BISC 220 Exam 3
No, they only associate with adaptive immunity
Are B and T cells associated with innate immunity?
True.
Cardiac output is a determinant factor in BP. (T/F)
interferons
Chemicals produced by virus-infected cells that alert neighboring cells to prepare a defense are called __________.
blood equilibrates with the interstitial fluid at each incremental horizontal level=blood is ISOTONIC as it enters and leaves the medulla. Vasa recta freely exchanges water and solutes
Despite the fact that the vasa recta is present, what is maintaining the osmotic gradient?
only in B cells
Do effector mechanisms occur in B cells and T cells (agglutination, precipitation, opsonization)?
higher blood osmolarity (this makes sense because you sweat more, so there is less water volume and more solute.) this will trigger the hypothalamus to RELEASE ADH to maintain water levels in the bloodstream
Does exercising trigger higher or lower blood osmolarity? What will occur in response to the change in osmolarity?
inhibits the sympathetic system by DECREASING VASOCONSTRICTION
Does the ANP system inhibit or stimulate the sympathetic system?
it helps keep the alveoli open because a pressure gradient is established and pressure will go down its concentration gradient from the atmosphere into the alveoli
Does the transmural pressure gradient help keep the alveoli open or closed?
the AV valves are closed but the semilunar valves are open
During atrial and ventricular diastole, what are the valves doing?
the auto regulation maintains a nearly CONSTANT GFR even though the BP has increased
During exercise (when there is an increase in BP), why is it that you do not have to urinate as much?
the AV valves are open but the semilunar valves are closed
During the second half of the cardiac cycle, what are the valves doing?
at rest and exhalation (when the lungs go back to normal)
During what periods is the pressure of the intrapleural space the same?
when a specific lymphocyte cell proliferates because it had the specific antigen receptor recognizable to the antibody. other cells without the specific antigen receptor will not proliferate.
Explain clonal selection.
Vasoconstriction: arterioles decrease in diameter-->increase in resistance-->INCREASE in BP Vasodilation: arterioles increase in diameter-->decrease in resistance->DECREASE in BP
Explain how blood pressure is affected by vasoconstriction and vasodilation.
1. Liver produces ANGIOTENSINOGEN (which is inactive) 2. RENIN (produced by the granule cells of juxtaglomerular apparatus) converts ANG into ANG-1 when there is a DROP in BP. 3. ANG-1 passes through the lungs and is converted into ANG-2 by ACE (an enzyme made by the lungs) 4. ANG-2 stimulates adrenal gland to produced ALDOSTERONE 5. Aldosterone stimulates Na+ reabsorption from the distal tubule INTO the capillaries 6. Stimulates hypothalamus to secrete ADH which will cause increased thirst and water retention.
Explain the RAAS system.
mast cells release histamines and cytokines-->capillaries dilate, allowing neutrophils to be recruited. antimicrobial peptides enter the tissue and neutrophils are recruited, where they digest pathogens. tissue heals.
Explain the inflammatory response.
Even when PO2 drops (in an environment where there is less O2) oxygen is still rather well-bound to hemoglobin. Even if PO2 increases past 100, more oxygen will not bind to hemoglobin because it has already reached 100% saturation (already all bound to oxygen, so no advantage to breathing in pure oxygen).
Explain the safety margin of the hemoglobin curve.
O2 is unloaded where oxygen is needed (so when PO2 is 20, where oxygen is needed, only 20% of oxygen is bound to hemoglobin because it is being unloaded)
Explain the steep region of the hemoglobin curve.
in the body tissues, there is a low affinity for oxygen, cause it to unload from the hemoglobin.
For red blood cells, what occurs to the oxygen in the tissues bound to the hemoglobin?
the atria is filling with blood along with the ventricle; the pressure in the atria is still greater than the pressure in the ventricle.
For the first .4 seconds of the cardiac cycle, what is occurring?
drop in BP
High amounts of urine= what in BP?
when an antigen-presenting cell (has class I MHC molecule) binds to a T cell
How are helper T cells activated?
they release cytokines (interleukin-2) that activate itself
How are helper T cells representative of autocrine signaling?
dendritic cell presents antigen to cytotoxic T cell. MHC 1 on dendritic cell is presented to CD8 on cytotoxic T cell. Cytokines (interleukin-2) are released from HELPER T cells to activate the cytotoxic T cell.
How do cytotoxic T cells become activated?
infected cells present the protein that initially activated the cytotoxic T cell to begin with; they will travel to the infected cell, present their CD8 and bind to the class I MHC molecule on the infected cell. Once it is bound, cytotoxic T cell will release perforins and granzymes will enter, causing the cell to undergo apoptosis.
How do cytotoxic T cells recognize infected cells?
they help with digestion
How do helper T cells help antigen-presenting cells?
epinephrine: INCREASES blood pressure by triggering vasoconstriction--increases cardiac output and glucose levels in the blood noroepinephrine: INCREASES blood pressure by triggering vasoconstriction (increases resistance and blood pressure) acetylcholine: DECREASES blood pressure by triggering vasodilation Parasympathetic: decreases blood pressure Sympathetic: increases blood pressure
How do hormones affect blood pressure? How does the parasympathetic system affect blood pressure?
they recognize the surface proteins of virus-infected cells and release chemicals to kill them (perforins: proteins released by the natural killer cell that creates a pore in the virus-infected cell, and granzymes enter which induce apoptosis)
How do natural killer cells work?
remove the clot or bypass surgery
How do you fix heart failure?
BLOCKS THE SODIUM PUMP IN THE ASCENDING LIMB. reduces Na+ uptake in the ascending limb-->less of an osmotic gradient-->water is released with LOW osmolarity
How does Lasix work?
inflate the cuff until no blood flow is moving through the arteries (higher than the systolic pressure); loosen the cuff so you can hear the blood flow moving through the obstruction (turbulent flow)
How does a sphygmomanometer work?
antibodies have two binding sites that allow them to bind to TWO ANTIGENS on two different cells, clumping pathogens together
How does agglutination work?
blood is toxic to the brain cells and wherever the aneurysm bursts the blood will pool in one area, thus causing oxygen to be deprived in other areas.
How does an aneurysm cause a stroke?
take erythropoietin to stimulate RBC production which will increase O2; this increase in O2 will allow the muscles to work longer and harder without muscles cramping (lactic acid fermentation does not occur)
How does blood doping work?
contraction of the right ventricle pumps blood into the pulmonary arteries; blood flows through capillary beds in left/right lungs where it loads O2 and unloads CO2; oxygen-rich blood then pumps from the lungs through the pulmonary veins and back to the left side of the heart where it enters the left atria and into the left ventricle; this pumps oxygen-rich blood to the tissues via the systemic circuit; blood leaves the aorta (ascending and descending aorta) which conveys the blood to the arteries leading throughout the body
How does blood move through the heart and into the body?
