%
Polyhaline
18-30 ppt
Historical levels of CO2 before the industrial revolution have been estimated to be...
180-280 ppm
rate at which the seafloor is spreading
2 to 25 cm per year
A tidal day is how long?
24 hours and 50 minutes
What percentage of fisheries is estimated to be over-exploited?
30%
Euhaline
30-40 ppt
Mesohaline
5-18 ppt
One of the interesting things about the Antarctic ocean is the high rates of endemism, which is on average estimated to be...for benthic invertebrates
50%
Hyperhaline
>40 ppt
Today's CO2 concentration
>400 ppm
Definition of a sea
A division of an ocean, delineated by landforms, currents, or specific latitude or longitude boundaries
Commensalism
A relationship between two organisms in which one organism benefits and the other is unaffected
climax community
A stable, mature community that undergoes little or no change in species over time
diurnal tide
A tidal cycle of one high tide and one low tide per day. -happens in GOM during equinox
semidiurnal tide
A tidal cycle of two high tides and two low tides each lunar day, with the high tides of nearly equal height.
Batesian mimicry
A type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a species that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators.
Tsunami
A water wave caused by an earthquake/volcanic eruption
Principle of continuity
A1V1=A2V2 -permits organisms to regulate water velocity
Protogynous
An animal, that, when sexually mature, is first female and then switches sex to male. Large males defend a territory or harem, where multiple young females roam
seagrass and food webs
As with mangrove and Spartina, leave tissue is degraded by bacteria, which feeds the food web and allows nutrient cycling. -epiphytes grow on leaves and become food source for inverts
Budding
Asexual reproduction in which a part of the parent organism pinches off and forms a new organism. Ex:jellyfish have polyp life cycle
Mutualism
Association between two species that benefits all participants -ex: blind shrimps and gobies
microbial loop
Bacteria in the water column quickly take up organic substances (carbon) and are then predated upon by other consumers (mainly protists), which are in turn eaten by bigger predators -with this process, nutrients return to higher trophic levels as they are re-incorporated into the food chain
Mysticeti
Baleen whales (grey, humpback, blue, right, fin, etc.) -blue whale is largest vertebrate
Seas with low salinity (10-20 ppt)
Baltic Sea, Black Sea
Pressure is measure in...
Bars, and is almost the same as one atmosphere
How can fisheries induce evolution?
Because of intense fishing pressure, fishing is a intense agent of selection for wild populations. -Examples: •Reaching sexual maturity at earlier ages •Organisms of smaller size are preferred •Fast reduction in genetic diversity •Behavioral changes (fish become more elusive)
What is preferentially produced when the ocean is more acidic?
Bicarbonate
Main mechanism of primary productivity in hydrothermal vents
CHEMOSYNTHESIS/CHEMOTROPHS
Caging and removal experiments with barnacles Chthamalus and Semibalanus
CHT dominates at the upper section of the intertidal. SEM goes from mid-tide to the mid-low-waters of the neap tides
Increase in CO2 in the water leads to the formation of more HCO3-, which challenges the formation of:
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
simultaneous hermaphrodites
Can produce eggs and sperm at same time. Advantageous because whichever individual is found can reproduce
Coriolis effect
Causes moving air and water to turn counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere and turn clockwise in the northern hemisphere due to Earth's rotation
Theca
Cellulose plates that cover dinoflagellates, giving them their distinctive shape -are shed during reproduction
What are shifting baselines?
Describes a gradual change in the accepted norms for the condition of the natural environment due to lack of past information or lack of experience of past conditions
Biggest migration event
Diel vertical migration of plankton in which plankton move from deep water in the morning and rise to the top at night
sexual dimorphism
Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species which can be caused by sexual selection. -exaggerated traits on males -females may be bigger than males -sneaky males that look like females
Seagrass Succession solution 1
Extension of seagrass by rhizome, which transports nutrients from one side to another
Allows sharks to maintain their buoyancy so they can stay neutrally buoyant in the water column
Fatty liver full of squalene
sexual selection
Females usually invest more energy in gamete formation. Thus, they are selective towards males that develop exaggerated secondary features or specific behaviors
Regulation of salt water in marine fishes
Fish has to drink water, and salts are actively excreted through the highly concentrated urine (very small amounts) -Gills also maintain balance, enzyme, called gill Na+/K+ ATPase, that enables them to rid their plasma of excess salt
metapopulation
Group of sub-populations that are separated in space, but interact in some level.
