Blinn Biology 1406 - Exam 1 - Elsayed
What is the base pairing in DNA?
A pairs with T C pairs with G
Locus
A particular place along the length of a certain chromosome where a specific gene is located.
DNA fingerprint
A pattern on an electrophoresis gel that has been made by cutting DNA into fragments in the non-coding region which is highly variable between individuals.
A glycosidic linkage is analogous to which of the following in proteins?
A peptide bond
Polypeptide
A polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
Cations
A positively charged ion.
What is science?
A process of discovery, a method, a way of doing something. It is the most successful way.
Transport channel
A protein that is embedded in a cell membrane that allows certain substances to pass in and out of the cell through its centre
Enzyme
A protein that makes a reaction happen QUICKER; decreases activation energy of a reaction.
Embedded protein
A protein that sits within the cell membrane.
Condensation reaction
A reaction in which two molecules become covalently bonded to each other through the loss of a small molecule, usually water; also called dehydration reaction.
Geneticist
A scientist who studies genes and genetics.
Inversion
A segment in a chromosome is flipped upside down from its normal position.
Stop codon
A series of three bases that codes for no amino acid, and therefore the end of a polypeptide chain.
Start codon
A series of three bases that codes for the start of a polypeptide chain.
Triplet code
A set of three nucleotides on the mRNA that specify amino acids
Glucose
A simple sugar that is an important source of energy.
Monosaccharide
A simple sugar that is the basic subunit of a carbohydrate
Gene
A specific length of the DNA chain that codes for one polypeptide chain.
Substrate
A substance on which an enzyme acts during a chemical reaction.
Product
A substance produced in a chemical reaction
Non-competitive inhibitor
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding to a location away from the active site, changing its shape so that it no longer binds the substrate.
Competitive inhibitor
A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by entering the active site in place of the substrate whose structure it is similar to.
Catalyst
A substance that speeds up the rate of a chemical reaction.
Acids
A substances that releases H+ hydrogen ions into a solution.
Colloid
A suspension of materials in water. (Milk) They are usually opaque.
How does a scientific theory differ from a scientific hypothesis?
A theory is a well tested explanation that unifies a broad range of observations. A hypothesis is a guess or estimate of what will happen.
Glycerol
A three-carbon alcohol to which fatty acids are covalently bonded to make fats and oils.
Codon
A three-nucleotide sequence of DNA or mRNA that specifies a particular amino acid (or stop/termination signal).
Virus
A tiny disease-causing particle that consists of genetic material and a protein coat
Nonpolar Covalent Bond
A tug-of-war is at standoff. The electrons are shared equally because the two atoms have the same electronegativity.
Messenger RNA
A type of RNA synthesised from DNA in the genetic material, that leaves the nucleus and attaches to the ribosomes to specify the primary structure of a protein.
Prokaryotic
A type of cell that lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles (bacteria).
Hydrogen bond
A type of weak chemical bond.
Macromolecule
A very large molecule (as of a protein, nucleic acid, or carbohydrate) built up from smaller chemical structures
Viral vector
A virus that has DNA or RNA in it, that can be used to insert a specific gene into a cell (because it can be made to infect specific cells)
Why does ice float in liquid water? A) The high surface tension of liquid water keeps the ice on top. B) The ionic bonds between the molecules in ice prevent the ice from sinking. C) Ice always has air bubbles that keep it afloat. D) Hydrogen bonds stabilize and keep the molecules of ice farther apart than the water molecules of liquid water. E) The crystalline lattice of ice causes it to be denser than liquid water.
A&D A) The high surface tension of liquid water keeps the ice on top. D) Hydrogen bonds stabilize and keep the molecules of ice farther apart than the water molecules of liquid water.
How do cells use the ATP cycle? A) Cells use the cycle to recycle ADP and phosphate. B) Cells use the cycle to recycle energy released by ATP hydrolysis. C) Cells use the cycle to recycle ADP, phosphate, and the energy released by ATP hydrolysis. D) Cells use the cycle to generate or consume water molecules as needed. E) Cells use the cycle primarily to generate heat.
A) Cells use the cycle to recycle ADP and phosphate.
The relationship between dehydration reactions and hydrolysis? A) Dehydration reactions assemble polymers, and hydrolysis reactions break down polymers. B) Dehydration reactions eliminate water from lipid membranes, and hydrolysis makes lipid membranes water permeable. C) Dehydration reactions can occur only after hydrolysis. D) Hydrolysis creates monomers, and dehydration reactions break down polymers. E) Dehydration reactions ionize water molecules and add hydroxyl groups to polymers; hydrolysis reactions release hydroxyl groups from polymers.
A) Dehydration reactions assemble polymers, and hydrolysis reactions break down polymers.
Which of the following is a statement of the first law of thermodynamics? A) Energy cannot be created or destroyed. B) The entropy of the universe is decreasing. C) The entropy of the universe is constant. D) Kinetic energy is stored energy that results from the specific arrangement of matter. E) Energy cannot be transferred or transformed.
A) Energy cannot be created or destroyed.
You have a planar bilayer with equal amounts of saturated and unsaturated phospholipids. After testing the permeability of this membrane to glucose, you increase the proportion of unsaturated phospholipids in the bilayer. What will happen to the membrane's permeability to glucose? A) Permeability to glucose will increase. B) Permeability to glucose will decrease. C) Permeability to glucose will stay the same. D) You cannot predict the outcome. You simply have to make the measurement.
A) Permeability to glucose will increase
47) At the M phase checkpoint, the complex allows for what to occur? A) Separase enzyme cleaves cohesins and allows chromatids to separate. B) Cohesins alter separase to allow chromatids to separate. C) Kinetochores are able to bind to spindle microtubules. D) All microtubules are made to bind to kinetochores. E) Daughter cells are allowed to pass into G₁.
A) Separase enzyme cleaves cohesins and allows chromatids to separate.
A chemical reaction that has a positive ΔG is best described as _____. A) endergonic B) enthalpic C) spontaneous D) exergonic
A) endergonic
CAM plants keep stomata closed in the daytime, thus reducing loss of water. They can do this because they _____. A) fix CO2 into organic acids during the night B) fix CO2 into sugars in the bundle-sheath cells C) fix CO2 into pyruvate in the mesophyll cells D) use photosystem I and photosystem II at night
A) fix CO2 into organic acids during the night
The membranes of winter wheat are able to remain fluid when it is extremely cold by _____. A) increasing the percentage of unsaturated phospholipids in the membrane B) increasing the percentage of cholesterol molecules in the membrane C) decreasing the number of hydrophobic proteins in the membrane D) cotransport of glucose and hydrogen
A) increasing the percentage of unsaturated phospholipids in the membrane
What technique would be most appropriate to use to observe the movements of condensed chromosomes during cell division? A) light microscopy B) scanning electron microscopy C) transmission electron microscopy D) confocal fluorescence microscopy E) super-resolution fluorescence microscopy
A) light microscopy
White blood cells engulf bacteria using A) phagocytosis B) pinocytosis C) osmosis D) receptor-mediated exocytosis
A) phagocytosis
The ATP made during glycolysis is generated by A) substrate-level phosphorylation. B) electron transport. C) photophosphorylation. D) chemiosmosis. E) oxidation of NADH to NAD⁺.
A) substrate-level phosphorylation.
The reactions that produce molecular oxygen (O2) A) the light reactions alone. B) the Calvin cycle alone. C) both the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. D) neither the light reactions nor the Calvin cycle. E) the chloroplast, but are not part of photosynthesis. The mechanism of photophosphorylation.
A) the light reactions alone.
Which of the following investigators was (were) responsible for the discovery? A) genetic material is found in DNA B) showed that DNA (not proteins) can transform the properties of cells, clarifying the chemical nature of genes. C) guanine units equals the number of cytosine units, and the number of adenine units equals the number of thymine units. D) DNA replication was semi conservative
A)Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase: B) Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin MacLeod: C) Erwin Chargaff: D)Matthew Meselson and Franklin Stahl:
DNA
A, T, C, G
RNA
A, U, C, G
compare amylose, amylopectin and glycogen
ALL HAVE GLYCOSIDIC BONDS amylose: a 1-4 amylopectin: a 1-4 glycogen: a 1-6
In cells, what is usually the immediate source of energy for an endergonic reaction?
ATP The hydrolysis of ATP provides the energy needed for an endergonic reaction.
adenosine triphosphate
ATP energy currency of cells
What are the members of the purine family?
Adenine and guanine.
Evolution
All the changes that have transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity that it has today.
Secondary Structure
Alpha helix, beta pleased sheet form. Attain an specific shape - hydrogen bonds help achieve those 2 shapes. Can be found in DNA helix.
mRNA
Also known as Messenger RNA, it is a type of RNA synthesised from DNA in the genetic material, that leaves the nucleus and attaches to the ribosomes to specify the primary structure of a protein.
PCR
Also known as a polymerase chain reaction. Used to amplify the DNA by heating it and cooling it in the presence of DNA polymerase and free nucleotides.
Human genome project
An International collaborative effort to map and sequence the DNA of the entire human genome.
Transfer RNA
An RNA molecules that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid (RNA) and protein language - it matches anticodons with the codons on mRNA and places an amino acid in a growing polypeptide chain.
RNA polymerase
An enzyme that links together RNA molecules during transcription.
DNA polymerase
An enzyme that makes new DNA strands by adding DNA nucleotides to the existing chain in the process of DNA replication.
What is the monosaccharide Glyceraldehyde C3H6O3?
An initial breakdown product of glucose.
Ribosome
An organelle in the cell that makes proteins - it has two subunits.
Amino Acids
An organic molecule with both an amino group and carboxyl group.
Transgenic organism
An organism that contains genes from another species that makes it have desired characteristics.
Eukaryotic
An organism whose cells contain membrane-bound organelles and whose DNA is enclosed in a nucleus.
Proteomics
Analysis of large sets of proteins, including their sequence.
Genomics
Analyzing large sets of genes or even comparing whole genomes of different species.
Bacteria Archea
Ancient bacteria that lives for centuries because it can withstand super hot temperatures and salty waters.
Glycogen
Animal stored polysaccharides
Domain Archaea-
Any of various single-celled prokaryotes genetically distinct from bacteria, often thriving in extreme environmental conditions
Secondary protein structure
Areas of folding or coiling within a protein; examples include alpha helices and pleated sheets, which are stabilized by hydrogen bonding.
Which of the following is in the correct order from least complex to most complex? Cell, Tissue, Organ, Organism, Organelle, Molecule
Atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.
What are elements composed of?
Atoms
Octet Rule-
Atoms tend to establish completely full outer energy levels
Adhesion
Attraction between two things that are different. (Water molecules sticking to the inside of the water molecules inside the tube).
Autotrophs and heterotrophs?
Autotrophs, but not heterotrophs, can nourish themselves beginning with CO2 and other nutrients that are inorganic. Autotrophs use energy from the sun or from oxidation of inorganic substances to make organic molecules from inorganic ones. Heterotrophs obtain organic food molecules by eating other organisms or substances derived from them.
Which of the following human diseases is caused by a virus that requires reverse transcriptase to transcribe its genome inside the host cell? B) AIDS C) smallpox D) influenza E) common cold
B) AIDS
Which is the strongest evidence that protein structure and function are correlated? A) Enzymes tend to be globular in shape B) Denatured (unfolded) proteins do not function normally C) Proteins have four distinct levels of structure and many functions D) Proteins function best at certain temperatures
B) Denatured (unfolded) proteins do not function normally
What is the difference in prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells? A) Prokaryotes have cells while eukaryotes do not. B) Eukaryotic cells have more intracellular organelles than prokaryotes. C) Prokaryotes are not able to carry out aerobic respiration, relying instead on anaerobic metabolism. D) Prokaryotes are generally larger than eukaryotes.
B) Eukaryotic cells have more intracellular organelles than prokaryotes.
After which checkpoint is the cell first committed to continue the cell cycle through M? A) G₀ B) G₁ C) G₂ D) S
B) G₁
The flow of electrons during photosynthesis? A) NADPH → O₂ → CO₂ B) H₂O → NADPH → Calvin cycle C) NADPH → chlorophyll → Calvin cycle D) H₂O → photosystem I → photosystem II E) NADPH → electron transport chain → O₂
B) H₂O → NADPH → Calvin cycle
Which of the following is true for all exergonic reactions? A) The products have more total energy than the reactants. B) The reaction proceeds with a net release of free energy. C) The reaction goes only in a forward direction: all reactants will be converted to products, but no products will be converted to reactants. D) A net input of energy from the surroundings is required for the reactions to proceed. E) The reactions are rapid.
B) The reaction proceeds with a net release of free energy.
The relationship between the wavelength of light and the quantity of energy per photon? A) They have a direct, linear relationship. B) They are inversely related. C) They are logarithmically related. D) They are separate phenomena.
B) They are inversely related.
Why are there several structurally different pigments in the reaction centers of photosystems? A) Excited electrons must pass through several pigments before they can be transferred to electron acceptors of the electron transport chain. B) This arrangement enables the plant to absorb light energy of a variety of wavelengths. C) They enable the plant to absorb more photons from light energy, all of which are at the same wavelength. D) They enable the reaction center to excite electrons to a higher energy level.
B) This arrangement enables the plant to absorb light energy of a variety of wavelengths.