1. When you inhale, you INCREASE the volume of the thoracic cavity but LOWER the pressure. There is now a difference in pressure in the thoracic cavity (where the heart is) and the abdominal cavity (where the blood is) 2. Around veins there are skeletal muscles that will contract and push the blood up because of the valves (valves prevent blood from moving down)
How does blood return from the veins into the heart? List the TWO mechanisms.
O2 leaves the alveoli and enter the blood. CO2 leaves the blood and enters the alveoli.
How does gas exchange occur in the lungs?
O2 is removed from the blood and into the tissues; CO2 is removed from the tissues and into the blood; pulmonary capillaries: O2 is removed from the tissues and put into the blood, and CO2 is removed from the blood and put into the tissues
How does gas exchange occur in the systemic capillaries? How does gas exchange occur in the pulmonary capillaries?
antibodies bind to toxins in the body fluid BEFORE they enter the body cell
How does neutralization of toxins work?
antibodies bind to viral surface proteins, preventing the infection of a host cell (does its stuff before the body cell even becomes infected--it is disabling the pathogen)
How does neutralization work?
descending limb: osmolarity is INCREASING as It moves down (solute concentration getting higher) ascending limb: osmolarity is DECREASING as it moves up
How does osmolarity change as it is moving down the descending limb? How does it change as it is moving UP the ascending limb?
clumps together free antigens in body fluids, inactivating them and attracting macrophages
How does precipitation work?
inactive complement proteins form a ring, and bind to the antibodies that are bound to the pathogen. They then form a membrane attack complex in the membrane of the pathogen which contains a pore that is water soluble. Water enters the cell and then lyses. IF ANTIBODIES ARE NOT BOUND TO THE ANTIGEN, THEN THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM WILL NOT WORK. THE BOUND ANTIBODIES RECRUIT THE COMPLEMENT PROTEINS.
How does the complement system work? What must occur before the complement system can function?
peritubular capillaries reabsorbs the fluid that was filtrated out of the glomerulus
How does the glomerulus and peritubular capillaries interact?
the respiratory rate increases in order to restore normal levels of O2
How does the respiratory rate respond to high levels of CO2?
bacteria hide inside phagosomes and inhibit ability of lysosomes to fuse with phagosomes
How does tuberculosis work?
through aquaporins
How does water travel through the apical membrane and basolateral membrane of the proximal tubule?
descending limb: 1,200 ascending limb: 1,200
How high does the osmolarity get at the bottom of the descending limb and ascending limb?
1. Vasopressin binds to membrane receptor on the basolateral membrane 2. When vasopressin binds to receptor, it activates cAMP 3. Storage vesicles in the collecting duct cell travel to the apical membrane where they become aquaporin-2 water pores 4. water is brought from the LUMEN, through the collecting duct cell, medullary interstitial fluid, and INTO VASA RECTA (water reabsorption into the blood)
How is Aquaporin-2 inserted into the apical membrane?
adjusting blood flow through renal arterioles
How is GFR regulated?
DP+(PP/3)= 93mmHg. (Notice how this value is closer to the diastolic pressure than systolic, because more time is spent in diastolic!)
How is the MP calculated?
during T cell activation, the phagocytic cell that acts as the antigen-presenting cell is a part of the innate immune system, but the T cell is a part of the adaptive immune system.
How is the innate linked to the adaptive part of the immune system?
descending limb: Osmolarity INCREASES because water is leaving the descending limb, while maintaining the same solute ascending limb: osmolarity DECREASES because there is less solute in the limb
How is the osmolarity affected in the descending and ascending limb?
in a smaller diameter, the velocity is faster (in arterioles and venules, the blood will move faster where the cross-sectional area is smaller than in the capillary beds where the blood moves more slowly); however, the velocity is still faster in the arterioles than in the venules
How is velocity related to cross-sectional area?
volume and pressure are inversely related; when volume increases in the lungs, the pressure goes down.
How is volume and pressure related in the breathing mechanism?
.8 sec. ; atrial and ventricular diastole lasts .4 s (half the cycle is spent filling the heart with blood); atrial systole and ventricular diastole lasts .1 s (atria pumps remaining blood into ventricle because the pressure in the atria is now greater than the pressure in the ventricle); ventricular systole and atrial diastole lasts .3 s (ventricle pumps blood into either pulmonary artery or aorta--it makes sense that this takes longer because it has to use a lot of force to pump a lot of blood to another organ(s))
How long is one full cardiac cycle? How long does each part of the cycle take?
the right lung has 3 lobes and the left lung has 2 lobes. the left lung has a cardiac notch.
How many lobes do the right and left lung have? What side has the cardiac notch?
only 20% of the blood gets filtered (enters tubules). This means that 80% of the plasma goes through the peritubular capillarie via the efferent arteriole. 180 L is filtered per day.
How much of the plasma actually gets filtered? How much is filtered per day?
95% of the volume that was filtered (so less than 19% of the filter) is reabsorbed into the blood.
How much of the plasma volume is reabsorbed into the capillary?
1.5 L. (.99 (amount of water that returns to blood) x amount that is filtered=urine production)
How much urine is produced per day?
decrease the renal blood pressure in the afferent arteriole so that there is a decrease in the GFR (glomerular filtration rate). With a decrease in GFR, less fluid is being forced into the Bowman's capsule, thus reducing the amount of filtrate produced.
Hypothetical: you urinate too much. How can you fix the arterial resistance so that you do not pee as much?
interferons
If a virus-infected cell wants to make other cells resistant to the virus, what should happen?
the tube is NOT permeable to water (allows more water to be excreted in the urine=more clear urine)
If no ADH is present, what occurs to the permeability of the tube?
the water will STAY in the collecting duct (inhibiting reabsorption into the capillaries) and urine released will have low osmolarity
If the walls are not made permeable to the collecting duct, what occurs in the urine?
NOT permeable: water will stay in the collecting duct, maintaining an osmolarity of 300 mOsm Permeable: water will leave the collecting duct through osmosis and the osmolarity will INCREASE down the collecting duct (fluid is hypertonic)
If the walls of the collecting duct are NOT permeable to water, what will occur? If they are PERMEABLE to water, what will occur?