Budget for ingested food
Growth and reproduction-excretion and respiration
runaway hypothesis
Having an exaggerated feature and still surviving must mean an individual is robust and healthy, otherwise they would be eaten by predators
How does temperature affect poikilotherms?
If temperatures are too low or too high, the increase in metabolic demands can lead to challenges in growth, swimming, and reproduction
competitive excluder
In a hierarchy one species will dominate over others, becoming a... and potentially excluding other species from one location.
Fishing down the food web
In the past 50 years there has been a slow shift from consuming large predatory fish, to consuming smaller planktivores or detritivores
Pinnipeds
Include seals, sea lions, elephant seals and walruses. Populations have increased in temperate and polar areas thanks to conservation measures. -extensive parental care -exhibit sexual dimorphism-male is bigger
mangrove forests
Intertidal emergent forests, which have large and complex roots on soft anoxic sediments. Tropical and Subtropical distribution
Hemerythrin and Chlorocruorin
Iron-containing proteins, common in polychaetes
Methane (CH4)
Is a greenhouse gas with high heat retention and is used when extracting natural gas, but less abundant than CO2 (4x more heating than CO2)
How does acidification affect calcification?
It results in fewer, smaller marine calcifiers
mangroves and the food web
Leaves are usually not directly eaten by herbivores. They fall to water and take long time to degrade due to anoxic waters/sediments. Feed Bacteria and fungi... which are eaten by other organisms
mangrove forest services
Limit coastal erosion by stabilizing sediment and decreasing wave energy -food web -provide substratum for multiple benthic species
Main disadvantage of eDNA
Main disadvantage is that it is computationally intensive, and it takes a while to learn the bioinformatics
Density
Mass per unit volume (g/ml) -directly affected by salinity and temperature
Great Salinity Anomalies
More ice melting in the spring and summer means lower salinity in North Atlantic •This can affect salinity in ecosystems thousands of km away, affecting stratification. -slowing of global conveyor belt
Ecological effects of overfishing (link to direct vs indirect effects)
The extirpation of large carnivores can lead to cascading effects on food webs, as populations of other consumers can go unchecked
Artic Oscillation
Natural oscillation with no know periodicity that is increasing with global warming. Shift in pressure between Arctic and lower latitudes 37-45 degrees North, affecting distribution of cold arctic air over varying latitudes
net photosynthesis
O2 produced during photosynthesis minus O2 used for respiration
Southern/Antarctic Ocean
Ocean that has a water border with other oceans
Difference between island and ridge
Oceanic islands are just one of a handful of mounts that rise from the ocean bottom. Ridges are linear features
acclimatization
Organisms adjust to a change in the environment. 3 stages: 1. Initial exposure 2. Adjustment 3. New steady state
regulators
Organisms that are able to maintain internal conditions constant
Nekton
Organisms that can swim to a degree that they can overcome ocean currents. •High Reynolds numbers (inertia) -some are demersal -Cephalopods, fishes, mammals, seabirds and reptiles
Neuston
Organisms that live right at the sea surface but remain underwater (algal and bacterial mats)
Ampullae of Lorenzini
Organs to perceive electric fields commonly observed in sharks and rays
Challenges for organisms that live buried in sand/mud flats include
Oxygen availability and grain size of sediment
Which ocean is the most diverse
Pacific ocean
wavelengths corresponding to what color are the first to be absorbed when entering the water column?