What was the most significant conclusion that Gregor Mendel drew from his experiments with pea plants? A) There is considerable genetic variation in garden peas. B) Traits are inherited in discrete units, and are not the results of "blending." C) Recessive genes occur more frequently in the F₁ generation than do dominant ones. D) Genes are composed of DNA. E) An organism that is homozygous for many recessive traits is at a disadvantage.
B) Traits are inherited in discrete units, and are not the results of "blending."
An enzyme-catalyzed vs noncatalyzed reaction? The mechanism in which the end product of a metabolic inhibition A) metabolic inhibition B) feedback inhibition C) allosteric inhibition D) noncooperative inhibition
B) feedback inhibition
The active site of an enzyme is the region that _____. A) binds allosteric regulators of the enzyme. B) is involved in the catalytic reaction of the enzyme. C) binds noncompetitive inhibitors of the enzyme. D) is inhibited by the presence of a coenzyme or a cofactor.
B) is involved in the catalytic reaction of the enzyme.
The molecule that functions as the reducing agent (electron donor) in a redox or oxidation reduction reaction A) gains electrons and gains potential energy. B) loses electrons and loses potential energy. C) gains electrons and loses potential energy. D) loses electrons and gains potential energy. E) neither gains nor loses electrons, but gains or loses potential energy.
B) loses electrons and loses potential energy.
Codons are part of the molecular structure of _____? A) a protein B) mRNA C) tRNA D) rRNA
B) mRNA
Crossing over normally takes place during ______? A) meiosis II B) meiosis I C) mitosis D) mitosis and meiosis II
B) meiosis I
The ATP synthase complexes location in plants and animals? A) thylakoid membrane only B) plasma membrane only C) inner mitochondrial membrane only D) thylakoid membrane and inner mitochondrial membrane
B) plasma membrane only
What kinds of molecules pass through a cell membrane most easily? A) large and hydrophobic B) small and hydrophobic C) large polar D) ionic E) monosaccharides such as glucose
B) small and hydrophobic
The partial negative charge in a molecule of water occurs because____________. A) the oxygen atom acquires an additional electron. B) the electrons shared between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms spend more time around the oxygen atom nucleus than around the hydrogen atom nucleus. C) the oxygen atom has two pairs of electrons in its valence shell that are not neutralized by hydrogen atoms. D) the oxygen atom forms hybrid orbitals that distribute electrons unequally around the oxygen nucleus. E) one of the hydrogen atoms donates an electron to the oxygen atom.
B) the electrons shared between the oxygen and hydrogen atoms spend more time around the oxygen atom nucleus than around the hydrogen atom nucleus.
What is the most likely pathway taken by a newly synthesized protein that will be secreted by a cell? A. ER → Golgi → nucleus B. ER → Golgi → vesicles that fuse with plasma membrane C. Golgi → ER → lysosome D. ER → lysosomes → vesicles that fuse with plasma membrane
B. ER → Golgi → vesicles that fuse with plasma membrane
Domains:
Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
What are the three Domains?
Bacteria, Bacteria Archea, and Eukarya.
What species are still being discovered?
Bacteria, fungi, microorganisms, insects, nematodes (round worms), and sea creatures.
Complementary bases
Bases that bond in a complementary fashion; G to C and T to A (DNA); G to C and U to A (RNA).
Why is floating ice important?
Because ice forms on the surface of water. Ice can bet insulators and protective. (Ex. Ponds) Ice forms on top to bottom.
Peptide bond
Bond between amino acids.
Peptide
Bonds that connect amino acids.
Name the elements that are Trace Elements.
Boron, Chromium, cobalt, copper, fluorine, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, tin, vanadium, zinc.
A sodium-potassium pump-
Both sodium and potassium ions are transported against their concentration gradients.
Hydrolysis
Breaking down complex molecules (polymers) by the chemical addition of water. Used in digestion.
Fatty acid
Building Blocks of Lipids
Amino acid
Building blocks of protein
In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are composed of A) DNA and RNA B) DNA only C) DNA and proteins D) DNA and phospholipids
C) DNA and proteins
What is the reason that a modern transmission electron microscope (TEM) can resolve biologicalimages to the subnanometer level, as opposed to tens of nanometers achievable for the best super-resolution light microscope? A) The focal length of the electron microscope is significantly longer. B) Contrast is enhanced by staining with atoms of heavy metal. C) Electron beams have much shorter wavelengths than visible light. D) The electron microscope has a much greater ratio of image size to real size. E) The electron microscope cannot image whole cells at one time.
C) Electron beams have much shorter wavelengths than visible light.
Which of the following statements is correct about diffusion? A) It is very rapid over long distances. B) It requires an expenditure of energy by the cell. C) It is a passive process in which molecules move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. D) It is an active process in which molecules move from a region of lower concentration to one of higher concentration. E) It requires integral proteins in the cell membrane.
C) It is a passive process in which molecules move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
What is a major difference between mitosis and meiosis I in a diploid organism? A) Homologues align on the metaphase plate in meiosis II. B) Sister chromatids separate in mitosis, and homologues separate in meiosis II. C) Meiosis II occurs in a haploid cell, while mitosis occurs in diploid cells. D) Crossover takes place in meiosis II.
C) Meiosis II occurs in a haploid cell, while mitosis occurs in diploid cells.
When homologous chromosomes cross over, what occurs? A) Two chromatids get tangled, resulting in one re-sequencing its DNA. B) Two sister chromatids exchange identical pieces of DNA. C) Specific proteins break the two strands and re-join them with their homologs. D) Each of the four DNA strands of a tetrad is broken and the pieces are mixed. E) Maternal alleles are "corrected" to be like paternal alleles and vice versa.
C) Specific proteins break the two strands and re-join them with their homologs.
Which of the following statements describes the lysogenic cycle of lambda (λ) phage? A) After infection, the viral genes immediately turn the host cell into a lambda-producing factory, and the host cell then lyses. B) Most of the prophage genes are activated by the product of a particular prophage gene. C) The phage genome replicates along with the host genome. D) Certain environmental triggers can cause the phage to exit the host genome, switching from the lytic to the lysogenic. E) The phage DNA is incorporated by crossing over into any nonspecific site on the host cell's DNA.
C) The phage genome replicates along with the host genome.
Altering patterns of gene expression in prokaryotes would most likely serve the organismʹs survival in which of the following ways? A) organizing gene expression so that genes are expressed in a given order B) allowing each gene to be expressed an equal number of times C) allowing the organism to adjust to changes in environmental conditions D) allowing young organisms to respond differently from more mature organisms E) allowing environmental changes to alter the prokaryoteʹs genome
C) allowing the organism to adjust to changes in environmental conditions
Altering patterns of gene expression in prokaryotes would most likely serve the organismʹs survival in which of the following ways? A) organizing gene expression so that genes are expressed in a given order B) allowing each gene to be expressed an equal number of times C) allowing the organism to adjust to changes in environmental conditions D) allowing young organisms to respond differently from more mature organisms E) allowing environmental changes to alter the prokaryoteʹs genome ; DNA methylation and histone acetylation .
C) allowing the organism to adjust to changes in environmental conditions
In yeast signal transduction, a yeast cell releases a mating factor which? A) acts back on the same cell that secreted the mating factor, changing its development B) passes through the membranes of neighboring cells, binds to DNA, and initiates transcription C) binds to receptors on the membranes of other types of yeast cells D) diffuses through the membranes of distant cells, causing them to produce factors that initiate long-distance migrations
C) binds to receptors on the membranes of other types of yeast cells
Plasmodesmata in plant cells are most similar in function to which of the following structures in animal cells? A) peroxisomes B) desmosomes C) gap junctions D) extracellular matrix E) tight junctions
C) gap junctions
Eukaryotic telomeres replicate differently than the rest of the chromosome.This is a consequence of which of the following? A) the evolution of telomerase enzyme B) DNA polymerase that cannot replicate the leading strand template to its 5' end C) gaps left at the 5' end of the lagging strand D) gaps left at the 3' end of the lagging strand because of the need for a primer E) the "no ends" of a circular chromosome
C) gaps left at the 5' end of the lagging strand
The advantage of light microscopy over electron microscopy is that _____. A) light microscopy provides for higher magnification than electron microscopy. B) light microscopy provides for higher resolving power than electron microscopy. C) light microscopy allows one to view dynamic processes in living cells. D) light microscopy provides higher contrast than electron microscopy. E) specimen preparation for light microcopy does not produce artifacts.
C) light microscopy allows one to view dynamic processes in living cells.
Translation requires _____? A) mRNA, tRNA, DNA, and rRNA B) mRNA, DNA, and rRNA C) mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA D) mRNA, tRNA, and DNA
C) mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
In receptor-mediated endocytosis, receptor molecules initially project to the outside of the cell. Where do they end up after endocytosis? A) on the outside of vesicles B) on the inside surface of the cell membrane C) on the inside surface of the vesicle D) on the outer surface of the nucleus E) on the ER
C) on the inside surface of the vesicle
Local signaling in which a cell secretes a signal molecule that affects neighboring cells? A) hormonal signaling B) autocrine signaling C) paracrine signaling D) synaptic signaling
C) paracrine signaling
Large numbers of ribosomes are present in cells that specialize in producing which of the following molecules? A) lipids B) starches C) proteins D) steroids E) glucose
C) proteins
In a bacterium, we will find DNA in _____. A) a membrane-enclosed nucleus B) mitochondria C) the nucleoid D) ribosomes
C) the nucleoid
The electrons of photosystem II are excited and transferred to electron carriers. From which molecule or structure do the photosystem II replacement electrons come? A) the electron carrier, plastocyanin B) photosystem I C) water D) oxygen
C) water
Monosaccharide Triose: Three-Carbon Sugar
C3H6O3 Glyceraldehyde
Monosaccharide Pentose: Five-Carbon Sugar
C5H10O5 - Ribose
What is the unit for Glucose?
C6H12O6
Monosaccharide Hexoses: Six-Carbon Sugar
C6H12O6 - Glucose or Fructose.
What elements make up 3.7% of the human body?
Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sulfur, Sodium, Chlorine, and Magnesium.
Microparticle gun
Can be used to fire DNA into a cell on an inert molecule (gold or tungsten)
Element
Cannot be broken down to something smaller.
Chitin
Carbohydrates used arthropods (insects, spiders, crustaceans, and related animals) to build exoskeletons- hard cases that surround the soft parts of these animals.
Carbon
Carbohydrates, build life, (carbon and hydrogen). Can be used to store energy. It can form bonds with four other things.
What are the main classes of large molecules that are critically important of all living things?
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
What element is tetravalent?
Carbon
Isotopes Example
Carbon 12 = 6 protons, 6 neutrons 13= 6 protons, 7 neutrons 14= 6 protons, 8 neutrons
What makes up 96% of human matter?
Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Hydrogen.
organic compounds
Carbon, hydrogen , Oxygen, Nitrogen -play crucial role in living processes
what are the 4 macromolecules; they are all what
Carbs Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids (ALL ORGANIC)
Paradigm Shift
Change in the way of thinking in biology.
Buffer
Changes in the concentration of H+ and OH- in a solution. Body maintains H2CO3 acid when PH is too high. HCO3 base when it is too low.
Attraction
Charges on amino acids that move towards each other (positive and negative)
Who is the father of evolution
Charles Darwin
Functional Group
Chemical groups affect molecular function by being directly involved in chemical reactions.
Enzymes
Chemical mechanism by which cells make and break down polymers.
Biochemical reaction
Chemical reactions that take place inside the cells of living things.
Hormone
Chemicals produced by endocrine glands that are involved in communication.
Triglyceride
Circulate in the blood and are made up of three fatty acids attached to a glycerol.
Cis-trans isomers
Cis - side to side Trans - opposite sides
Protein
Class of nutrients made up of amino acids. They are needed to build and repair body structures, and to regulate processes in the body
Inductive Reasoning
Collecting and analyzing observations can lead to important conclusions based on a type of logic.
Quaternary Structure
Combination of 2 or more polypeptide.overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains of carious amino acids. ( collagen, hemoglobin)
Facts that demonstrate that evolution only modifies existing structures.
Common ancestors- evolution ONLY changes existing structures Descent with modification- all organisms are related to a common ancestor descendants spread to different habitats and acquired adaptations to match their environment, evolution is typically a gradual process, modifies only existing structures
Comparative anatomy
Comparing body structures of organisms to determine their evolutionary relationships.
Anticodon
Complementary to the codon on the mRNA - it is at the bottom of a tRNA molecule.
Hydrogen
Component of water, human body is 80% of water. Cells too. It is the most abundant element because there is a lot of it. Its part water.
Organic
Compounds that contain carbon and are part of living things.
Isomers
Compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same element but different structures hence different properties. (Same number of elements, but when re arranged different, it creates a different thing)
Disaccharide
Consists of two monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkage, a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by dehydration reaction.
Fats
Constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: glycerol and fatty acids. They are triacuglycerol.It is a 3 carbon molecule and dehydration synthesis can work 3 times.
Eukaryotic Cell
Contains membranes-enclosed organelles. Has nucleus and it is membranous.
Semi-conservative replication
Copying where the strands both contain one copy of the original DNA, and one copy of new DNA.
Pseudo Science
Cryptozoology, paranormal, big foot, lochness monster.
In C4 and CAM plants carbon dioxide is fixed in the _____ of mesophyll cells.
Cytoplasm
What are the members of the pyrimidine family?
Cytosine, thymine, and uracil.