MORE concentrated; not permeable to water=less concentrated
If the walls of the tube are PERMEABLE to water, is the urine more concentrated or less concentrated? NOT permeable to water?
higher osmolarity in blood
If there is less volume in the blood, what does this mean for osmolarity?
hypotonic urine (this makes sense because a higher water concentration=lower solute concentration)
If you drink a lot of water, what type of urine will you excrete?
acetylcholine; vagus nerve
If you want to decrease the heart rate, what should you give the heart? Where will the blood move?
epinephrine; accelerator nerve
If you want to increase the heart rate, what should you give to the heart? Where will the blood move?
the pressures in the intra-alveolar space, pleural sac, and thoracic wall are all the same (760 mmHg)
In a collapsed lung, what do the pressures look like?
The mice readily accepted tissue transplants.
In a series of immune system experiments, the thymus glands were removed from baby mice. Which of the following would you predict as a likely result?
oxygen moves from the water and into the blood
In fish, what occurs with the oxygen?
neck: chemoreceptors in the carotid artery. aorta: aortic bodies
In what TWO parts of the body are CO2 and O2 levels detected?
much of the fluid gets reabsorbed INTO THE BLOOD and toxins and unwanted items are SECRETED from the blood and back into the tubule to be EXCRETED
In what directions do reabsorption and secretion work?
ANP system; afferent arteriole dilates, which increases the GFR, creating more filtrate and increased urine. Increased urine will cause the blood pressure to DROP.
In what system do we see the GFR increase? Why?
in the basolateral membrane of the PROXIMAL TUBULE and in the ASCENDING LIMB
In what two locations of the kidney is a sodium-potassium pump being used?
diastolic (because heart spends more time in relaxed state)
Is mean pressure value closer to diastolic or systolic value?
greater in the pulmonary capillaries (PO2 in systemic capillaries: 40-- 70% hemoglobin saturation; PO2 in pulmonary capillaries: 100--100% hemoglobin saturation) ALL IN THE PLATEAU REGION.
Is the PO2 greater in the resting systemic capillaries or the pulmonary capillaries?
higher in the left atria
Is the PO2 higher in the right or left atria?
it is working properly, it rejects it because it recognizes it as non-self.
Is the immune system working properly if it rejects an organ transplant?
the intrapleural pressure is always less than the intra-alveolar pressure.
Is the intra-alveolar pressure or the intrapleural pressure greater?
no, because there is a reservoir of memory cells that doesn't need the time to recruit cells like the primary immune response does
Is there any delay during the secondary immune response?
renal artery, afferent arteriole, glomerulus, efferent arteriole, peritublar capillaries, renal vein, heart via posterior vena cave
List the order of blood traveling through the kidney.
primary bronchi, secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, cluster of alveoli
List the order of the bronchial tree.
sodium potassium pump is established. potassium, sodium, and chloride enter the cells through a symporter, and then they enter the interstitial fluid through passive transport.
List the steps of the sodium-potassium pump.
True. (tears, mucus, saliva)
Lysozymes can be found in the first line of defense (T/F)
basolateral membrane; sodium must be pumped OUT of the proximal tubule cells and INTO the blood to be reabsorbed. potassium ENTERS the proximal tubule cells so that it can be secreted into the lumen side (if it was the reverse, then toxins would enter the blood, and valuable sodium would be secreted, thereby decreasing blood pressure to dangerously low levels).
On what side is the sodium potassium pump located? Why?
located on the side of the interstitial fluid; sodium is moving into the interstitial fluid and potassium is moving into the cells of ascending loop of Henle;
On what side is the sodium-potassium pump found in the ascending limb? Where is the sodium being pumped?
High ADH increases reabsorption of water and produces a low volume of highly concentrated urine low ADH is associated with a high volume of highly dilute urine.
REMEMBER THIS ABOUT ADH.
Tidal volume--volume of air moving in or out in each (resting) respiratory cycle Inspiratory reserve volume--air inspired with MAXIMAL effort in excess of tidal volume (aka taking as deep of a breath as you can. Expiratory reserve volume--air expired by MAXIMAL effort after passive respiration. (aka pushing out as much air as you can)
Respiratory volume definition: What is tidal volume? What is inspiratory reserve volume? What is expiratory reserve volume? What is residual volume?
release ADH to retain more water; it will make the collecting duct more permeable to water, allowing water to escape and enter the interstitial fluid
Should you release or suppress ADH if you want to retain more water?
the lymphatic system; the lymphatic vessels cross the pathway; when the pressure is greater on the outside of the lymphatic vessel than on the inside, the shingles open up. fluid in lymphatic vessels will give the fluid to the veins that are close to the heart
Since not all fluid is brought back into the blood by reabsorption, where does the excess fluid go? Where does the fluid in lymphatic system end up ultimately?
used by the collecting duct to make urine of different concentration
The variance of osmolarity (600-1200 mOsm) in the medulla is used by what to do what?
lung capillaries and systemic capillaries
There are two sets of capillaries. Where are they?
when the antibody binds to the antigen, B cell proliferation occurs. BUT ONLY AFTER A HELPER T cell HAS ACTIVATED A B cell VIA RELEASE OF CYTOKINES.
What activates B cells?
collagen fibers
What activates platelets in blood clotting?
if the walls are permeable to urine or not
What affects the concentration of urine?
temperature, hormones, and sympathetic/parasympathetic system
What affects the pacemaker of the body?
pleural sacs
What allows the lungs to stay inflated?
cytotoxic T cells
What are activated T cells?
temperature, pH, and PO2
What are different factors that affect the binding of oxygen by hemoglobin?
colloid osmotic pressure and fluid from Bowman's capsule
What are forces pulling the fluid back into the glomerulus? (Hint: important for maintaining osmotic pressure)
Toxins: ethanol (inhibits ADH secretion, so less water is reabsorbed into the blood. This means more water will be secreted as urine, making you pee more!) Osmotic diuretics: 1. glucose (excess glucose increases filtrate osmolarity because it is a solute, which reduces osmotic reabsorption of water into the collecting duct) 2. caffeine: inhibits Na+ reabsorption into blood, increases the GFR
What are good diuretics? How do they function?
beer, cranberry juice, caffeine
What are substances that act as diuretics?
exchange gases, absorb nutrients, and dispose of wastes
What are the 3 functions of the circulatory system?
fighting against pathogens, forming clots to prevent blood loss at injuries, and plasma contains hormones, nutrients, and gases, and transports heat from the body core to the skin
What are the 3 main roles of blood in maintaining homeostasis?
Bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, collecting duct
What are the 5 TUBULAR components?
obtains oxygen eliminates carbon dioxide, filters, warms and moistens incoming air, maintains blood pH, produces sound, assists in olfaction, helps return blood to the heart (inhaling increases the volume and decreases the pressure)
What are the SIX functions of the respiratory system?
allows the lungs to stay inflated; allows the lungs to expand and contract without tearing the delicate respiratory tissues (protects and cushions the lungs without damage)
What are the TWO functions of pleural sacs?
they release the bacterial debris AND they present a part of the bacteria on the surface of the cell to signal to other cells of the pathogen that is present (creates a more ROBUST response)
What are the TWO things that phagocytic cells do at the end of phagocytosis?
tight junctions that prevent any fluid from leaving the cell, but things can move THROUGH the cells
What are the cells in the tubule held together by?
opsonization: a bunch of ANTIBODIES bound to the BACTERIUM, which is recognized by phagocytic cells, then digested via lysosomes) agglutination: a bunch of BACTERIA are clumped together precipitation: soluble antigens can escape from attack until they are grouped together--antibodies make them more soluble the complement system does not promote phagocytosis
What are the different mechanisms that promote phagocytosis? What mechanism does NOT promote phagocytosis?
phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response; this is innate immunity (second line of defense)
What are the different types of internal defenses? What type of immunity is this?
elasticity of stretched pulmonary connective tissue fibers (the rubber band wants to be small, not stretched). alveolar surface tension
What are the forces promoting alveolar collapse?
descending: highly permeable to water, but NOT permeable to solutes (this will create higher osmolarity in the fluid) ascending: NOT permeable to water but actively transports Na+, K+, and Cl- OUT of the tubular lumen and into EXTRACELLULAR FLUID to be reabsorbed by the vasa recta
What are the functional differences between the descending and ascending limb?
neutralization and opsonization, agglutination, precipitation, complement activation. In the first three mechanisms, the cell is not destroyed, but instead will recruit another mechanism (phagocytosis) for the pathogen to be destroyed.
What are the numerous effector mechanisms? What is special about these mechanisms that is different from complement activation?
vasa recta
What are the peritubular capillaries surrounding the juxtamedullary nephrons called?
capillaries that extend from the efferent arteriole. they wrap themselves around the tubular component
What are the peritubular capillaries?
filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion
What are the steps to urine formation?
platelets, damaged cells, plasma (calcium, vitamin K)
What are the three sources of clotting factors?
macrophages (in lymph nodes and other organs), neutrophils (circulate in blood), and dendritic cells (TRAVEL to lymph nodes to activate other immune cells AFTER interacting with a pathogen)
What are the three types of phagocytic cells in mammals?
NITRATE drugs cause the coronary artery's smooth muscle to dilate (increase in diameter) to allow blood to pass through (reduction in blood pressure). BALLOON ANGIOPLASTY: catheter enters artery and balloon inflates squishing the plaque to either side, then the balloon is deflated and removed (can be problematic if lifestyle is not changed because plaque can regrow) STENT: a Roll of wire is used to hold open the coronary artery
What are the three ways to fix angina?
outer cortex and inner medulla
What are the two layers of the kidney?
1. undergoes apoptosis and dies 2. edits the receptor on itself so that the receptor cannot bind to a self-antigen--this prevents the destruction of a body cell
What are the two mechanisms a lymphocyte carries out if they recognize a self-antigen?
the apical membrane (with microvilli to increase SA and allow for more exchange) and the basolateral membrane (located on the sides and bottom of the proximal tubule cells)
What are the two sides that make up the proximal tubule?
1. renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS): INCREASES sodium retention, so water FOLLOWS-> increases BP 2. Atrial Natriuretic peptide (ANP) system: DECREASES sodium retention--> decreases BP
What are the two systems that regulate renal blood volume and pressure?
they carry out phagocytosis: the ingestion and digestion of foreign substances including bacteria (via lysosomes) they secrete antimicrobial peptides which disrupts the plasma membrane of the pathogen
What are the two things that hemocytes do?
1. myogenic responses (constriction/dilation of smooth muscle) 2. paracrine signals via macula densa cells
What are two mechanisms that regulate GFR locally?
by an embolism (blockage) or by an aneurysm (excess bleeding in the blain due to a rupture--the pooled blood kills cells near where the aneurysm occurred)
What are two ways you can get a stroke?
recognize fragments of foreign proteins produced by infected cells (antigen-presenting cell) and secretes perforins and granzymes that make the cell undergo apoptosis
What can cytotoxic T cells do?
clot, embolism, myocardial infarction
What causes congestive heart failure?
when the pressure in the ventricle is greater than the pressure in the atria; when the pressure in the aorta or pulmonary artery is greater here than in the ventricle.
What causes the closure of the AV valves? What causes the closure of the semilunar valves?
macula densa cells: sense distal tubule flow and release paracrine that affect afferent arteriole diameter
What cells are associated with paracrine signaling?
B cells in humoral immune response and T cells in cell-mediated immune response. They promote phagocytosis.
What cells do helper T cells activate? In what immune responses do they play a role in? What else do they do that is important?
dendritic cells release interleukin-1 to activate helper T cells
What cells does interleukin-1 activate?
activates helper T cells themselves; helper T cells release interleukin-2 to activate B cells, and cytotoxic T cells
What cells does interleukin-2 activate?
slight negative pressure in the intrapleural space (756 mmHg)
What characteristic allows the lungs to glue to the inside of the thoracic cavity?
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) (AKA vasopressin); comes from the posterior pituitary gland
What controls the permeability of the collecting duct? Where does this come from?
macula densa cells in JGA
What detects a drop in blood pressure?
the cytokines that are released; IL-12 will activate TH1; iL-4 will activate TH2
What determines the type of mature helper T cell that gets developed?
blocks the conversion of ANG-1 into ANG-2, thus preventing BP from rising.
What do ACE inhibitors do?
decrease BP because there is a decrease in blood volume
What do diuretics do to your blood pressure?
tight junctions; they move through transcellular transport instead
What do the cells in the proximal tubule have so that important stuff cannot move between cells? Where do they go instead?
changes the activity of brain activity so it must be kept low in blood (high excretion levels of potassium)
What does K+ do?
higher glomerular filtration pressure=more urination
What does a higher glomerular filtration pressure do to urine production?
blocks ADH secretion so water reabsorption into the capillaries is BLOCKED. increased urination occurs.
What does alcohol do to ADH secretion?
REDUCES urination
What does an anti-diuretic do?
eliminates the osmotic gradient between the collecting duct and interstitial fluid (water will not be removed from the collecting duct because there is no solute movement for the water to follow) .
What does glucose do to the osmotic gradient?
neural input regulates how fast it is beating but does NOT require it to beat because the heart is myogenic
What does it mean for the heart to be myogenic?
increases the pressure without changing the volume
What does squeezing the balloon do?
Surfactant: - Reduces the surface tension in pulmonary alveoli, preventing the alveoli from collapsing. Respiratory distress syndrome inhibits the production of surfactant, thus increasing surface tension in the alveoli and causing them to collapse.