Red
Seas with high salinity (38-41 ppt)
Red Sea, Mediterranean
Strategies to deal with osmotic stress
Regulate concentration of osmolytes (small carbon molecules) such as glycerol, mannitol and sucrose. Algae and Seaweeds •Regulate concentration of amino-acids, specially those that are neutrally charged. Mollusks and Polychaetes •Regulate the concentration of Urea in the body •Highly concentrated urine and salt excretion
cuttlebone
Rigid dorsal structure in squid that has small chambers called lamellae
Mangrove adaptations-root systems
Root systems adapted for anoxic sediments: roots that go upwards from the sediment allowing oxygen exchange (pneumatophores or knee roots) or broad roots extending from the trunk
Spartina
Salt tolerant grasses that colonize tidal areas with calm water -highly invasive -ecosystem engineers that trap sediment, stabilizing shoreline -Can reproduce sexually, but spread very quickly asexually
Ways scientists measure climate change
Satellites, thermometer records, bubbles trapped in ice cores, chemical composition of shells trapped in sediments, coral growth bands
Arctic Ocean
Smallest and shallowest ocean -Lowest salinity due to heavy freshwater inflow -surrounded by Eurasia and North America -partly covered by sea ice throughout the year, more in winter months
Anadromous
Some fish live in saltwater and reproduce in freshwater (Salmon). Juveniles start their lives in freshwater.
Holoplankton
Species of zooplankton that spend their entire lives as plankton in water column
Biogeography
Studies the distribution of organisms in geographic space
Climate change in the Arctic
Summer sea ice has been reduced by 50% since 1953. Ice that is older than 5 years has almost disappeared
Midnight/Aphotic Zone
Sunlight doesn't penetrate at all, area is bathed in darkness (below 1000m)
weather
The condition of Earth's atmosphere measured day to day or by weeks, can be highly variable
Lithosphere
created when molten rock rises from Earth's mantle, adding new seafloor
global conveyor belt
Thermohaline circulation in which high salinity water cools and sinks in the North Atlantic and deep water returns to the surface in the Indian and Pacific oceans through upwelling
cold seeps
They represent fissures in the crust where sulfide, salts and methane emanate, but water released is at similar temperature as the surrounding environment
what is a coral?
Tropical corals exhibit obligate symbiosis with Symbiodiniaceae -Represent up to 100% of daily metabolic requirements (but varies by species)
T/F Average salinity in the ocean is 35 ppt
True
T/F Pressure increases by 1 bar per 10 m
True
Migration
Typically involves a round trip between spawning and feeding grounds as different resources are needed between adults and juveniles Ex:turtles
sea turtle navigation
Use of magnetic fields ;Magnetite (iron mineral) is found in cells around the brain of turtles
Phylogeography
Using molecular markers (DNA) we can understand if a biogeographic barrier influences the population connectivity of a species, or if it has led to the formation of different species
Foundational species in hydrothermal vents
Vestimentifera worms
Arrow worms
Voracious, torpedo-shaped predators that are adapted with spines and grabbing appendages, some are able to produce toxins. -mostly hermaphroditic
Whale and large fish falls
When whales and large fishes die, their carcasses can fall to the bottom bringing large amounts of food for short periods of time
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Word's strongest current •Acts like a barrier between populations in Antarctica and adjacent areas, which leads to speciation and endemism in the Arctic
food web
a diagram that shows the feeding relationships between organisms in an ecosystem (have a limit b/c energy is lost between different levels) -species can be at different level depending on life stage (barnacle)
Protandry
a form of sequential hermaphroditism in which the individual matures first as a male, then transforms into an adult female later in life
Zooxanthellae
a group of dinoflagellates that are the symbionts for corals and other invertebrates
continental shelf
a low-sloping platform, extends from the shoreline to roughly 10 km to over 300 km out to sea
Viscosity
a measurement of a liquid's resistance to flow (stickiness between layers of a fluid)
what is eDNA?
a new technique to identify species present in a particular area -DNA that can be floating in the water in the form of mucus, feces, body parts, etc.
keystone species
a species that has an unusually large effect on its ecosystem -ex: krill
continental slope
a steep incline of the ocean floor leading down from the edge of the continental shelf -usually dissected by submarine canyons
longshore current
a water current that travels near and parallel to the shoreline -responsible for erosion on the shore
cline
accumulation of differences between populations across a geography
heat-shock proteins
activated when an organism has heat stress and help with protein folding and maintaining protein function at higher temperatures.