Approximately how many molecules of ATP are produced from the complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose (C6H12O6) in aerobic cellular respiration? A) 2 B) 4 C) 18-24 D) 30-32
D) 30-32
Which of the following is a characteristic of the lytic cycle? A) Many bacterial cells containing viral DNA are produced. B) Viral DNA is incorporated into the host genome. C) The viral genome replicates without destroying the host. D) A large number of phages are released at a time. E) The virus-host relationship usually lasts for generations.
D) A large number of phages are released at a time.
Which polysaccharide is an important component in the structure of many animals and fungi? A) Cellulose B) Amylose C) Amylopectin D) Chitin
D) Chitin
Two potential devices that eukaryotic cells use to regulate transcription are A) DNA methylation and histone amplification. B) DNA amplification and histone methylation. C) DNA acetylation and methylation. D) DNA methylation and histone acetylation. E) histone amplification and DNA acetylation
D) DNA methylation and histone acetylation.
What does it mean when we say the genetic code is redundant? A) A single codon can specify the addition of more than one amino acid. B) The genetic code is different for different domains of organisms. C) The genetic code is universal (the same for all organisms). D) More than one codon can specify the addition of the same amino acid.
D) More than one codon can specify the addition of the same amino acid.
Why did the F1 offspring of Mendel's classic pea cross always look like one of the two parental varieties? A) No genes interacted to produce the parental phenotype. B) Each allele affected phenotypic expression. C) The traits blended together during fertilization. D) One phenotype was completely dominant over another.
D) One phenotype was completely dominant over another.
In living systems molecules involved in hydrogen bonding almost always contain either oxygen or nitrogen or both. How do you explain this phenomenon? A) Oxygen and nitrogen are elements found in fats and carbohydrates B) Oxygen and nitrogen are elements found in both nucleic acids and proteins C) Oxygen and nitrogen were both components of gases that made up the early atmosphere on Earth D) Oxygen and nitrogen are elements with very attractions for their electrons
D) Oxygen and nitrogen are elements with very attractions for their electrons
In what way are elements in the same column of the periodic table the same? They have the same number of ___________. A) They have the same number of protons. B) They have the same number of neutrons. C) They have the same number of electrons. D) They have the same number of electrons in their valence shell. E) They have the same number of electron shells.
D) They have the same number of electrons in their valence shell.
P680+ is said to be the strongest biological oxidizing agent. Given its function, why is this necessary? A) It is the receptor for the most excited electron in either photosystem. B) It is the molecule that transfers electrons to plastoquinone (Pq) of the electron transfer system. C) It transfers its electrons to reduce NADP⁺ to NADPH. D) This molecule has a stronger attraction for electrons than oxygen, to obtain electrons from water. E) It has a positive charge.
D) This molecule has a stronger attraction for electrons than oxygen, to obtain electrons from water.
Cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) is_____? A) inactive, or "turned off," in the presence of cyclin B) present only during the S phase of the cell cycle C) the enzyme that catalyzes the attachment of chromosomes to microtubules D) an enzyme that attaches phosphate groups to other proteins
D) an enzyme that attaches phosphate groups to other proteins
About twenty-five of the ninety-two natural elements are known to be essential to life. Which four of these twenty-five elements make up approximately 96 percent of living matter? A) carbon, sodium, hydrogen, nitrogen B) carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, hydrogen C) oxygen, hydrogen, calcium, nitrogen D) carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
D) carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
Genomic imprinting, DNA methylation, and histone acetylation are all examples of A) genetic mutation. B) chromosomal rearrangements. C) karyotypes. D) epigenetic phenomena. E) translocation.
D) epigenetic phenomena.
In a plant cell, DNA may be found A) only in the nucleus. B) only in the nucleus and mitochondria. C) only in the nucleus and chloroplasts. D) in the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts. E) in the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes.
D) in the nucleus, mitochondria, and chloroplasts.
Charles Darwin proposed a mechanism for descent with modification that stated that organisms of a particular species are adapted to their environment when they possess _____. A) non-inheritable traits that enhance their survival in the local environment. B) non-inheritable traits that enhance their reproductive success in the local environment. C) non-inheritable traits that enhance their survival and reproductive success in the local environment. D) inheritable traits that enhance their survival and reproductive success in the local environment. E) inheritable traits that decrease their survival and reproductive success in the local environment.
D) inheritable traits that enhance their survival and reproductive success in the local environment.
Binding of a signaling molecule to which type of receptor leads directly to a change in the distribution of ions on opposite sides of the membrane? A) receptor tyrosine kinase B) G protein-coupled receptor C) phosphorylated receptor tyrosine kinase dimer D) ligand-gated ion channel E) intracellular receptor
D) ligand-gated ion channel
Singer and Nicolson's fluid mosaic model of the membrane proposed that membranes_____. A) membranes are a phospholipid bilayer. B) membranes are a phospholipid bilayer between two layers of hydrophilic proteins. C) membranes are a single layer of phospholipids and proteins. D) membranes consist of protein molecules embedded in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids. E) membranes consist of a mosaic of polysaccharides and proteins.
D) membranes consist of protein molecules embedded in a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
Which structure is common to plant and animal cells? A) chloroplast B) wall made of cellulose C) central vacuole D) mitochondrion E) centriole
D) mitochondrion
Which of the following processes includes all others? A) osmosis B) diffusion of a solute across a membrane C) facilitated diffusion D) passive transport E) transport of an ion down its electrochemical gradient
D) passive transport
One of the major categories of receptors in the plasma membrane reacts by forming dimers, adding phosphate groups, and then activating relay proteins. Which type does this? A) G protein-coupled receptors B) ligand-gated ion channels C) steroid receptors D) receptor tyrosine kinases
D) receptor tyrosine kinases
When a neuron responds to a particular neurotransmitter by opening gated ion channels, the neurotransmitter is serving as which part of the signal pathway? A) receptor B) relay molecule C) transducer D) signal molecule E) endocrine molecule
D) signal molecule
The atomic mass of an element allows inferences about .....? A) the chemical properties of the element B) the number of protons in the element C) the number of neutrons in the element D) the number of protons plus neutrons in the element E) both the number of protons and the chemical properties of the element
D) the number of protons plus neutrons in the element
What event accompanies energy absorption by chlorophyll (or other pigment molecules of the antenna complex A. ATP is synthesized from the energy absorbed. B. A carboxylation reaction of the Calvin cycle occurs. C. Electrons are stripped from NADPH. D. An electron is excited.
D. An electron is excited.
what are genes made up of?
DNA
transcription
DNA (gene/genotype) ----> mRNA
what composed chromosomes
DNA and proteins (histone proteins=eukaryotic ; nonhistone proteins=prokaryotic)
Gene Expression
DNA directs RNA synthesis and through RNA, controls protein synthesis.
DNA Statement 1
DNA is a molecule of inheretence.
DNA Statement 4
DNA is the only physical entity that will be passed on through generations.
Non-coding
DNA that does not code for a protein - is highly variable between individuals.
The central dogma:he two-step process, transcription and translation, by which the information in genes flows into proteins:
DNA → RNA → protein.
What was Charles Darwins important theory?
Decent with modification, which means a change overtime.
Scientific Journal Board
Decide what passes as real science.
what reaction builds a polymer? Is water molecule added or removed?
Dehydration/Condensation; water is removed to form chemical bonds
What are two types of nucleic acids?
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid - double stranded and found in the nucleus of the cell.
Genome
Describes all the genetic material. (A Library)
DNA sequencing
Determining the actual sequence of bases in a DNA strand.
Isotope
Different atomic forms of the same element.
Diploid cells-
Diploid cells contain two complete sets (2n) of chromosomes.Diploid cells reproduce by mitosis making daughter cells that are exact replicas.
what are the 3 domains & info about them
Domain Bacteria- unicellular, prokaryotes Domain Archaea- unicellular, prokaryotes Domain Eukarya- multicellular (some unicellular), eukaryotes
Hydrogen Bond
Drawn as a dashed line. They are usually weak and almost always with a negative charge. They form within water molecules.
Prokaryotes are classified as belonging to two different domains. What are the domains? A) Bacteria and Eukarya B) Archaea and Monera C) Eukarya and Monera D) Bacteria and Protista E) Bacteria and Archaea
E) Bacteria and Archaea
Phosphofructokinase is an important control enzyme in the regulation of cellular respiration. Which of the following statements correctly describes phosphofructokinase activity? A) It is inhibited by AMP. B) It is activated by ATP. C) It is activated by citrate, an intermediate of the citric acid cycle. D) It catalyzes the conversion of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate, an early step of glycolysis. E) It is an allosteric enzyme.
E) It is an allosteric enzyme.
46) All cell cycle checkpoints are similar in which way? A) They respond to the same cyclins. B) They utilize the same Cdks. C) They give the go-ahead signal to progress to the next checkpoint. D) They each have only one cyclin/Cdk complex. E) They activate or inactivate other proteins.
E) They activate or inactivate other proteins.
Which term most precisely describes the cellular process of breaking down large molecules into smaller ones? A) catalysis B) metabolism C) anabolism D) dehydration E) catabolism
E) catabolism
Ions can travel directly from the cytoplasm of one animal cell to the cytoplasm of an adjacent cell through A) plasmodesmata. B) intermediate filaments. C) tight junctions. D) desmosomes. E) gap junctions.
E) gap junctions.
Which organelle is the primary site of ATP synthesis in eukaryotic cells? A) Golgi apparatus B) lysosome C) peroxisome D) vacuole E) mitochondrion
E) mitochondrion
Which of the following is an example of polygenic inheritance? A) pink flowers in snapdragons B) the ABO blood group in humans C) Huntington's disease in humans D) white and purple flower color in peas E) skin pigmentation in humans
E) skin pigmentation in humans
The primary function of the Calvin cycle A) use ATP to release carbon dioxide B) use NADPH to release carbon dioxide C) split water and release oxygen D) transport RuBP out of the chloroplast E) synthesize simple sugars from carbon dioxide
E) synthesize simple sugars from carbon dioxide
The host range of a virus is determined by ________. A) the enzymes carried by the virus. B) whether its nucleic acid is DNA or RNA. C) the proteins in the host's cytoplasm. D) the enzymes produced by the virus before it infects the cell. E) the proteins on its surface and that of the host.
E) the proteins on its surface and that of the host.
Cohesion
Emergent Properties. An attraction between two things that are similar or alike. (Ex. Water molecules sticking to the sides of the tube).
The first law of thermodynamics-
Energy cannot be created nor destroyed
Helicase
Enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication forks.
Phospholipids
Essential for cells because they are major constituents of cell membranes. Similar to a fat molecule but has only two fatty acids attached to glycerol rather than three.
What is C2H6? (carbon skeleton)
Ethane
Domain Eukarya-
Eukaryotes, have nuclear membrane. Include Kingdom Protista, Kingdom fungi, Kingdom, Plantae, and Kingdom Animalia.
5. Adapted to their environment. (Life)
Evolution
What was the mechanism for natural selection?
Evolution.
Charles Darwin
Evolutionary Theory
Carbohydrate
"Compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in the approximate ratio of C:2H:O (e.g., sugars, starches, and cellulose)"
charles lyell
"Principles of Geology" emphasized natural law.
covalent bond rules
(H2) 1. has no net charge: the diatomic molecule formed as a result of this sharing of electrons is not charged because it still contains two protons and two electrons 2. the octet rule is satisfied: each of the two hydrogen atoms can be considered to have two orbiting electrons in its outer energy level. this state satisfies the octet rule, because each shared electron orbits both nuclei and is included in the outer energy level of both atoms 3. it has no unpaired electrons: the bonds between the two atoms also pairs the two free electrons
in what way is starch different from cellulose? (a 1-4 or B 1-4?)
(a 1-4) starches: made up of alpha glucose (B 1-4) cellulose- made up of beta glucose
Which of the following can be attributed to water's high specific heat? (a) A water molecule can make 4 hydrogen bonds. (b) The water molecule has exceptionally strong covalent bonds. (c) Water temperature is exceptionally sensitive to heat.
(a) A water molecule can make 4 hydrogen bonds.
give examples of the 6 functions of proteins
(catalyst) ex: enzyme (structural support ex: keratin, collagen (storage) ex: ovalbumin, casein (coordination) ex: insulin (hormone) (transport) ex: hemoglobin (movement) ex: actin & myosin (defense) ex: antibodies (receptors) ex: receptors in nerve cells
Methyl Group
-CH3 Methylated Compound (Ex. 5-Methylcystosine)
Carbonxyl Group
-COOH Organic Acids (Ex. Acetic Acid, Ionized form found in cells)
Amino Group
-NH2 Amine (Ex. Glycine, ionized form found in cells)
Hydroxyl Group
-OH Alcohol (Ex Ethanol)
Phosphate Group
-OPO32- Organic phosphate (Ex. Glycerol Phosphate)
Sulfhydryl Group
-SH Thiol (Ex. Cysteine)
electrons determine the chemical behavior of atoms
-almost all of the volume of an atom is empty space -electrons futher away from the nucleus are more powerful
non-equilibrium state
-living systems are open systems -all types of life need energy - constant supply of energy needed -self-organized properties at different levels
What temperature does ice float on water?
0 Degrees
What are the numbers of the Ph Scale?
0-14
What numbers in the Ph Scale are acids?
0-7
how many amu's will hydrogen always have?
1
What is the specific heat change of water?
1 calorie per 1 gram
monosaccharides
1 sugar glucose, fructose, galactose
PH 3 to 6 more alkaline
1,000 times, 10 x 10 x 10
two kinds of nucleic acids?