What does surfactant do? What happens in respiratory distress syndrome?
detects high BP so it LOWERS the BP. Na+ will be excreted into the urine.
What does the ANP system do? Where will the Na+ go if the ANP system is activated?
osmotic gradient that is established
What does the ability to excrete urine of varying concentrations depend on?
allows blood from left ventricle to be pumped into the aorta
What does the aortic semilunar valve do?
increases or decreases the rate of the heart beat; parasympathetic decreases the rate of the heart beat and sympathetic increases the rate of the heart beat
What does the nervous system do for the heart?
when the food and the air mix
What does the pharynx do?
allows blood from right ventricle to be pumped into the pulmonary artery
What does the pulmonary semilunar valve do?
that not any more or not any less fluid is being filtered
What does the smooth muscle vasoconstriction/dilation ensure?
1. Clonal deletion 2. Clonal suppression 3. Clonal inactivation This is all happens to the LYMPHOCYTES.
What happens IF AND ONLY IF a mature lymphocyte that recognizes a self-antigen travels to the peripheral lymphoid organs? (Hint: 3 mechanisms). Does this occur to the body cells or the lymphocytes?
exercise makes the glomerular filtration pressure higher, making more fluid escape, and this creates more urination;
What happens during exercise? How do you maintain increased urination?
both the alveolar and intrapleural pressure increase (alveolar pressure increases to 762 mmHg and intrapleural pressure increases to 756 mmHg); diaphragm relaxes and moves up; the volume decreases (less air in lungs); lungs expand past its normal size.
What happens during exhalation? What happens to the diaphragm? What happens to the volume?
both the alveolar and intrapleural pressure decrease (alveolar pressure decreases to 758 mmHg and intrapleural pressure decreases to 754 mmHg); the diaphragm contracts and moves down; the volume increases
What happens during inhalation? What happens to the diaphragm? What happens to the volume?
the blood pressure drops
What happens if a lot of sodium is secreted into the urine?
water will leak OUT of the collecting duct and into the interstitial space by osmosis (this makes the osmolarity of the collecting duct HIGHER)
What happens if the walls of the collecting duct are PERMEABLE TO WATER, in the deeper regions of the medulla?
a hole is made in the pleural sac. This causes the pleural sac to have the same pressure as the intralveolar space and thoracic wall. There is nothing moving the alveoli towards the pleural sac, so the lungs will COLLAPSE. (their preferred state is being small)
What happens in a collapsed lung?
the blood pools in your legs because there is no movement that contracts the blood back up to the heart
What happens on an airplane if you are sitting down for a long period of time?
remains CONSTANT because it is in a closed environment
What happens to blood volume in cardiac cycle?
CO2 levels rise and pH drops. the pH drops in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid
What happens to pH and CO2 during exercise? Where does the pH drop in the body?
there is INCREASED blood flow to other organs
What happens to the blood flow of other organs if you decrease the GFR?
the rib cage is raised
What happens to the rib cage during inhalation?
they are stretched, so the mechanism is to recoil by CONSTRICTING
What happens to the smooth muscle when blood pressure is high?
the alveolar and atmospheric pressure are the same (760 mmHg) but the intrapleural pressure is 756 mmHg (the intrapleural pressure is ALWAYS less)
What happens when the lungs are at rest? (Hint: no inhalation or exhalation is occurring)
the GFR decreases, which could lead to KIDNEY FAILURE because the kidney is not getting enough blood
What happens when the mean arterial blood pressure decreases?
the "dub" sound is made
What happens when the pressure in the aorta is higher than in the left ventricle?
coronary artery experiences a clot or an aneurysm
What is a heart attack? (myocardial infarction)
when an artery wall balloons under pressure
What is an aneurysm?
accumulation of plaque inside of blood vessels
What is atherosclerosis?
water, glucose, sodium, (valuable items)
What is being reabsorbed into the blood?
apoptosis of B and T cells that have receptors for the self (prevents recognition and destruction of body cells)
What is clonal deletion?
osmotic pressure gradient due to proteins in plasma but NOT in Bowman's capsule:
What is colloid pressure?
1200 mOSM; which is four times as concentrated as blood or interstitial fluid
What is considered hyper osmotic?
between 50 and 100 mOsm; (less concentrated than blood or interstitial fluid); the kidney makes urine hypoosmotic; juxtamedullary nephrons make the urine hyperosmotic
What is considered hypoosmotic? What does the kidney make hypoosmotic?
you inhale more oxygen than you exhale (residual volume)
What is different about the oxygen you inhale vs. exhale?
reabsorption and secretion (modified fluid)
What is done selectively?
a hormone that stimulates RBC production which moves through the bone marrow when the oxygen levels drop
What is erythropoietin and how does it work?
92% water, 7% dissolved proteins (albumin), and 1% of electrolytes, nutrients, and wastes (urea, CO2, and lactic acid)
What is found in the plasma?
they are identical
What is important to know about the antigen-binding sites on B cell receptors?
trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and lungs
What is in the lower respiratory tract?
sodium-potassium pump, glucose/AAs/Cl- carriers, and water porins
What is located on the basolateral side of the proximal tubule cells?
excretion of large amounts of Na+ into the urine
What is natriuresis?
Blood: 300 mOsm
What is normal blood osmolarity?
ventricular contraction; the action potential is spreading throughout the ventricles
What is occurring at the QRS complex?
Since the pulmonary capillaries have a PO2 of 100 (oxygen is readily available in this environment), O2 is not as necessary, so hemoglobin will load O2 on to it.
What is occurring to O2 levels in the pulmonary capillaries?
the thoracic cavity and lungs because both of these have higher pressures than the pleural sac and want to move down its pressure gradient
What is pulled towards the pleural sac?
ions, molecules, and water move back into the blood; 99% of water is moved back into the blood; uncontrolled
What is reabsorbed from the proximal tubule into the capillary? Is this reabsorption selective or nonselective?
a hormone secreted by the kidney in response to drop in BP. It leads to more Na+ retention into the BLOOD, and less Na+ into the URINE to restore BP.
What is renin and what does it do?
T cells
What is required in order for clonal suppression to occur?
it is the air left in lungs after maximal expiratory effort; it is necessary for when you get the wind knocked out of you so gas exchange can still occur; it is easier to inflate a partially filled alveolus than one that is completely collapsed (wet balloon) 🎈
What is residual volume and why it is important?
ribs are rigid and lungs are flexible and elastic
What is rigid and what is flexible?
they are glycoproteins; they originate from the helper T cell; they attach to the MHC molecule
What is special about the accessory proteins? From what cell do they originate? Where do they attach?
slows dow the signal from the atria to the ventricle. this delay gives the atria time to contract before the ventricles do.