Ring of Fire
activity between tectonic plates in the Pacific Ocean
larval dispersal
after fertilization, juveniles spend time in the water column as larvae, high dispersal (Type 3 survivorship)
marine snow
aggregates of dead plankton that become sticky and trap particles including microbes
oxygen depletion for inverts results in accumulation of...
alanine and succinic acid, whose concentration can signal high activity or stress
Seagrass Succession solution 2
algae can colonize, harnessing sediments and nutrients. Some species of seagrass invade first, until species of the climax community are able to settle
Gross photosynthesis
all the O2 produced during photosynthesis
lateral line system
allows for the detection of movement, vibration and water pressure -It is formed by a canal and pores, usually found in the side of the body
Productivity
amount of living tissue produced per unit of time -measured as grams of carbon per meter squared per year (gC/m^2y)
salinity
amount of salt in a body of water -grams of dissolved inorganic salts per thousand grams of seawater (expressed as parts per thousand or ppt)
How does CO2 increase alter fish behavior?
an imbalance of ions in the blood is created that could alter neurotransmission
turbulent flow
an irregular, mixing flow pattern. Re is high
Predation
an organisms actively kills and eats another organisms
CO2 increase could have a larger effect on organisms that produce (calcite or aragonite)?
aragonite
One of the main challenges for deep-sea corals is
aragonite saturation in deep waters
Hydrothermal vent succession
are ephemeral -Gastropods dominate in early colonization. Vestimentiferans dominate while vents are active, as they cool down, bivalves become more common
abyssal plain
area around 4000m in depth and makes up 50% of Earth's surface
ridges
area where the seafloor is spreading, represented by underwater mountain ranges
subduction zone
areas at which the cold, dense crust sinks down into the mantle areas where plates collide
"brine pools"
areas that accumulate high concentrations of salts. Much higher density than other areas. Only certain bacteria can live in them
trenches
areas that occur just seaward of the base of the continental slope and may be more than 10,000m deep
What are microplastics?
as plastics become brittle by the sun and physical abrasion, they can be broken down into very small species that are smaller than <5mm
Boyle's Law
as pressure increases, volume decreases -The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to the volume it occupies
Demersal
associated with the bottom
The nitrogen cycle depends on...for fixation and recycling
bacteria
Anaerobic respiration
bacteria that use Sulfates (SO4) as final electron acceptor in the respiratory chain in absence of O2
calanoid copepods
barrel-shaped copepods that are very fast swimmers and live between forces of inertia and viscosity; some can jump out of the water to escape predation
Are hearts bigger or smaller at colder temps. for temperate species?
bigger
Antifreeze glycoproteins (AFGPs)
bind to ice crystals, keeping them very small and impede the total freezing of the fish -also prevent ice crystals from melting
Water that is very close to an organism will create a _ where velocity of the water is zero or close to zero
boundary layer
Two kinds of calcium carbonate
calcite (more stable) and aragonite
Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs)
can be caused by some dinoflagellates and are usually dominated by one species only -Ex: red and brown tides
Marine Viruses
can break cells and release organic matter back into the water column, are small (femtoplankton). -are important in microbial loop
Bacteria and Archaea
can occur in high densities where there is high abundance of organic matter. They are essential for nutrient cycling and food webs
Range shift
change in distribution of species boundaries
Zooplankton-crustacean plankton
characterized by external skeleton made of chitin, paired appendages (legs, antennae,etc.) and some level of body segmentation
Trichodesmium
colonial marine nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterium that is able to photosynthesize and fix nitrogen at the same time by using isolated chambers called heterocysts
pioneer species
colonize first have high rates of reproduction, grow fast and have short generation times
obligatory commensalism
commensalism in which a species only lives with one other species
facultative commensalism
commensalism not strictly between two species
cold shock proteins
compensate for cell-membrane fluidity at cold temperatures. Can also help maintain activation of enzymes at low temperatures
Chlorinity
concentration of chlorine in parts per thousand determined by titrating chloride ions
Ectotherms or Poikilotherms
conform to the temperature of their environment, Most invertebrates and fishes.
denitrifying bacteria
consume nitrates or nitrites and reduce it to N2
Primary producers in Arctic food web are mostly consumed by
copepods
Hemocyanin
copper-containing protein observed in mollusks and arthropods
Estuary
costal body of water that has connection to the open sea
vertical zonation in marshes
each area is dominated by a different species, changes are sharp and very predictable •High marsh, Juncus is able to outcompete other grasses •S. alterniflora dominates lower area thanks tolerance to salinity and anoxic sediments.