1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 2. RNA (ribonucleic acid)
Scientific Method
1. Observation 2. Critical Thinking 3. Hypothesis 4. Conduct an Experiment (most important) 5. Results 6. Conclusion 7. Theory
who were the 3 people credited for cell theory?
1. Theodore Schwann 2. Matthias Schleiden 3. Rodulf Virchow
what are the groups that composed an amino acid?
1. a (alpha) carbon 2. amino group 3 carboxyl group 4. R group
the cell theory states that....
1. all organisms are composed of one or more cells 2. cells are the basic living unit of structure and function in organisms. 3. all cells come only from other cells
macromolecules and their building blocks?
1. carbs/polysaccharides; simple sugars, monosaccharides 2. proteins/polypeptides; amino acids 3. nucleic acids/polynucleotides; (mono)nucleotides 4. fats/lipids; glycerol and fatty acids
7 characteristics shared by living organisms
1. cellular organization 2. ordered complexity 3. sensitivity 4. growth, development, and reproduction 5. energy utilization 6. homeostasis 7. evolutionary adaptation
what are examples of structural polysaccharides
1. cellulose
functions of proteins
1. enzyme catalysis 2. defense 3. transport 4. support 5. motion 6. regulation 7. storage
properties of water
1. high specific heat (4.18 joules) 2. high heat vaporization 3. solid water is less dense than liquid water 4. water is a good solvent 5. water organizes nonpolar molecules (hydrophobic, hydrophilic) 6. water can form ions
What were the three observations of Darwin from nature
1. individuals in a population vary in their traits many of which are heritable 2. More offspring are produced than survive, and competition is inevitable 3. species generally suit their environment for survival
5 common themes
1. levels of biological organization 2. expression & transmission of genetic info 3. transfer and transformation of energy and matter 4. interaction with other organisms and their physical environment 5. evolution accounts for the unity and diversity of life
3 types of carbs
1. monosaccharides 2. disaccharide 3. polysaccharide
types of symbiosis
1. mutualism 2. commensalism 3. parasitism
5 chemical classes based on R group
1. non-polar (hydrophobic) amino acids often contain -CH2 or -CH3 2. polar (hydrophilic) uncharged amino acids have R groups that contain oxygen or -OH 3. charged amino acids have R group that contain acids or bases that can be ionized 4. aromatic amino acids contain R group that have organic (carbon) ring with alternating single bond and double bonds 5. amino acids that have special function can link chains together
3 functions of carbs
1. nutrients- source of energy & carbon (to make more cells) 2. storage- for sources of nutrients 3. structural support- cells uses carbs for support
5 scientific steps for solving
1. observation 2. hypothesis 3. experimentation 4. results 5. conclusion
steps of scientific method
1. observation- use 5 senses 2. Ask questions- what do you wanna learn? 3. hypothesis formation- scientific guess 4. prediction- if/then statements 5. experimentation- step-by-step method, must be able to test hypothesis 6. results & discussion- analyze data 7. conclusion- was the hypothesis correct or incorrect?
name some factors that affect the structure of proteins
1. pH 2. temperature 3. salt concentration
Darwin's book's main points
1. species showed evidence of "descent with modification" from common ancestors 2. Natural selection is the mechanism behind "descent with modification"
what are examples of storage polysaccharides
1. starch (in plants) 2. glycogen (in animals)
what are two types of polysaccharides?
1. storage polysaccharides 2. structural polysaccharides
3 important factors of chemical reactions
1. temperature 2. concentration of reactants and products 3. catalysts
How many molecules are in a drop of water?
1.5 sextillions
How many species have been identified?
1.8 million
PH 12 to 10
100 times, 10 x 10
PH 7 to 9 reduced H+
100 times, 10 x 10
percentage of carbon in the body
18.5%
disaccharide
2 sugars sucrose, maltose, lactose
Quaternary protein structure
2+ protein chains forming functional protein
How many amino acids are known?
20
how many different kinds of amino acids make up a protein?
20 amino acids
amino acids
20 different types contain amino group and hydroxyl group l-amino acids are found in proteins d-amino acids are rare
What is the percentage of the earths oxygen?
20-21%
How many elements are found in living things?
25
Polysaccharide
3 or more monosaccharides; formed by dehydration reactions; a polymer of up to over a thousand monosaccharides; role: storage of chemical energy and structural support
percentage of nitrogen in the body
3%
when did life start on earth
3.5 billion years ago
What is water the most dense at?
4 Degrees
cholesterol has
4 interconnected rings
nucleotides are made up of
5 carbon sugars, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group
What is the normal rain percipitation ph?
5.2
What PH is considered acid rain?
5.2 and below.
What is the average temperature of water in the ocean?
57 Degrees.
galactose
6 carbon sugar found in dairy, steroisomer of glucose
fructose
6 carbon sugar found in fruit, structural isomer of glucose
glucose
6 carbon sugar found in plants and animals
percentage of oxygen in the body
65%
What number in the Ph Scale is neutral?
7
What numbers in the Ph Scale are bases?
7-14
What is the normal PH in blood?
7.4 but can range from 7.2 to 7.6
How much water covers the worlds surface?
75%
percentage of hydrogen in the body
9.5%
How many elements does nature have?
92
Carbonyl Group
>C=O Ketone, Aldehyde (Ex. Acetone, Propanal)
Ligase
A 'glue' that sticks back together restriction fragments.
Nucleic acid
A biological macromolecule (DNA or RNA) composed of the elements C, H, N, O, and P that carries genetic information.
Protein
A biologically functional molecule made up of one or more polypeptides folded and coiled into a specific three dimensional structure.
Somatic
A body cell (not egg or sperm).
Ionic Bonds-
A bond formed when atoms with opposite electrical charges attract
Covalent Bonds-
A bond formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons
Nucleotide
A building block of a nucleic acid - a sugar that is strongly bonded to a base and a phosphate group.
Hereditary
A characteristic that is passed on through generations from parent to offspring.
Dehydration synthesis
A chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule.
Chemical messenger
A chemical that moves between cells to communicate between them.
Plasmid
A circular piece of DNA or RNA from a bacteria or yeast - a gene of interests can be added using ligase and restriction enzymes, and then it can be put into cells.
Chromatin
A combination of the DNA (not condensed) and proteins that form the chromosomes.
What is C5H10O5 Ribose?
A component of RNA.
Organic Compound
A compound containing carbon, furthermore, almost all organic compounds associated with life contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon atoms.
Glycosidic Linkage
A covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by dehydration reaction.
Saturated fatty acid
A fatty acid with a carbon chain full of hydrogen atoms, meaning no carbon-carbon double bonds; usually from animal sources and solid at room temperature.
Unsaturated fatty acid
A fatty acid with a carbon chain that includes one or more carbon-carbon double bonds; usually from plant sources and liquid at room temperature. Monounsaturated fatty acids have one carbon-carbon double bond and polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more double bonds.
Amino group
A functional group that consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms
Reduction
A gain of electrons from the particular reactant.
Molecule
A group of atoms joined together by strong bonds.
Common ancestor
A group of organisms share common descent (history) if they have a common ancestor.
Polymer
A large molecule composed of repeating structural units or monomers.
Polymer
A long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds, much as a train consists of a chain of cars.
Surface Tension.
A meaner of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of liquid.
Electrophoresis
A method by which DNA is added to a porous gel and an electrical current is put across it - as DNA is negatively charged, it will move away from the negative electrode - the distance it moves depends on the size.
Karyotype
A method of organising the chromosomes of a cell in relation to their number (a picture of the chromosomes).
Electroporation
A method to inject genes into cells - an electrical pulse method where DNA is delivered directly into the cells.
Solution
A mixture of two or more substances.
Disaccharide
A molecule composed of two monosaccharides. Common disaccharides include maltose, sucrose, and lactose.
Monomer
A molecule of any compound that can react with other molecules of the same or different compound to form a polymer. Each biological macromolecule has characteristic monomers.
synthesis
to make or assemble
The electron transport chain:
transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions
C4 plants differ from CAM plants and C3 plants in that C4 plants_______.
transfer fixed carbon dioxide to cells in which the Calvin cycle occurs
what is the other name of fat?
triacylglycerol (3 glycerol)
components of lipids
triglyceride and phospholipid
fats and oils are
triglycerides
subcategories of lipids
triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids
stasis
unchanging
polar covalent bonds
unequal sharing of electrons
characteristics of domain archaea
unicellular, prokaryotic, live in extreme environments without the presents of oxygen
at least one double bond between carbons
unsaturated
ana-
up
why is the cell small and what limits the size of the cell?
upper limit is determined by: surface area:volume ratio (SA/V) lower limit is determined by: smallest amount of DNA, Ribosomes, and enzymes (all support life)
Found only in RNA
uracil
number of electrons in an atom's outermost valance shell
valance number
hot spots of positive or negative charge when electrons are not equally distributed
van der waals interactions
low electronegativity means it
wants to bond
example of a polar covalent bond
water
hydrophobic
water fearing, does not dissolve in water
hydrophilic
water loving, will dissolve in water
adhesion
water molecules stick to other polar molecules by hydrogen bonding
mole
weight of a substance in grams that correspond to the atomic masses of all of the atoms in a molecule of that substance
compound
when a molecule contains atoms of more than one element
denaturation
when a proteins environment is altered causing the protein to change its shape or even unfold completely -pH -temperature -ionic concentration solutions
Polymerization
when monomers are added to the chain, making a polymer
redox reaction
when processes of oxidation and reduction are coupled periodic table displays elements according to valence electrons
renaturation
when the protein environment is normal after denaturation
covalent bonds
when two atoms share one or more pairs of valence electrons
characteristics phosphate
will always have a negative charge; potential to allows water to break bonds and release a lot of energy
inorganic compounds; examples
with carbon or without hydrocarbon bonds; carbon dioxide (CO2), salt (NaCl)
Exergonic vs endergonic reactions-
Exergonic reaction a chemical reaction that releases energy. Endergonic reactions yield products that are rich in potential energy.
Lipids
Fats, phospholipids, and steroids. They are hydrophobic and non-polar. Not polymers.
Applied Research
Follows basic research
Ph is a logorhythmic
For Every whole number difference on the Ph Scale. There is a 10 times fold difference in H+ ion concentration.
Antigen
Foreign or non-self molecules that are embedded in the membrane of cells.
Basic Research
Gaining knowledge about something we don't know about.
Monosaccharides
Generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH2O.
7. Genome (Life)
Genetic library of information.
DNA
Genetic material that organisms inherit from their parents.
Species
Groups of individuals that can interbreed. (offsprings) (Ex. homosapians, sapiens). They have immutable changes through time because they adapt to the enviroment.
Charles Robert Darwin
HMS Beagle ship studies finches Galapagos Islands "On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" proposed concept od natural selection
Haploid cells-
Haploid cells have half the number of chromosomes (n) as diploid - i.e. a haploid cell contains only one complete set of chromosomes. Haploid cells are a result of the process of meiosis
Fatty Acid
Has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16 or 18 carbon atoms in length.
Matter
Has mass and takes up space.
Unsaturated Fat
Has one or more double bonds, with one fewer hydrogen atom on each double-bonded carbon. Liquids at room temperature and they come from plants. They become more fluid than the saturated fats.
Pyramidine
Has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms.
Hydrophobic
Hates water. Non polar and non charged.
Saturated fats-
Have only on single covalent bonds between C atoms (Ex: Palmitic Acid)
Helix
Helical (curly) structure that polypeptide chains fold into (secondary protein structure).
Electronegativity
Highly attraction for electrons.
Methylation vs. histone acetylation-
Histone acetylation is associated with gene expression; DNA methylation is associated with lack of expression
12. Regulation (Life)
Homeostasis
Evolutionary relationship
How closely related species are in their history.
Rate of reaction
How quickly a reaction happens.
Macromolecules
Huge molecules that weight 100,000 daltons.
what reaction breaks a polymer? is water molecule added or removed?
Hydrolysis/digestion; water is added to break chemical bonds
What are the seven most important biological processes?
Hydroxyl, carbonyl, Carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, and methyl groups.They are all hydrophilic (except for sulfhydryl).
Nucleotides
In general, is composed of 3 parts: a nitrogen-containing base, a five-carbon sugar ( a pentose), and one to three phosphate groups.
Deductive vs inductive reasoning.
Inductive reasoning derives generalizations from specific cases and deductive reasoning predicts specific outcomes from general premises.
Nucleic Acids
Information carriers. The monomers are called nuclei tides. These are the monomers.
Junk Science
Information to convice you. A testimonial to try to make you buy things. (politicians, global warming, lawyers).
Valence Electrons
Involved in chemical bonds. The outer ring electrons.
Deductive Reasoning
Involves logic that flows in the opposite direction, from general to specific.
Nitrogen
Is abundant in the atmosphere. Amino Acids are the building blocks of protein.
Isotopes vs isomers.
Isotopes- Atoms with the same atomic number and different atomic masses are referred to as isotopes. Isomers- one of two or more molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures thus different properties.
Why is carbon so important in biology?
It can form a variety of carbon skeletons and host functional groups
Which of the following statements is the reason why water is a good solvent?