What is the AV node responsible for?
it determines how fast the heart beats; the action potential; atrial contraction occurs in the left and right atria (all the cells in the atria contract at the same time allowed because all of the cells are connected by gap junctions, which allow signals to travel from one cell to another more easily)
What is the SA node responsible for?
there is a high affinity of oxygen in the lungs because the hemoglobin needs to pick up oxygen to transport oxygen-rich blood to the heart (high concentration of O2 in the lungs)
What is the affinity for oxygen in the lungs?
5-30 liters per minute.
What is the average cardiac output?
plasma (55%) and RBCs (45%)
What is the blood composed of?
perforins are not as permeable as MAC (perforins only allow granzymes to enter the infected cell, while membrane attack complex allows a lot more and permits the cell to lyse)
What is the difference between MAC (membrane attack complex) proteins and perforins?
TH1: activates macrophages, cytotoxic T cells; bacteria; dendritic cells release IL-12 to help further activate TH1-->then TH1 migrates back to site of infection where it helps macrophage with digestion TH2: activates B cells; parasites (protozoa) induces TH2 activation; dendritic cells release IL-4 to help further activate TH2
What is the difference between TH1 and TH2 cells in terms of type of response? What induces TH1 activation vs. TH2 activation? How does dendritic cell
arteries/veins have three layers (endothelium, smooth muscle, and connective tissue); capillaries have one layer (endothelium)
What is the difference between arteries/veins and capillaries?
external respiration: gas exchange between the atmosphere and alveoli internal respiration: exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and tissues: consuming O2 to produce ATP
What is the difference between external and internal respiration?
Natural killer cells: do not have memory, non-specific cytotoxic T cells: have memory, specific
What is the difference between natural killer cells and cytotoxic T cells?
the MHC molecule is a self-protein, whereas the antigen is a non-self protein.
What is the difference between the MHC molecule and the antigen presented on the MHC molecule?
on the apical membrane, they are using ENERGY to enter the cells of the proximal tubule. on the basolateral membrane, they are using FACILITATED DIFFUSION to leave the cell and enter interstitial fluid (carriers)
What is the difference between the movement of glucose/AAs/Chloride on the apical membrane versus the basolateral membrane?
visceral pleura is stuck to the LUNGS; parietal pleura is stuck to the RIBS
What is the difference between the visceral pleura and parietal pleura?
traumatic: occurs in the thoracic wall spontaneous: occurs in the lung wall (between pleural sac and intra-alveolar space); the pressure gradient gets abolished
What is the difference between traumatic and spontaneous pneumothorax? What occurs to the pressure gradient in pneumothorax?
high pH: shifts to left low pH: shifts to right CO2 levels are HIGH in respiring body tissues, so pH must be low here. Low pH-7.2: hemoglobin has a low affinity for O2 (because body tissues need oxygen) High pH-7.6 (in lungs because carbon dioxide is low): hemoglobin has a high affinity for O2
What is the effect of pH on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen? What does this mean for hemoglobin saturation? (Hint: where are CO2 levels high).
low temperatures shift the curve to the left, while high temperatures shift the curve to the right. When temperature is low (like in lungs where it is closer to atmosphere), hemoglobin has a high affinity for O2. When temperature is high (like in body), hemoglobin has a low affinity for O2, giving the body tissues oxygen.
What is the effect of temperature on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen? What does this mean for hemoglobin saturation?
blood pressure-colloid pressure-fluid pressure
What is the equation for glomerular filtration pressure (net filtration pressure)?
enzymes that break down bacterial cell walls so that they do not multiply
What is the function of lysozymes in insects?
controls the REABSORPTION of Na+ and H2O; SECRETION of K+ (potassium is toxic) and H+ (to reduce the acidity of the blood)
What is the function of the distal tubule?
90-120 (systolic) and 60-80 (diastolic)
What is the healthy blood pressure range for systolic and diastolic?
fluid pressure
What is the hydrostatic pressure in the Bowman's capsule called?
inspiratory capacity=inspiratory reserve volume+tidal volume
What is the inspiratory capacity?
controls the amount of fluid flowing to glomeruli and regulates how much blood is filtered (a fork (a section of the distal tubule) between the afferent arteriole and efferent arteriole)
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
heart, aorta, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, venue cavae
What is the order of pressure starting from the heart?
cortex: 300 mOsm medulla: 600-1,200 the solute concentration INCREASES further down the kidney
What is the osmolarity in the outer cortex of the kidney? Osmolarity in the medulla? What does this osmolarity value indicate?
the same as descending limb but MORE than the ascending limb
What is the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid?
volume regulation (of fluid), solute regulation, and waste removal; important for maintaining the osmolarity (osmotic strength) of the cytoplasm in body cells, interstitial fluid, and blood
What is the osmoregulatory system responsible for? Why is it important?
lungs: 760mmHg; pleural sac: 756mmHg; thoracic cavity: 760mmHg
What is the pressure in lungs/alveoli, pleural sac, and thoracic cavity?
the proximal tubule carries out UNCONTROLLED reabsorption; the distal tubule carries out CONTROLLED reabsorption
What is the primary difference between the proximal and distal tubule?
systolic pressure-diastolic pressure. (120-80=40)
What is the pulse pressure?
restores BP to enable re-circulation
What is the purpose of the heart in terms of blood pressure?
the amount of hemoglobin attached to oxygen increases as PO2 increases.
What is the relationship between hemoglobin saturation and PO2?
the medulla oblongata and pons; causes the diaphragm to contract for two seconds and relax for three seconds
What is the respiratory rate controlled by? What does the respiratory center do?
the heart pumps faster (tachychardia)
What is the response of the heart if the body is not getting enough blood?
producing strongly hyperosmotic urine
What is the responsibility of the juxtamedulllary nephron?
action potential spreads across the atria and excites the AV node which is located near the AV valve (BUT DOES NOT EXCITE THE VENTRICLES);
What is the second step of electrical activity throughout the heart? What section of the EKG does it represent?
maximum amount of air the lungs can hold (6L)
What is the total lung capacity if you inhaled as deeply as you could?
the functional residual volume (FRV=expiratory reserve volume+residual volume)
What is the volume of air in lungs at the end of a NORMAL expiry?
Ultrafiltration occurs at the arteriole end, and blood pressure is greater than osmotic pressure, forcing water into the the tissues. This is important because it allows the fluid to deliver nutrients found in the fluid to the tissues. Reabsorption occurs at the venule end, and osmotic pressure is greater than blood pressure, allowing the water from the tissues to reenter the capillaries (but not all of it). It is important so that blood is not drained in the body. They do not occur equally because more fluid is pulled out than is brought back to the capillaries.