Hermaphroditism
each individual has both male and female reproductive systems and can produce gametes of both sexes
Black smokers
emit Sulfides, iron. The vents are formed as these metals precipitate and accumulate. Higher temperature
fish that transition have to undergo a full transition of their...
excretory system (to maintain hydration and salt content)
T/F Drag increases with laminar flow
false
T/F Marine organisms have a teardrop (fusiform) shape because this will increase drag and turbulent flow, which is beneficial for swimming
false
T/F The Gulf Stream originates in the Gulf of Mexico and transports cold water to the North Atlantic
false
T/F:It is a well-known fact that under high temperatures corals die immediately after they bleach
false
T/F: Bioluminescence is a useful adaptation for deep-sea organisms, that has evolved only once in the animal world
false -evolved independently multiple times
T/F: The viscosity of a liquid "increases" with increasing temperature
false -harder to move in cold water
Drag
force that opposes the movement of an organism moving in water
Fragmentation
form of asexual reproduction in which a new organism is formed from a fragment of parent. Ex:sea stars
Fission
form of asexual reproduction in which an organism splits into two, and each half grows new parts to become a complete organism. Ex:sponges -can lead to formation of large colonies
perthenogenesis
form of asexual reproduction in which no male gamete is used. Ex:sharks
Cloning
form of asexual reproduction in which populations derive clonally from single individual and all members of population will be genetically identical to that individual
Lecitotrophic larvae
free-swimming larvae that does not feed from plankton and depends on energy from egg yolk -Ex:sea star larvae
planktotrophic larvae
free-swimming larvae that feed on plankton and are able to be in water column for a long time. Ex: sand star larvae
intertidal zone
fringe of the seabed between the highest and lowest extent of the tides.
direct development
fully formed juveniles hatch from parents and don't move far from them, low dispersal. Ex: Atlantic periwinkle (Type 1 survivorship)
What controls buoyancy in bony fish?
gas bladder
What is by far the greatest threat to corals worldwide?
global warming
Which factors influence tides?
gravitational effects of sun and moon, earth's rotation, basin shape
kelp succession depends on
grazing pressure, disturbance and competition for light
Silicoflagellates
group of phytoplankton that are very important for Antarctic ecosystems and form intricate silica structures. Also have 2 flagella, but silica skeleton is different. Distinct because of presence of multiple chloroplasts
Coriolis Effect, westerlies and trade winds move tremendous amount of water in circular patterns, called...
gyres
Jawless fish (agnatha)
hagfish and lampreys - feed by suction
Ekman transport
happens when friction causes a deflection in the direction of the upper layer of water. Friction plus Coriolis effect cause ocean eater to move at a 90 degree angle from the direction of the surface wind
Regulation of salt water in sharks and rays
have high concentrations of urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO)
Solar heating, geothermal heating, internal friction and water vapor condensation are all...
heat additions
Thermal radiation of surface, convection of heat to atmosphere and evaporation are all...
heat losses
Challenges of low tide in intertidal zone
heat, desiccation, predation, absence of food, lack of oxygen
Experiments where urchins were removed in Alaska proved that
herbivory is important for balance
Negative AO
high pressure over the Arctic and low pressure Pacific and Atlantic oceans. Locations in the mid-latitudes likely to experience outbreaks of frigid air during winters
type 1 survivorship
high survivorship through early and middle ages (marine mammals)
Many coastal species release larvae at...
high tide and night
Small spherical cells take in nutrients at...rates, which is good in...concentrations
higher, low
sea snakes
highly venemous but not aggressive marine reptiles -salt glands to eliminate excess salts under the tongue -large lungs that extend to large portion of the body
White smokers
hydrothermal vents that are farther away from heat source, emanate barium, calcium or silicon.