It dissolves more substances than any other liquid.Water molecules have a polar arrangement of the oxygen and hydrogen atoms—one side (hydrogen) has a positive electrical charge and the other side (oxygen) had a negative charge. This allows the water molecule to become attracted to many other different types of molecules. Water can become so heavily attracted to a different molecule, like salt (NaCl), that it can disrupt the attractive forces that hold the sodium and chloride in the salt molecule together and, thus, dissolve it.
What does C6H12O6 glucose or fructose do?
It is an energy source for organism.
3. ATP (Life)
It is the energy currency.
What is a characteristic of carbon?
It is versatile and the fundamental building block.
Hydrolysis
It means water breakage. Opposite of Dehydration Reaction. .
How many calories does it take to evaporate one gram of water?
It takes 580 calories to evaporate 1 g of water. It takes a lot of energy and it is a good thing. It can also be used to cool our bodies.
Vitalism
Knew what was alive and what wasn't but not sure what it is.
Base A
Known as "adenine". It is one of the bases in DNA and RNA - binds to thymine using double bonds in DNA (or uracil in RNA)
Base C
Known as "cytosine". It is a base in DNA and RNA which binds in a complementary fashion to guanine.
Base G
Known as "guanine". It is one of the bases in DNA / RNA that bonds in a complementary fashion to C or cytosine, forming a triple bond.
Base T
Known as "thymine". It is one of the bases in DNA that binds to adenine in a complementary fashion with double bonds.
Base U
Known as "uracil". It is a base in RNA that binds with adenine.
tRNA
Known as Transfer RNA, they are RNA molecules that functions as an interpreter between nucleic acid (RNA) and protein language - it matches anticodons with the codons on mRNA and places an amino acid in a growing polypeptide chain.
Prokaryotic Cell
Lacks nucleus or other membrane enclosed organelles. No nucleus, smaller, bacteria, no organelle.
Steroids
Large lipids that are functional molecules.
Purines
Larger, with six-membered ring fused to five-membered ring.
Steroids
Lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.
Wax
Lipids that are produced by plants and animals, acting as a protective layer (eg. Waxy cuticle on the surface of leaves).
What are the three different states of water?
Liquid, Vapor (gas), and solid.
Oxidation
Loss of electrons from the particular reactant.
Hydrophilic
Loves water, normally positively charged. Polar substance attracts polar substance.
Polysaccharides
Macromolecules, polymers with a few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined by glycosidic linkages.
Starch
Made of glucose units linked together - plants store reserves of starch that can be broken down to glucose when required.
2. Energy (Life)
Mainting order. Process energy. (Ex. Photosynthesis, Cellular Respiration).
Phospholipids
Major structural component of cell membranes (arrange themselves in a double layer because of their heads and tails)
DNA replication
Making copies of the DNA in the nucleus when the cell is copying itself.
what of the sugar is least common in nature and is present in germinating grains?
Maltose
Clone
Many copies of a gene that are usually made by injecting the gene into bacteria that multiply rapidly.
What is CH4? (carbon skeleton)
Methane
Enantiomers
Mirrored images.
DNA mutations:
Missense mutation, Nonsense mutation, Insertion,Deletion,Duplication,frameshift, expansion
Lock and key model
Model that demonstrates how a substrate and enzyme fit together.
Dehydration Reaction
Monomers are connected by a reaction in which two molecules are covalent bonded to each there, with the loss of a water molecule.
10. Communication (Life)
Must be able to communicate with each other.
11. Movement (Life)
Must be able to move.
9. Reproduction (Life)
Must be able to reproduce.
8. Cells (Life)
Must be composed of cells.
How is a cell formed in a functional way?
Must contain protein, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
6. DNA (Life)
Must posses DNA. DNA is a self replication cell but it is not a living cell.
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide flavin adenine dinucleotide
NAD+ FAD both molecules function as electron carriers in a variety of cellular processes
Electrons
Negative charges.
Anion
Negatively charged ions.
If I measured the pH of a liquid and it was 2, which of the following statements would be true of that liquid? A solution contains 0.0000001 (10-7) moles of hydroxyl ions [OH-] per liter. Which of the following best describes this solution?
Neutral
The number of neutrons, protons and electrons.
Neutrons- a subatomic particle that has no charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom Proton- a subatomic particle that has a positive charge and that is found in the nucleus of an atom. Electron- a subatomic particle that has a negative charge
What builds the interior of DNA?
Nitrogenous bases.
Saturated Fatty Acid
No double bonds between carbon atoms composing a chain, then as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton. Typically solids at room temperature. Such as butter, lard, and bacon grease. (Most come from animal) There is no space between the chain and it is highly packed.
Virus
Non-living entities, can make copies of themselves (replications) but are not composed of cells.
Polynucleotides
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that exists as polymers.
Levels of organization of chromatin?
Nucleosome, 30-nm chromatin fiber, looped domain
What is a telomere?
Nucleotide sequences at the ends of DNA molecules
Which answer correctly ranks the atoms in terms of decreasing electronegativity (the highest electronegativity first)? N, O, H, C
O, N, C, H
What is an example of covalent bonding?
O2
The lagging strand during DNA replication?
Okazaki fragments
Receptor
On a cell surface, a specific protein molecule whose shape fits a messenger in it.
Darwins book name
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
Acqueous Solution
One in which the solute is dissolved in water. Water is the solvent.
Nitrogen bases?
One of the three components of a nucleotide. It has a carbon ring structure found in DNA or RNA that contains one or more atoms of nitrogen; includes adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine and uracil
Bacteria
One-celled prokaryotes, some of which can cause disease.
Hydrocarbon
Organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen. (fossils, oil)
Lipid
Organic molecules made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and store food energy until needed (Fats)
Natural selection
Organisms that can survive long enough to reproduce will pass on their genes, while others that cannot survive or reproduce will die out.
Qualities of oxygen.
Oxygen is reactive. Water needs Oxygen.
Translocation
Part of one chromosome is moved to another.
Valence Electrons-
Particles located in the outermost energy level that are responsible for the chemical properties of an element
Duplication
Parts of chromosomes appear twice.
Inherited
Passed on through genetic material from parents to offspring.
1. Order (Life)
Pattern, Structures.
Mutation
Permanent changes in the sequence of bases in DNA.
What does pH do?
Ph regulates and helps determine enzyme activity.
Mutagen
Physical or chemical factors that increase the rate of mutation - eg. X-rays or ultraviolet radiation.
4 main kingdoms
Plantae Fungi Animalia Protista
4 kingdoms under Domain Eukarya & info about them
Plantae- multicellular, some algae unicellular Fungi- yeast = unicellular).. rest are multicellular Protists- unicellular Animalia- multicellular
Eukarya
Plants, animals, fungi, and protist.
Chitin
Polysaccharide that is a major component of exoskeletons of some organisms (the hard covering on the outside of the body).
The natural selection.
Process by which individuals that are better suited to their environment survive and reproduce most successfully; also called survival of the fittest
What is C38H?
Propane
Conformation
Proper 3D shape of a protein achieved by all levels of protein structure from primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary
Antibody
Protein molecules that are part of the immune system that act by binding to antigens.
Primary Structure
Protein sequence of amino acids. Proteins that must have a specific number of amino acids linked together in a specific order or sequence. Order must be as it is depicted trans. At the end there is a functional group getting protein bond in some reaction.
Atomic Mass
Protons and Neutrons
Atomic Number
Protons, helps determine physical properties.
What are subatomic molecules examples?
Protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Repulsion
Pushes something away from it (ie. Negative charges repel negative charges)
In fermentation ______ is reduced and ______ is oxidized.
Pyruvate, NADH
the 20 different kinds of amino acids are different with each other through their ______ group.
R *group*
Restriction enzyme
Recognize short nucleotide sequences (4-8 nucleotides) and cut the DNA through the sugar-phosphate backbone.
Active site
Region of an enzyme into which a particular substrate fits.
DNA Statement 3
Relatively stable and persistent in the environment.
Base
Removes or takes away H+ ions or add OH- ions into a solution.
Monomer
Repeating units that serve as the building blocks of polymer are smaller molecules. (The individual car)
RNA
Ribonucleic acid - single stranded and is the message that goes from the DNA out to the ribosome where it is translated into proteins
Structural Isomer
Same amount, different shape.
Covalent Bond
Sharing of electrons in order to fulfill the octet rule.
Pleated sheet
Sheet patterns (zigzag) that polypeptide chains fold into (secondary protein structure)
Phylogenetic tree
Shows evolutionary relationships (can be a diagram with lines (closer joins are more closely related) or a table that shows similarities in DNA sequences / amino acid sequences.
Gene probe
Single stranded DNA or mRNA segments that have been constructed and have a specific radioactive or fluorescent marker that enable them to be easily traced.
Atoms
Smallest unit of matter that still retain the properties of an element.
4. Respond to Environment ( Life)
Stimulus, Response
Glycogen
Store of glucose in animals - found in liver and muscle tissue and can be broken down to form glucose when required.
Fat reserve
Stored in adipose tissue, which consists of cells that only have a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by fat globules - acts as energy storage and insulation.
types of isomers
Structural isomers- Isomers that differ in covalent arrangements (different shape) Geometric Isomers- In spatial arrangements (same shape, but different elements in different places) Enantiomers- Mirror images of each other
Homologous
Structures that have different functions, but are similar in structure, suggesting a common origin.
Biology
Study of life.
Proteomics
Study of protein and their properties.
Solute
Substance that is being dissolved (salt, sugar).
Cofactor
Substances that bind to the active site or with the substrate and the binding is necessary before the enzyme can function.
Deoxyribose
Sugar in DNA.
Ribose
Sugar in ribose.
A cell with an extensive area of smooth endoplasmic reticulum is specialized to _____.
Synthesize large quantities of lipids
pH
System for measuring the strength of different acids and bases.
Reduction Approach
Take complicated and make it simpler.
Genetic engineering / modification
Taking genes from one organism and transferring them to another species or putting them back into the original organism in an altered fashion.
Gene
The amino acid sequence of polypeptide is programmed by a discrete unit of inheritance known as __________. They also consist of DNA, which belongs to the class of compounds called nucleic acids.
What is the major structural difference between starch and glycogen?
The amount of branching that occurs in the molecule.
Activation energy
The amount of energy that must be put into a reaction for it to start.
Emergent Properties
The arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases. (Ex. Conscious emerges from the brain, photosynthesis turns sunlight into
Sugar phosphate backbone
The backbone of the DNA molecule that is made up of alternating sugar and phosphate groups.
Polypeptides
The bond between amino acids is called a peptide bond so a polymer of amino acids is called
Centromere
The central region where two sister chromatids (replicated chromosomes) are joined.
Induced-fit model
The change in shape of the active site after the substrate binds, that makes the substrate fit more closely to the active site.
Enzyme-substrate complex
The combination of the enzyme and substrate
Genome
The complete DNA in an organism.
Transcription
The copying of a section of a DNA strand into an RNA strand in the nucleus
Solvent
The dissolvent agent. (water)
System Biology
The exploration of the network of interactions that underlie the emergent properties of a system.
HIV is inactivated in the laboratory after a few minutes of sitting at room temperature, but the flu virus is still active after sitting for several hours. What are the practical consequences of these findings?
The flu virus can be transmitted more easily from person to person than HIV
Chromosome
The form of DNA when the cell is about to divide - folded up and condensed.
Hybridisation
The joining of complementary DNA from different species.
Chemical Reaction
The making and breaking of chemical bonds, Leading to changed in the composition of matter.
Translation
The making of a polypeptide chain using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule - happens at the ribosome.
Valence
The number of covalent bonds it can form.
what is the difference between a ribose and deoxyribose?
The only difference is that they lack the oxygen atom.
Complementary strand
The opposite strand of the DNA that has opposite/matching bases.
Tertiary Structure-
The overall three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide due to interactions of the R groups of the amino acids making up the chain.
Secondary Structure-
The regular local patterns of coils or folds of a polypeptide chain.
Quaternary Structure-
The shape resulting from the association of two or more polypeptide subunits.
Covalent Bonds
The sharing of valence electrons by two atoms.
Primary Structure-
The specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.
Template
The strand of DNA that is being copied during replication or transcription.
Genomics
The study of all the genes.
Double helix
The two strands of DNA that are joined by weak hydrogen bonds in the nucleus of a cell, and form the shape of a helix
Phospholipids-
There is one head made up of glycerol linked to phosphorous and there are two carbon-hydrogen chains.
Which of the following supports the argument that viruses are nonliving? They are not cellular. Their DNA does not encode proteins. They have RNA rather than DNA. They do not evolve.
They are not cellular.
What does the rule of "8" or octet rule mean?
This means that the outer shell has to have at least 8 electrons. (Except hydrogen)
Substrate-level phosphorylation-
This mode of ATP synthesis occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP rather than adding an inorganic phosphate to ADP (like in oxidative phosphorylation. Some ATP is made by this direct transfer of the phosphate group from an organic substance to ADP by an enzyme. -A smaller amount of ATP is produced through glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
Tertiary Structure
Three dimensional shape. Hydrophobic interaction, hydrogen bonding, ionic bonding, disulfide bridges.
How do monomers become polymers?
Through dehydration synthesis.
Ribosomal RNA
Together with proteins, it forms the structure of ribosomes that make proteins.
Ionic Bond
Transfer of electrons. (Ex. Salts)
Compound-
Two or more elements chemically combined.( Inorganic compounds Organic compounds)
Double Helix
Two polynucleotides, or "strands", that wind around an imaginary axis in DNA.