What is ultrafiltration vs. reabsorption? Why is ultrafiltration important? Why is reabsorption important?
afferent vasoconstriction: increased resistance, smaller diameter, decreased blood flow and pressure--> reduced GFR
What is upstream vasoconstriction?
afferent vasodilation: decreased resistance, larger diameter, increased blood flow and pressure--> increased GFR
What is upstream vasodilation?
High ADH: 1200 mOsm Low ADH: 100 mOsm At high ADH, more water is being reabsorbed into the collecting duct, therefore creating a more hyperosmotic urine solution. At low ADH, less water is being reabsorbed into the collecting duct, therefore creating a LESS hyperosmotic urine solution.
What is urine osmolarity when ADH is high? When ADH is low? Why?
it tells you the amount of USABLE air you have. it is the maximum amount of air you can breathe in after a maximum expiry. (vital capacity=inspiratory reserve volume+tidal volume+expiratory reserve volume)
What is vital capacity and why is this value important?
T cells to destroy an infected cell; B cells to destroy or neutralize a pathogen
What kind of lymphocytes would you need to destroy an infected cell? How about to kill a pathogen before it enters the body cell?
second and third line of defense
What lines of defense are innate and adaptive?
when the AV valve closes. (both sides of the heart)
What makes the "Lub" sound?
when the semilunar valve closes. (both sides of the heart)
What makes the "dub" sound?
countercurrent exchanger + active transport of solutes
What makes the countercurrent multiplier?
when the valves shut
What makes the sound of the heartbeat?
since this is an example of paracrine signaling (cells must be close to one another), if cells are too far, the B cell cannot be activated by the helper T cell
What may prohibit the helper T cell from activating the B cell?
ammonia into urea
What must be converted before being excreted?
a Na+ cotransporter (glucose is moving AGAINST its concentration gradient into the wall of the proximal tubule from the lumen side); this must happen in order for important nutrients to be reabsorbed by the blood
What must glucose, amino acids, and chloride have in order to move across the apical membrane?
the valves are not closing at the same time
What occurs during a murmur?
production of antibody increases that can respond to a given antigen
What occurs during a primary immune response?
internal intercostal muscles and abdominal muscles contract
What occurs during exhalation?
they are recycled because they are no longer needed
What occurs to plasma cells after use?
the podocytes move closer together so less fluid escapes to decrease the blood pressure
What occurs to the podocytes if the blood pressure becomes high?
angina where there is temporary discomfort in the heart; there are two types: stable (overexertion from stress or hard exercise) and unstable (impending heart attack)
What occurs when the coronary artery is not blocked but narrowed?
the fluid cannot enter the lymphatic system and can result in edema: accumulation of fluid in INTRACELLULAR FLUID
What occurs with a blocked lymph node?
Loop of Henle
What part of the nephron is found in the medulla of the kidney rather than the cortex?
the Loop of Henle
What part of the nephron is responsible for establishing the osmotic gradient?
only 20% of plasma volume is filtered into glomerulus; 80% of the plasma volume is returned to to the efferent arteriole
What percent of the plasma volume is filtered into the glomerulus? How much plasma returns to the efferent arteriole?
the two sphincter muscles at the base of the bladder (internal and external)
What regulates the flow of urine into the urethra?
autoimmune diseases; diabetes mellitus type 1 (the body attacks the pancreas cells that make insulin, so no insulin is produced); multiple sclerosis (the attack of immune system on myelin sheath and changes the conduction velocity on nerve cells)
What results from an overactive immune system? Give an example.
1. atrial stretch receptors 2. carotid and aortic baroreceptors
What senses blood pressure?
the left side of the heart where there is O2 rich blood
What side does systemic circulation involve?
the right side of the heart where there is O2 poor blood
What side of the heart does pulmonary circulation involve?
Loop of Henle (descending and ascending tubule)
What structure in the nephron has the function of establishing an osmotic gradient to produce urine of varying concentration?
RAAS
What system is activated when there is a drop in BP?
maximum: systolic; minimum: diastolic
What terms are synonymous with maximum pressure and minimum pressure?
regulation of water, ions, and solute concentration of body fluids
What three factors make up osmoregulation in the body?
CD4 (from itself), MHC II (from antigen-presenting cell), and interleukin-2 (from itself)
What three molecules are needed to activate helper T cells?
Granular cells: detect change in BP (DIRECTLY stimulate the release of renin, which increases BP) Macula densa cells: detect change in GFR (indirect effect on RENIN)
What two cells are located in juxtaglomerular apparatus?
caffeine and ethanol
What two diuretics share the same function of inhibiting ADH?
1. stimulates Na+ reabsorption 2. stimulates hypothalamus to secrete ADH (high ADH increases water reabsorption)
What two mechanisms does ANG-2 have?
innate immunity
What type of immunity uses a small set of receptors?
cell-mediated response
What type of response defends against infection in body cells?
humoral response
What type of response defends against infection in body fluids?
myeloid progenitor cells (erythrocytes, neutrophils, basophils, monocytes, platelets, eosinophils) and lymphoid progenitor cells (give rise to lymphocytes: T cells and B cells); the majority of blood cells are RBCs
What type of stems cells differentiate? What type are the majority of blood cells?
there would be no osmotic pressure to bring the fluid back into the blood
What would happen if plasma proteins escaped?
water would remain in the collecting duct lumen and be secreted into the urine
What would happen if the aquaporin-2 channel did not work?
there would be no filtration that would occur and toxins in the blood would build up (kidney failure)
What would happen if the net filtration pressure was a negative number?
blood would not move!
What would happen if there was zero pressure in the blood?
edema in the body tissues; low levels of blood protein in the capillaries decreases the osmotic pressure, so not as much water will flow back into the capillaries; instead, water will REMAIN in the body tissues.
What would you expect to see in an individual with low levels of blood protein in the capillaries? Why?
during exhalation
When are abdominal muscles and external intercostal muscles relaxed?
during inhalation
When are diaphragm and internal intercostals relaxed?
constrict when they are STRETCHED. dilate when they are NOT STRETCHED.
When do smooth muscles constrict? When do they dilate?
during exhalation
When do the elastic fibers in the lung recoil past their original length?
during inhalation
When do the external intercostal muscles contract?
when the cuff pressure is less than the diastolic pressure
When does the blood begin to go through laminar flow again?
AFTER leaving the collecting duct
When does urine composition stop in modification?
blood pressure: low osmolarity: high
When is ADH released in terms of blood pressure and osmolarity?