How are Antarctic ecosystems different than Arctic ones
ice extends from land to the sea in Antarctic -large seabird population
Root effect
increase in CO2 (low pH) lowers BOTH the affinity and the ability to capture O2 by hemoglobin -This effect is so drastic that oxygen saturation is impossible, even after artificially increasing the pressure
How do shifting baselines affect conservation?
increases the tolerance for environmental degradation, changes the expectation of what natural environment should be, and leads to having inappropriate baselines for conservation
The highest diversity of coral reefs is found in the...which has more than 600 species
indo-pacific
Which force dominates when Re is >1000
inertia
Luciferin (bioluminescence)
is a compound that emits light when it is oxidized. This is catalyzed by the enzyme Luciferase
Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
is the greenhouse gas with the biggest effect, but is not commonly released (30,000x more heat retention than CO2)
Antarctic keystone species
krill -abundance is positively correlated with sea ice extent
kelp
large brown algae that grows in relatively shallow salt-waters in temperature regions. Usually found in areas rich in nutrient.
Pseudofeces
large, semisolid particles of phytoplankton eliminated without digestion by oysters
Pacific Ocean
largest and deepest ocean -limits are Asia, Australia and the Americas -Less influenced by terrestrial conditions -Affected by plastic contamination -lots of volcanic activity and island chains
larval retention
larvae is retained in certain locations and only released under specific conditions Ex:Blue crab
highly stratified estuary
layers are separate due to density, little mixing
Velocity
length divided by period
Sunlight/Euphotic Zone
light barely penetrates beyond this zone (sea level-200m)
Photophores
light producing organs
Moderately stratified estuary
lines of equal density run in diagonal towards the sea -Ex: Hudson River
Hypoxia
low concentration of oxygen (< 2 mg/L)
Positive AO
low pressure over the Arctic and high pressure over the North Pacific and Atlantic. The jet stream is farther north than average, little cold air
Anoxia
lowest concentration of oxygen ( < 0.5 mg/L)
baleen plates
made of keratin, used as a strainer to feed on small prey, such as crustacean zooplankton (krill) and fishes).
Sirenia
manatees, dugongs and sea cows -all endangered -large and sluggish with a paddle-shaped tail
type 3 survivorship
many offspring are produced, but few make it to adult stage. Mortality is high at the beginning. Seen in organisms with planktonic larvae (fish, crabs, oysters, etc.)
Whales and Dolphins (cetaceans)
marine mammals characterized by blowhole •Homeothermic (control temperature) thick layer of fat and blood circulation. (Countercurrent exchange) •Very extended parental care (up to 2 years).
tectonic plates
massive slabs of rock that continents rest on
Aragonite Saturation Horizon (ASH)
maximum depth at which aragonite can be synthesized ~2000 m in Atlantic and ~50-600 m in Pacific
Reynolds number (Re)
measure of relative importance of viscous and inertial forces in fluid -increases with increase of velocity or size
Ice melting in the spring is an important source of
metals and micronutrients
Conductivity
method to measure salinity since salts conduct electricity
Which species are naturally exposed to more temperature fluctuations?
mid-latitude species
Areas with largest seasonal changes
mid-latitudes
oxygen concentration is measured in
miligrams/Liter
Copepods
minute shrimp-like crustaceans; dominant group of zooplankton that is highly abundant
These supplement the low nutrient concentration in some locations and can increase energy transfer between trophic levels
mixotrophs
Reproduction in marine birds is mostly
monogamous
Prochlorococcus
most abundant photosynthetic organism on the planet -13-40% of all O2 might be produced by this group
Hemoglobin
most common oxygen binding protein. -Present in arthropods, annelids, nematods, flatworms, mollusks and vertebrates. Specially in animals that need large oxygen supply
Catadromous
move from freshwater to saltwater (freshwater eels). Juveniles live initially in saltwater
Diffusion
movement of dissolved substances across membrane
Connectivity
movement of genes, larvae, or individuals across a landscape, depends on physical barriers, marine currents and ecology of species (direct or larval)
osmosis
movement of water across a membrane, depending on concentration of ions
Mullerian mimicry
multiple harmful species look relatively similar (predators only have to avoid those colors once to learn)
Positive ecological interactions
mutualism, commensalism
Jellyfish have stinging structures in their tentacles called...
nematocysts