Ions
Two resulting opposite charged atoms.
DNA Statement 2
Unique self replicating molecule.
Trace Elements
Very small amounts but still necessary. They are needed for optimum function and enzyme support.
Coenzyme
Vitamins that act as cofactors - substances that bind to the active site or with the substrate and the binding is necessary before the enzyme can function.
An oxygen atom bound to two hydrogen atoms by two single covalent bonds
Water
What is the universal solvent?
Water
Dissolving
Water forms rings called hydration shells to keep the elements atoms separated. It keeps salts dissolved. Works only because water is polar.
Describe hydrogen in water.
Water molecules are very small. They have a lot of hydrogen bonding. The more water there is, the stronger the hydrogen bonding is.
Ocean Acidification
When CO2 dissolved in seawater, it reacts with water to form carbonic acid, which lowers ocean OH. It alters the delicate balance of conditions of life in the ocean.
Base insertion
When a nucleotide is added to the DNA strand.
Base deletion
When a nucleotide is removed from the DNA strand.
Polar Covalent Bonds
When an atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom, the electrons of the bond are not shared equally.
Base substitution
When one nucleotide is substituted (swapped) for another.
Compound or Molecule
When two elements are combined.
Hydrogenation
When unsaturated fats have fats replaced with hydrogens. Convert back to saturated fat. (margarine does not have cholesterol, made from unsaturated fats)
Is it hard to change the temperature of heat?
Yes, water is polar therefore water can form hydrogen bonds. This prevents molecules form being lost.
Is water a good moderator for temperature?
Yes.
ecosystem
a biological community and the physical habitat within which it lives together
Fat
a biological compound consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule; large molecules assembled from smaller molecules by dehydration reactions; also called a triglycerol or triglyceride; fatty acids joined to glycerol by an ester linkage
Ester Linkage
a bond formed by a dehydration reaction between a hydroxyl group and a carboxyl group
Polysaccharide
a carbohydrate that is composed of many monosaccharide units joined together
OH makes it automatically
a carboxyl group
nucleic acids: monomer, polymer, chemical bond
a chain of 5 carbon sugars linked together by phosphodiester bonds with a nitrogenous base monomer-nucleotides polymer-nucleic acid (DNA, RNA) chemical bonds-phosphordiester
Hydrolysis
a chemical process that breaks bonds between two molecules by the addition of water; breaks apart polymers into monomers
Dehydration Reaction
a chemical reaction in which two molecules covalently bond to each other with the removal of a water molecule; makes polymers
Glycosidic Linkage
a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction
organic compound
a covalently bonded compound that contains carbon
the citric acid cycle:
a cycle of enzyme-catalyzed reactions in living cells that is the final series of reactions of aerobic metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins,and fatty acids, and by which carbon dioxide is produced, oxygen is reduced, and ATP is formed.
energy level
a discrete level, or quantum of energy that an electron in an atom possesses
Domain Bacteria-
a domain of prokaryotic bacteria the consists of cocci, bacilli, and spirilli shaped cells organized into strepto- and staphlo- groups
double covalent bond
a double bond that is shared between atoms
Disaccharide
a double sugar, consisting of two monosaccharides joined by a covalent bond (glycosidic linkage)
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
a double-stranded, helical nucleic acid molecule capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins; stores information for synthesis of specific proteins and RNA products
variables
a factor that influences a process, outcome, or observation. Scientist attempt to isolate variables to test hypothesis
Saturated Fat
a fatty acid in which all carbons in the hydrocarbon tail are connected by single bonds, thus maximizing the number of hydrogen atoms that can attach to the carbon skeleton; "bad" fats; typically solid at room temperature
Unsaturated Fat
a fatty acid possessing one or more double bonds between the carbons in the hydrocarbon tail, causing "kinks"; such bonding reduces the number of hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon skeleton; "good" fats; typically liquid at room temperature
-logy
a field of study
what is the product of gene expression
a functional protein
Macromolecule
a giant molecule formed by the joining of smaller molecules, usually by a condensation reaction; includes polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
hemoglobin
a globular protein in vertebrate red blood cells and in the plasma of many invertebrates that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
population
a group of organisms of the same species living in the same place
Phospholipid
a lipid made up of glycerol joined to two fatty acids and a phosphate group; a lipid molecule that is a constituent of the inner bilayer of biological membranes, having a polar, hydrophilic head and a non polar, hydrophobic tail; ester linkage bond type
Triglycerides -
a lipid that is made of 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol
Fatty Acid
a long hydrocarbon chain carboxylic acid; they vary in length and in the number and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol form fat
Polymer
a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical monomers linked together by covalent bonds; formed by dehydration reaction
functional group
a molecular group attached to a hydrocarbon that confers chemical properties or reactivities
scientific method
a number of complementary approaches that allow understanding of natural phenomena has supporting evidence
reductionism
a philosophical approach to understand a complex system by reducing it to its working parts
what composed a mononucleotide?
a phosphate group, a pentose (5-carbon) sugar, nitrogenous base, 2 sugars: deoxyribose and ribose
Polypeptide
a polymer (chain) of many amino acids linked together by peptide bonds
Nucleic Acid
a polymer (polynucleotide) consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins and, through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities; the two types are DNA and RNA
Polynucleotide
a polymer consisting of many nucleotide monomers; serves as a blueprint for proteins, and through the actions of proteins, for all cellular activities; the two types are DNA and RNA
Starch
a polymer of glucose monomers; a storage polysaccharide in plants
Glycogen
a polymer of glucose; a storage polysaccharide found in the liver and muscle of animals; the animal equivalent of a starch
orbitals
a region around the nucleus of an atom with high probability of containing an electron
Photorespiration:
a respiratory process in many higher plants by which they take up oxygen in the light and give out some carbon dioxide, contrary to the general pattern of photosynthesis.
pH scale
a scale 0-14 0-6 being acid 7 being pure water 8-14 being base numbers closer to 0 are weak acid/base
Define a genome-
a single copy of all the heritable genetic material found in the nucleus of a single cell
the nitrogenous base in nucleotides are made up of
a single of double ring structure containing nitrogen
Alpha Helix
a spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising from a specific hydrogen-bonding structure
Cholesterol
a steroid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids
Cellulose
a structural polysaccharide of cell walls, consisting of glucose monomers joined by glycosidic linkages; a major component of the tough walls that enclose plants A polysaccharide that is a major component of cell walls. (structural) A major component of tough walls that enclose plant cells.
phospholipid bilayer
a structure where two lipids form polar end being towards water and non-polar end being away from water
solvent
a substance that dissolves another to form a solution
buffers
a substance that resists changes in pH. natural buffer: bicarbonate (base)
surface tension
a tautness of the surface of a liquid
Protein
a three-dimensional biological polymer constructed from a set of 20 different monomers called amino acids
triple covalent bond
a triple bond that is shared between atoms
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
a type of nucleic acid consisting of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C ), guanine (G), and uracil (U); usually single-stranded; functions in protein synthesis and as the genome of some viruses
kingdoms of archaea
achaebacteria
characteristics of carboxyl
acid, solution ionizes to make the solution more acidic
low pH
acidic
more H+ than OH-
acidic
pH less than 7
acidic
natural selection leads to
adaptations
characteristics of methyl
adding this to DNA determines if a gene will be turned on or off, effects gene expression
5 nitrogenous base
adenine thymine uracil cytosine guanine
what are the purines?
adenine (A) guanine (G) Pure as Gold. PURe as AG.
Found in DNA and RNA
adenine, guanine, and cytosine
attraction between water and another substance
adhesion
the curve of water in a graduated cylinder is an example of
adhesion
components of carbonyl
aldehydes and ketones
cell theory
all living organisms are consisted of cells cells were discovered by Robert Hook in 1665
ordered complexity
all living things are both complex and highly ordered. Your body is composed of many different kinds of cells, each containing many complex molecular structures.
framework of biological molecules
all living things are made up of carbon molecules
growth, development, and reproduction
all organisms are capable of growing and reproducing, and they all possess hereditary molecules that are passed to their offspring, ensuring that the offspring are of the same species
cellular organization
all organisms consist of one or more cells. Often to tiny to see, cells carry out the basic activities of living, each cell is bounded by a membrane that separates it from its surroundings.
evolutionary adaptation
all organisms interact with other organisms and the nonliving environment in ways that influence their survival, and as a consequence, organisms evolve adaptations to their environments
homeostasis
all organisms maintain relatively constant internal conditions that are different from their environment, your body temperature remains stable despite changes in outside temperature
sensitivity
all organisms respond to stimuli. Plant grow toward a source of light, and the pupils of your eyes dilate when you walk into a dark room
energy utilization
all organisms take in energy and use it to perform many kinds of work. Every muscle in your body is powered with energy you obtain from your diet
characteristics of domain bacteria
all other bacteria not included in archaea; cyanobacteria and heterotrophic bacteria
primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure
allows stability and structure in proteins
secondary structure, found in most proteins, consist of ___________ and ________ in the polypeptide chain
alpha helix & beta pleated sheets
Which method is utilized by eukaryotes to control their gene expression that is NOT used in bacteria, inactivation of the selected genes,
alternating patterns of gene expression
monomer of proteins
amino acid
Primary protein structure
amino acid sequence
primary structure
amino acid sequence. amino acid plays no role in peptide backbone of proteins
proteins are made up of
amino acids
peptide bond is formed between what groups of the amino acids?
amino end and carboxyl group
heat of vaporization
amount of energy required to change 1 g of a substance from a liquid to a gas
phospholipids are
amphipathic
double number on top to find
amu
ion-
an electrically charges atom or group of atoms
Hydrocarbon
an organic compound composed only of carbon and hydrogen
Amino Acid
an organic molecule possessing both carboxyl and amino groups; they serve as the monomers polypeptides; each has unique side chain (R group)
Trans Fat
an unsaturated fat, formed artificially by hydrogenation which creates trans fat by forcing hydrogen through vegetable oils; contributes to cardiovascular disease; solidifies oils, creating desired texture and longer shelf life
Glycogen-
animal starch, similar to starch, but has more 1-6 linkages or branches, found in the liver and muscle cells
types of organisms in eukarya
animals, fungi, plants, chromists, aveolates, rhodophytes, flagellates, basal protists
the two DNA strands are
antiparallel
element
any substance that cannot be broken down to any other substance by ordinary chemical means
base (alkali)
any substance that combines with H+ when dissolved in water and lowers the [H+] (and increase pH)
acid
any substance that dissociates in water to increase the [H+] (and lower the pH)
matter
any substance that has mass and occupies space
characteristics of domain eukarya
anything that is eukaryotic or has membrane bound organelles and nuclei, single celled eukaryotes
deductive reasoning
applies general principles to predict specific results ex: if all mammals by definition have hair and you find an animal without hair, then you conclude that this animal is not a mammal
solution in which water is the solvent (water is doing the dissolving)
aqueous solution
what domain is an ancient form of bacteria?
archaea
3 domains of life
archaea, eukarya, bacteria
Okazaki fragments-
are short, newly synthesized DNA fragments that are formed on the lagging template strand during DNA replication
smallest units of matter that still retains the properties of the element
atom
protons plus the average number of neutrons from isoptopes
atomic mass NUMBER
number of protons is equal to
atomic number
number on the top
atomic number
number of protons in the nucleus (also equal to the number of neutrons)
atomic number TOP
theory that all matter is made up of atoms
atomic theory
number on the bottom
atomic weight/ mass number
molecules
atoms joined together in clusters
isotopes
atoms of a single element that possess different numbers of neutrons
Borhs Model
atoms shows individual electrons as following discrete, or distinct, circular orbits around a central nucleus
ionic bonds
atoms with opposite charges attracted to each other
neutral atoms
atoms with the same number of protons and electrons are electrically neutral; they have no net charge
hierarchical organization of living systems
atoms, molecules, macromolecules, organelle, cell, tissue, organs, organ system, organism, population, species, community, ecosystem, biosphere
list the biological hierarchy
atoms, small molecules, large molecules, cells, cell speciation, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism
what is hydrophilic?
attracts water
Water has many exceptional and useful properties. Which is the rarest property among compounds? a) Water is a solvent. b) Solid water is less dense than liquid water. c) Water has a high heat capacity. d) Water has surface tension.
b) Solid water is less dense than liquid water.
life in 3 groups
bacteria archaea eukarya
characteristics of prokaryotes
bacteria, simpler and usually smaller, does not contain a nucleus or membrane enclosed organelles, domains are bacteria and archaea
libri
balance
high pH
basic
more OH- than H+
basic
pH more than 7
basic
cells
basic unit of life
if the bonds are single, why can't it be a cis isomer?