False: when the arterial blood pressure increases (between 80 and 180 mmHg), the GFR remains CONSTANT because of auto regulation (a compensatory mechanism)
When the arterial blood pressure increases, the GFR increases. (T/F)
during exhalation
When the internal intercostal muscles contract?
plasma proteins and RBCs do NOT escape; unselectively
When the tubules in the nephron are COLLECTING blood, what does NOT escape? Is it done unselectively or selectively?
secretes paracrine signals that increase (dilate) the diameter of the AFFERENT arteriole; paracrine that decrease the diameter of the AFFERENT arteriole
When there is increased flow of fluid, what do the macula densa cells do? Decreased flow?
vasopressin is released; fluid becomes hyperosmotic because water is moving OUT of the collecting duct. (you are trying to stop water from leaving the body)
When you need to retain water, what occurs? (dehydration=more yellow pee because more hyperosmotic)
high ADH-->increases water reabsorption--> increases volume in blood=increase in BP
When your blood pressure is low, do you want a high or low ADH?
permeates down the septum of the two ventricles; it brings the signal down to the apex.
Where are the Bundle of His located and what does it do?
peripheral lymphoid organs (lymph nodes , spleen)
Where do B and T cells move to once mature?
filtration: glomerulus reabsorption: proximal tubule secretion: distal tubule
Where does filtration occur? Where does reabsorption occur? Where does secretion occur?
filtration: glomerulus secretion: peritubular capillaries reabsorption: peritubular capillaries
Where does filtration, secretion, and reabsorption occur?
diastole (spends more time relaxed)
Where does the cardiac cycle spend more time in?
glomerulus
Where does the initial filtration of the blood occur?
from the plasma proteins that were left behind; it remains constant because the plasma concentration does not change.
Where does the osmotic pressure come from? Why does the osmotic pressure remain constant from the arteriole to venule end?
juxtaglomerular apparatus
Where in the nephron are macula densa cells found?
at the bottom of the juxtamedullary nephrons
Where is the loop of Henle located?
the partial pressure of CO2 is greater in the lungs than in the atmosphere, so CO2 will move into the atmosphere. the partial pressure of CO2 is lower in the blood than in the tissues, so CO2 will move from the body tissues into the blood.
Where is the partial pressure of carbon dioxide greater? Where is it lower?
the partial pressure of oxygen is greater in the atmosphere than in the lungs, so it will move into the lungs. the partial pressure of oxygen is lower in the tissue cell than it is in the blood, so oxygen will move into the tissue cell from the blood. (this allows cellular respiration to occur in the body tissues)
Where is the partial pressure of oxygen greater? Where is it lower?
between the wall of the proximal tubule and the interstitial fluid created by the sodium-potassium pump; now the concentration of sodium is LOW in the WALL of the proximal tubule, so sodium can now go DOWN its concentration gradient from the lumen (apical side) of the proximal tubule and into the WALL of the proximal tubule
Where is the sodium gradient established?
a decrease in pH and a decrease in the PO2
Which of the following would increase the release of oxygen from red blood cells?
the antigen-presenting cell for the T cell; the helper T cell for the B cell; co-stimulatory proteins help activate the cell
Who provides the co-stimulatory protein? What does it do?
double-stranded RNA is only found in viruses and NOT in invertebrates
Why are insects able to recognize double-stranded RNA?
when the cardiac muscle grows faster than the valves
Why are some murmurs benign?
pleural sac
Why are the lungs slightly stretched under normal conditions?
they allow for ions, water, glucose, and amino acids to be delivered to the surrounding cells (water-soluble substances that are small enough); lipid-soluble substances (hydrophobic) like O2 or CO2; plasma proteins remain in the blood because they are too large. (but small proteins are moved across through vesicular transport). This is an example of ultrafiltration, where some but not all things leave the cell.
Why are the pores necessary in the capillaries? What can move THROUGH the endothelial cells? What remains in the blood and why? What is this all an example of?
cuff pressure is between systolic and diastolic blood pressure.
Why can you hear blood flow in turbulent flow?
Scrape the sides of the capillaries to clean it up
Why do RBCs move in a single file line in capillaries?
body tissues have more carbon dioxide because the cells are respiring
Why do the body tissues have more carbon dioxide than oxygen?
so that the pH of the blood does not change
Why does the kidney regulate pH?
separated by an endometrial layer--it just moves through the heart but does not actually supply the heart with any blood; the coronary artery that branches off the aorta is what supplies the heart with blood
Why doesn't the heart receive the blood that is pumped through the organ? How instead then is the heart supplied with blood?
It requires a proliferation of B and T cells
Why is adaptive immunity slower than innate immunity?
embolism is floating and can lodge in an artery; this can block blood flow and cause tissue death.
Why is an embolism worse than a thrombus?
because they are only separated by a two-cell layer (each is one cell-layer); the cell layers are moist but this can contribute to the collapse of alveoli
Why is gas exchange so efficient between alveoli and capillaries? (hint: there are two reasons and what is the disadvantage of one of the reasons)
allows time for exchange to occur
Why is it advantageous that the velocity is slower in the capillaries?
the body is sensitive to changes in the osmotic strength of the solution that bathes them (interstitial fluid must be isosmotic otherwise the cells will shrink or lyse)
Why is osmoregulation important?
in response to a DROP in BP
Why is renin released?
a negative feedback loop that maintains GFR
Why is the GFR rate relatively constant over a wide range of blood pressures?
because it is negatively charged, it repels proteins that may have made it through the pores between the endothelial cells of the glomerular capillary; it keeps the negatively charged proteins in the lumen of glomerular capillary
Why is the acellular basement membrane important? Why does its charge make it important?
because water always follows the movement of solutes; since solute is being pumped into the interstitial fluid, water will follow the solute into the interstitial space
Why is the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid and descending limb ALWAYS the same?
because the proliferation of cells requires time to recruit cells that can defend against pathogens (7-21 days)
Why is there a lag phase in immunological memory?
the active complement proteins would destroy body cells
Why would it be bad for the body if the complement proteins (in the complement system) were always active in the body?
the left ventricle does not pump as hard as it should and the blood will back up into the lungs; this will cause pulmonary edema where the blood pools in the lungs.
congestive heart failure
the fact that the vasa recta is continuously flowing around the loop of henle; it could absorb the ions being pumped into the interstitial fluid
hypothetically, what would get rid of the vertical osmotic gradient?
indicates a low blood volume which means low BP. the atrial stretch receptors will then send a signal to the hypothalamus to synthesize vasopressin which will be released from the posterior pituitary gland. this will increase water reabsorption into the blood, which will increase the blood volume and BP.
if the atria is not stretched, what does this indicate? What will happen in response to this?
active; passive or active
inhalation is always ________ but exhalation can be ______ or _______ depending on if you are coughing.