because of its ability to rotate freely
pro-
before; for
unsaturated fatty acids have ________ molecule
bending
list the evolution of life, biggest to smallest
biosphere, ecosystems, communities, populations, organisms, organs/ organ systems, tissues, cells, organelles, molecules
organs
body structures composed of several different tissues that act as a structural and functional unit
hydrolysis reaction
bond breaking by adding H2O, polymer is broken down into monomers -catabolic -exergonic -exothermic
hydrogen bonds
bonds between oxygen and hydrogen are highly polar -oxygen is partially negative -hydrogen is partially positive
dehydration reaction
bonds created by removal of H2O, monomers created into a polymer -anabolic -endergonic -endothermic
amphipathic means to have
both soluble and insoluble parts
Glycolysis:
breaks down glucose and forms pyruvate with the production of two molecules of ATP
artificial selection
breeders select certain varieties of an animal to produce certain characteristics
can accept or release hydrogen ions
buffers
substances that work to minimize pH change
buffers
usually work as weak acids or weak bases
buffers
cholesterol
building cells and carrying messages low-density lipoprotein= "bad cholesterol" high-density lipoprotein= "good cholesterol" coronary heart disease
polymer
built by linking monomers
The final electron acceptor associated with photosystem I? A) oxygen B) water C) NADP D) NADPH
c)NADP
Which of the following types of cells utilize deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as their genetic material but do not have their DNA encased within a nuclear envelope? a. plant b. fungi c. archea d. bacteria e. animal
c. archea
the body is 4%
calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur
characteristics of amino
can act as a base, absorbs H+ ions an order to raise pH and make it more basic
binding capacity of nitrogen
can form 3 covalent bonds; single, double, or triple
binding capacity of hydrogen
can only form single bonds and one covalent bond because it only needs one more to complete its outer shell
source of energy/ energy storage
carbohydrate
components are monosaccharides
carbohydrates
may consist of one or more monosaccharides linked together
carbohydrates
straight chain or ring that contains only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio
carbohydrates
name the 4 types of macromolecules
carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, proteins
Four main classes of large molecules
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids
carbonyl
carbohydrates, nucleic acids. polar C=O
Three Macromolecules
carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids; these three classes are called polymers
biological macromolecules
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids
hydroxyl
carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, lipids. polar-OH
organic substances/ compounds must contain
carbon
what can radioisotopes be used for?
carbon dating, medical problems, mapping
12 elements found in living systems
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorous, sulfur, soduim, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, and chlorine
what are the 6 functions of proteins?
catalyst structural support storage coordination transport movement defense receptors
what are living things such as plants, animals, fungi and protists made of?
cells
what is gene expression
cells use info encoded in a gene to synthesize a functional protein (genotype --> phenotype)
what is the major component of plant cell walls
cellulose
energy storage, structure, and support from
cellulose and chitin (carbs)
what substance composed of cell wall of plants? what sugars composed this substance? what is the bond linkage between the sugars?
cellulose; B 1-4 glucose; glycosidic bonds
what caused sickle-cell disease?
change in primary structure, mutation in DNA
meta-
change; transformation
ion
charged particles. atoms which the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons
who proposed that all organisims come from one common ancestor?
charles darwin
light energy from the sun is converted to a ______ form of energy.
chemical
when plants are eaten by animals, the ________ energy is converted into ______ energy
chemical ; ATP
what are the two major processes in the ecosystem
chemical cycling and energy flow
functions of lipids
chemical messengers form biological membranes long term energy storage
positive feedback example
childbirth
what organelles in plants cells store their starch?
chloroplasts
give examples of steroids
cholesterol, cortisol, testosterone
Prokaryotic cell properties
circular DNA (no nucleus) membrane DNA in nucleoid unicellular
differ in spatial arrangement around double bond, but still have the same covalent bonds
cis trans
steroids
class of lipids that are composed of four fused carbon rings most animal cell membranes contain the steroid cholesterol
hydrogen bonds holding water molecules together
cohesion
how many polypeptides composed collagen? hemoglobin? give the functions of these proteins
collage: 3 polypeptide chains, all 4 level structures, all bonds responsible, for support hemoglobin: 4 polypeptide chains, carries oxygen in blood
mofits
common elements of secondary structure seen in many polypeptides
the shared anatomy of mammalian limbs reflects ________
comparative anatomy
amylopectin
complicated variant of amylose noncrystallizable form of starch composed of α-1→6 linkages, branched around 80%
archaea
composed of single-celled organisms (prokaryotes) with little internal structure
bacteria
composed of single-celled organisms (prokaryotes) with little internal structure
molecule that is composed of 2 or more difference elements
compound
peptide
compound containing two or more amino acids
structural isomers
compound with same molecular formula but different connectivity of atoms
stereoisomer
compounds that have same identical formula and connectivity but differ in arrangement of atoms in space
amount of solute dissolved in a unit volume of solution
concentration
molar concentration
concentration expressed as moles of a substance in 1 L of pure water
what are proteins
consist of one or more polypeptides(=protein), when broken down, they are broken down into amino acids
biological community
consists of all the populations of different species living together in one place
plantae
consists of organisms that have cell walls of cellulose and obtain energy by photosynthesis
organ system
consists of sensory organs
how many monosaccharides make up a disaccharide? name the reaction
consists of two monosaccharides; formed by dehydration reaction
protista
consists of unicellular eukaryotes except yeast (fungi) as well as multicellular algae
animalia
contains organisms that lack cell walls and obtain energy by first ingesting other organisms and then digesting them internally
what kind of bonds are hydrocarbons?
covalent
can share 1, 2, or 3 electrons
covalent bond
sharing of electrons between 2 atoms valence shell
covalent bond
very strong by themselves
covalent bond
Phosphodiester Bond
covalent bond between sugar and phosphate
very hard to break, but when they are broken, a lot of energy is released
covalent bonds
Thomas Malthus
created "An Essay on the Principles of Population" species are increased by the multiplying factor and food is increased by arithmetic progression
types of organisms in bacteria
cyanobacteria, heterotrophic bacteria
pyrimidines
cytosine thymine uracil
what are the pyrimidines?
cytosine (C) thymine (T, in DNA) uracil(U, in RNA) cut the pie. CUT the PYe
Which component is a peripheral protein? D Which component is cholesterol? E Which component is a protein fiber of the extracellular matrix? A Which component is a microfilament (actin filament) of the cytoskeleton? C
d e a c
What is the final result of mitosis? a) genetically identical 1n somatic cells b) genetically different 2n somatic cells c) genetically identical 2n gamete cells d) genetically identical 2n somatic cells
d) genetically identical 2n somatic cells
radio-
dealing with radiant energy; emitting rays
half-life
decay time it takes for one-half of the atoms in a sample to decay
How would acidification of seawater affect marine organisms? Acidification of seawater would _____.
decrease dissolved carbonate concentrations and hinder growth of corals and shell-building animals
atomic number
defined by the number of protons
when two monomers bond together through the loss of a water molecule (links monomers to form polymers)
dehydration synthesis
what is meant by denaturation? renaturation?
denaturation: loss of a protein's native structure (secondary structure- breaks hydrogen bond; tertiary structure- all bonds are broken) renaturation: rebuilding hydrogen bonds (not all can be reversed, ex: fried/boiled egg is irreversible)
what sugars are found in DNA and RNA
deoxyribose and ribose
depends on the independent variable, what is measured during the experiment
dependent variable
colligative
depending upon the number of molecules no the specific type
the diversity of mammalian limbs result from ________
different environmental conditions
trans isomers
different sides of bonds
when proteins are _________, all _________ bonds are broken
digested; peptide
lys
dissolution; breaking
characteristics of hydroxyl
dissolves in water, polar because of hydrogen bonds with water
high electronegativity means it
doesn't want to bond
What is DNA
double helix ; carries genetic instructions for growth, development and reproduction
purines
double ringed molecules in DNA and RNA adenine guanine
cat-
down
Mendel's law of segregation:
during the production of gametes the two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring acquire one factor from each parent.
One of the buffers that contribute to pH stability in human blood is carbonic acid (H2CO3).Carbonic acid is a weak acid that, when placed in an aqueous solution, dissociates into abicarbonate ion (HCO3-) and a hydrogen ion (H+), as noted below. a) the HCO3- to act as an acid and remove excess H+ with the formation of H2CO3. b)the concentration of bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) to increase. c)the concentration of hydroxide ion (OH-) to increase. d)a decrease in the concentration of H2CO3 and an increase in the concentration of HCO3-. e)theHCO3- to act as a base and remove excess with the formation ofH2CO3 .
e)theHCO3- to act as a base and remove excess with the formation ofH2CO3 .
ionic compound
electrically neutral
level of attraction; gets higher as you move right
electronegativity
measure of the tendency of an atom to attract atoms to bond with
electronegativity
nonpolar covalent bonds
electrons are equally shared (H2, O2)
atoms
elements of matter
tells atomic proportion
empirical formula
what are the functions of lipids? give examples
energy storage (fats) component of cell membranes (phospholipids, steroids)
genome
entire set of DNA instructions that specifies a cell
equi-
equal
iso-
equal; same
lipids are held together by
ester bonds
what linkage holds fats together
ester linkage
2 examples of steroids
estrogen and testosterone
kingdoms of bacteria
eubacteria
true kernel/ nucleus
eukaryotes
results in change in the genetic makeup of populations over time
evolution
atom
extremely small particles that compose matter
inductive reasoning
facts lead to hypothesis
polyunsaturated
fats with more than one double bond
monounsaturated
fats with one double bond
give examples of lipids
fats, phospholipids, and steroids
3 units of phospholipid
fatty acid glycerol phosphate group
long chain of hydrocarbon with a carboxyl group on one end
fatty acids
phobic
fear or aversion to
-pathic
feeling; suffering
unsaturated
fewer than the max number of hydrogens that can be attached to carbons -at least on double bond -mostly plant fats -liquid at room temperature ex: oils
proto-
first
tertiary structure
folds and links. contains regoins that have secondary structure and determinds how these are arranged in space to produce overall structure. by hydrophobic exclusions form water, ionic bonds between R groups
binding capacity of oxygen
forms 2 covalent bonds, single or double
fruit sugar is _______________
fructose
estrogen/testosterone
function as hormones in multicellular animals lipids composed of 4 fused carbon rings
domains
functional units within larger structure
which cell wall is chitin a major component of?
fungal cell walls (and arthropod exoskeleton)
reduction
gain of electrons
brain sugar is _____________
galactose
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
genetic material made up of all organisms. encodes information specifying amino acid sequence in proteins. double helix. stores information. -adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine hydrogen bonding between nitrogenous base deoxyribose sugar will have H
sum total of all the DNA molecules in an organism
genome
blood sugar is __________
glucose
what are starch and cellulose made of?
glucose
what simple sugars composed starch and glycogen
glucose
sucrose
glucose + fructose
lactose
glucose + galactose
maltose
glucose + glucose
give some examples of monosaccharides. which are hexoses (6 carbon), and pentoses (5 carbon)
glucose- hexoses fructose- hexoses ribose- pentoses deoxyribose- pentoses galactose- hexoses
3 carbon alcohol that consists of only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (C3H8O3)
glycerol
what composed phospholipids?
glycerol (head), 2 fatty acids (tails), phosphate
triglycerides are composed of
glycerol and 3 fatty acids
what makes up a fat molecule?
glycerol and fatty acids
phospholipids are composed of
glycerol, 2 fatty acids, and phosphate
what sugars composed maltose and sucrose? when disaccharides are synthesized, is water removed or added? is it hydrolysis or dehydration?
glycosidic linkage (glucose); water is removed; dehydration
eu-
good; well
prostaglandins
group of about 20 lipids that are modified fatty acids with two nonpolar tails attached to five fused carbon ring act as local chemical messengers in many vertebrate tissues
tissue
group of cells
ecosystem
group of communities
biosphere
group of ecosystems
cell
group of organelles
system
group of organs
community
group of populations
population
group of similar organisms
organism
group of systems
organ
group of tissues
tissue
groups of cells that act as a functional unit
types of organisms in archaea
halophiles and thermophiles
Purine
has a six-membered ring fused to a five-membered ring; one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides; include adenine (A) and guanine (G)
organic compounds; examples
has hydrocarbon bonds; glucose, methane (CH4)
Pyrimidine
has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms; one of two types of nitrogenous bases found in nucleotides; includes cytosine (C ), thymine (T), and uracil (U)
innert (nonreactive) elements
have all eight electrons (elements are noble gases)
fungi
have cell wall made of chitin and obtain energy by secreting digestive enzymes and then absorbing the products they release from the external environment
polynuceotides
have to different ends "antiparallel" phosphate end PO-4 is 5 prime sugar -OH( hydroxyl) is 3 prime are also complementary A-T (DNA) C-G (DNA & RNA) A-U (RNA)
saturated
having all hydrogen atoms possible -single bonded -animal fats -solid at room temperature ex: meats, cheese
what group of the phospholipids is hydrophilic?
head
chaperone proteins
help proteins fold properly -deficiencies can cause cystic fibrosis
noble gases have what kind of electronegativity?
high
lots of OH- ions
high pH
Anaphase I of meiosis-
homologous chromosomes are separated
chemical bonds
how atoms in a molecule are joined together
electron affinity
how much does that atom attract electrons
attraction between one partial negative and one partially positive hydrogen end of a molecule
hydrogen bond
holds DNA together and pumps blood
hydrogen bond
hydrogen atom form one polar molecule attracted to an electronegative atom
hydrogen bond
represented by dotted or dashed lines
hydrogen bond
this type of bond frequently occurs between hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen
hydrogen bond
not strong by themselves but very strong collectively
hydrogen bond and van der waals interactions
what bonds are responsible for the secondary structure of the protein?
hydrogen bonding
secondary structure
hydrogen bonding pattern. hydrogen bonds can be with water or with other peptide groups,
what bonds are responsible for the tertiary level structure of proteins?
hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide bridge, and the polypeptide backbone
list elements found in the human body
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur
polymers broken down into monomers (to break down water)
hydrolysis
water loving; soluble in water
hydrophilic
polar molecules that form hydrogen bonds with water are
hydrophilic; will dissolve in water
water hating; insoluble in water
hydrophobic
7 functional groups
hydroxyl carbonyl carboxyl amino sulfhydryl phosphate methyl
name the 7 functional groups
hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbonyl, amino, sulfhydrl, phosphate, methyl
prediction that is testable and able to be proven false
hypothesis
what is scientific theory; give example
hypothesis that has stood the test of time; Cell Theory
example of deductive reasoning
if i replace the batteries, the flashlight will work
aldehydes
if the group is at the end of the carbon skeleton
ketones
if the group is in the middle of the carbon skeleton
what organelles in animals cells store their glycogen?
in liver and muscle cells
Denaturation
in proteins, a process in which a protein unravels and loses its native conformation, thereby becoming biologically inactive; occurs under extreme conditions of pH, salt concentration, and temperature
where are chromosomes located
in the nucleus
stereo-
in three dimensions
Carbohydrates
include sugars and polymers of sugars Sugars and polymers of sugars. (monosaccharides)
variable that is changed
independent variable
selection
individuals possessing physical behavior or that attributes that give them an advantage in their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce than ones with less advantageous traits
Promoter initiates transcription of a particular gene.
initiates transcription of a particular gene.
lipids: monomer, polymer, chemical bond
insoluble in water. made up of fatty acids and glycerol monomer-none polymer- lipids chemical bonds- ester fat, oils, waxes
tertiary structure is determined by ____________ among _____ groups.
interactions; R
Tertiary protein structure
intricate, 3-D shape (conformation) of a protein that is superimposed on its secondary structure; determines protein specificity
chemical reactions
involve forming or breaking of chemical bonds
attraction of opposite charges
ionic bond
defined as the attraction of a cation to an anion
ionic bond
easily broken with a polar solvent such as water
ionic bond
Electronegativity.
is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons. (Example: The oxygen in water is more highly electronegative than the two hydrogen atoms, thus creating a polar molecule. (Atoms that are hogs)
Monomer-
is a molecule that may bind chemically to other molecules to form a polymer.
molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties
isomer
atoms of an element that differ in number of neutrons
isotope
radioactive isotopes
isotopes that decay
glucose + galactose =
lactose (milk sugar)
macro-
large; large enough to be seen with the naked eye
discuss how organisms interact with each other
leaves absorb light energy from the sun. Carbon dioxide is taken in through the leaves and then oxygen is released. Animals eat leaves from tree. Any leaves that fall on the ground are decomposed by organisms that return minerals to soil. Water and nutrients in soil are taken up by the roots of the plant.
bio-
life or relating to living or organisms
photo-
light
homeo
likeness, resemblance; similarity
saturated fatty acids have ______ molecule
linear
peptide bond
links amino acids together in covalent bond through dehydration synthesis
micelles
lipid molecules orient with polar (hydrophilic) head toward water and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails away from water
glycerol (triglyceride), fatty acids, phospholipids
lipids
high energy storage
lipids
Steroids
lipids characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings of carbon
unsaturated--> room temp? where is it found? # double bonds? examples?
liquid at room temp; found in plants; 1+ double bond; ex: peanut oil, tree oil
evolution
living things are now different from how they began
terpenes
long-chain lipids that are components of many biologically important pigments
oxidation
loss of electrons
lots of H+ ions
low pH
translation
mRNA ----> proteins (phenotype)
what are living things and how are they classified
made up of cells (same DNA), classified in domains and kingdoms (biological hierarchy)
examples of negative feedback
maintaining temperature, blood glucose levels
list steps of the scientific method
make observations, ask questions, form hypothesis, make predictions, test the predictions, form a conclusion
characteristics of sulfhydryl
makes kinks in proteins
glucose + glucose =
maltose (malt sugar)
poly-
many
Polysaccharide-
many joined simple sugars; used for storage or structure (ex: starch, cellulose, glycogen, keyton)
Polymer-
many monomers linked together
how can the number of neutrons be calculated?
mass number - atomic number
anything that has mass and takes up space
matter
species
members similar in appearance and able to interbreed
Eukaryotic cell properties
membrane cytoplasm membrane-enclosed organelles linear DNA DNA in membrane-enclosed nucleus
characteristics of eukaryotes
membrane enclosed organelles, largest organelle is the nucleus, plants, animals, and all other forms of life
mRNA
messenger RNA carries information part of ribose RNA (rRNA) and carries amino acids in form transfer RNA (tRNA)
Karyotype-
micrograph of the complete diploid set of chromosomes grouped together in pairs, arranged in order of decreasing size
number of moles dissolved per liter of solution
molarity
indicates actual number of atoms for each element in the molecule
molecular formula
multiply number of atoms and amu to find (add amu's of all the elements at the end)
molecular mass
carbohydrates: monomer, polymer, chemical bond
molecule with 1:2:1 ratio of carbon:hydrogen:oxygen, are good energy storage molecules monomer- monosaccharides polymer- carbohydrates (starch, glycogen) chemical bond- glycosidic linkage
when two or more atoms bond
molecules
hydrocarbons
molecules only consisting of carbon and hydrogen
products
molecules resulting from reaction
proteins: monomer, polymer, chemical bond
monomer- amino acid polymer- protein chemical bond- peptide
5 carbon sugar in nucleotide is an example of a
monosaccharide
less electronegative
more non polar covalent
more electronegative
more polar covalent
Silicon
most abundant element in the soil. Living things do not use it. Turf grass loves it. It is very abrasive and used in cleaners. Plants use it to protect themselves.
Glucose
most common monosaccharide (C6H12O6)
Sucrose
most prevalent disaccharide
quaternary structure results when a protein consists of __________________
multiple polypeptide chains
biology is what type of science
natural science
Darwin called the process where the environment "selects" for the propagation of beneficial traits ___________
natural selection
according to darwin, what accounted for much of the evolution of life?
natural selection
Albert Russel Wallace
naturalist that sent essays to darwin from Indonesia. Set the hypothesis of evolution by means of natural selection
natural selection
nature can select the best of the best to reproduce certain characteristics the differential reproduction of geneotypes
anion
negative charge. having more electrons than protons
as more of a product is produced and accumulates or when the amount reaches a certain point, the process that creates it slows
negative feedback
system most common in organisms
negative feedback
neutro-
neutral; having no charge or affiliation
are lipids polymers?
no
saturated fatty acids have __ double bonds, while unsaturated fatty acids have ___ double bonds.
no double bond ; 1 or more double bonds
are lipids soluble in water?
no, lipids are hydrophobic
if proteins are denatured, are they still biologically active?
no, they are biologically INACTIVE
bond in which the atoms involved have similar electronegativity
non polar covalent bond
bond that involves equal sharing of electrons
non polar covalent bond
electrons shared equally in the molecule resulting in no charge
non polar molecular
Carbon
non-metal that can from 4 bonds with other elements
emergent properties
novel properties arising from the way components interact. cannot be deduced solely by the knowledge of individual components collection of molecules, cells, individuals, that sare distinct from categorical properties
radioactive decay
nuclear breakup which emits a significant amount of energy
phosphate
nucleic acid. charged PO-4
monomer of nucleic acid
nucleotide
nucleic acid components
nucleotides
karyo
nucleus of a cell
no differences exist; what you changed didn't change anything
null hypothesis
the primary structure of a protein is its ___________ & ___________ of amino acids in a _________ fashion.
number & sequence; linear
number of electrons is equal to
number of electrons and the atomic number
rows
number of energy levels
atomic number
number of protons
distinctive properties that make an element what it is
number of protons
columns
number of valence electrons and reactivity
valence electrons
number or electrons in outermost energy level -outermost energy level cannot contain more than eight electrons
the tendency of atoms trying o fill their valence shell
octet rule
hydro-
of, or pertaining to, water
glyco-
of, or relating to, sugar
Beta Pleated Sheet
one form of the secondary structure of proteins in which the polypeptide chain folds back and forth; the two regions of the chain lie parallel to each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds
Lipid
one of a family of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that are insoluble in water; non polar covalent bond type
test experiment
one variable is altered in a known way to test a particular hypothesis
The repressor bind to_____________________________________the operator is a _________________________________________________________________________.
operators to prevent transcription. segment of DNA to which a transcription factor binds to regulate gene expression by repressing it
enantio-
opposite; mirror image
different but still mirror images; right and left are not interchangeable
optical isomers or enantiomers
have 4 different groups bonded to an asymmetric carbon mirror images
optical isomers or enantiomers
A polymer is an
organic molecule in which many individual subunits have been bonded together to form a larger, long chain molecule.
isomers
organic molecules having the same molecular or empirical formula
eukarya
organisms (eukaryotes) composed of a complex, organized cell or multiple complex cells. Within eukarya are 4 main kingdoms
reactants
original molecules
the bond that link amino acids together is called _________
peptide
proteins are held together by
peptide bonds
electro-
pertaining or involving electricity
phosphate group, many have another organic group attached
phospholipid
Storage Polysaccharides
plants store starch as granules within cellular structures known as plastids; animals store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells
bond where one atom has greater electronegativity
polar covalent bond
unequal sharing of electrons that results in "poles"
polar covalent bond
list properties of water
polar, high heat capacity, high heat of vaporization, solvent, expands upon freezing, slight tendency to ionize, can act as a weak acid or a weak base
cohesion
polarity of water allows water molecules to be attracted to another by hydrogen bonding
polysaccharide
polymers made up of monosaccharides that have been joined through dehydration reactions. starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin
what are polysaccharides?
polymers of monosaccharides (many monomers)
what are nucleic acids?
polymers- nucleotides
glycogen
polysaccharide of carbohydrate. animals use for energy storage. insoluble in water
chitin
polysaccharide of carbohydrate. fungi and arthropods use for structural support
cellulose
polysaccharide of carbohydrate. plants use as structural support
starch
polysaccharide of carbohydrate. plants use for energy storage
cation
positive charge. having more protons than electrons
as more of a product is made and accumulates, the process that creates the product is sped up and more is produced
positive feedback
deductive reasoning
predictions that would make the hypothesis true if the predictions are right
You disrupt all hydrogen bonds in a protein. What level of structure will be preserved?
primary structure
ribonucleic acid (RNA)
produced by transcription of DNA. single stranded. -adenine, uracil, guanine, cytosine ribose sugar will have OH
substances produced in the reaction properties of water
products
before the kernel/ nucleus
prokaryotes
theory
proposed explanation for some natural phenomenon a body of interconnected concepts
Niels Bohr
proposed that every atom possesses an orbiting cloud of tiny subatomic particles called electrons and at the center of each atom is a small dense nucleus formed of two other subatomic particles protons and neutrons
Tertiary Structure
protein structure referring to the irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains (R groups) of different amino acids; overall 3D shape of polypeptide; 3D shape stabilized by hydrogen bonds between atoms of polypeptide backbones
Secondary Structure
protein structure referring to the localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the polypeptide backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between the polypeptide backbone region
Quaternary Structure
protein structure referring to the particular shape of a complex, aggregate protein, defined by the characteristic three-dimensional arrangement of its constituent subunits, each a polypeptide
Primary Structure
protein structure referring to the specific sequence of amino acids; linear chain of amino acids; change sequence, change the protein
amine + carboxyl
proteins
central carbon attached to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen and some other structure
proteins
carboxyl
proteins, lipids. charged -COOH
methyl
proteins, nonpolar CH3
amino
proteins, nucleic acid. charged NH2
sulfhydryl
proteins. polar S-H
kingdoms of eukarya
protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
mass number/ atomic weight
protons + neutrons (average to account of neutron differences in isotopes)
atomic mass
protons+nuetrons measured in Daltons (6.02 x10 23)
what are the two types of nitrogen bases?
pyrimidines & purines
substances that start a chemical reaction
reactants
mass
refers to the amount of a substance
weight
refers to the force gravity exerts on a substance
Inducer regulates gene expression.
regulates gene expression
what is hydrophobic?
repels water
Alternative RNA splicing:
results in a single gene coding for multiple proteins
dissociation
reversal separation of protein subunits from quaternary structure without altering the tertiary structure.
octet rule
rule of eight, atoms tend to establish completely full outer energy levels
length angle, and direction of bonds between any two elements is always the
same
homologous
same evolutionary origin, but differ in structure and purpose
analogous
same function and purpose, but differ in evolutionary origin
cis isomers
same side of bond
single bonds between carbons
saturated
fatty acids can be both
saturated and unsaturated
what is science
science is a way of knowing
what is biology?
scientific study of living things (bios-life; logus-study/science)
biology
scientific study of organisms, living and fossil
a-helix
secondary structure: if peptide groups form too many hydrogen bonds with water the protein would tend to behave like a random coil into spiral form
b-sheet
secondary structure: peptide aligned next to each other to form planar structure
Cellular respiration: set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.
phospholipid
similar structure to a fat, but having only two fatty acids attached to the glycerol backbone with the third space linked to a phosphorylated molecule containing a polar head (phosphate containing) and a non-polar tail (fatty acid containing)
monosaccharides are also called ________
simple sugars
Monosaccharide-
simple sugars, 3-7 carbons, can be linear or ring formed
RNA is _______ stranded
single
hydrogen can only have what kind of bond?
single
molecule shapes can only rotate around a ______ bond?
single
single covalent bond
single bond that is shared between atoms
anaphase II of meiosis-
sister chromatids are separated
monomer
small, similar, subunits
saturated--> room temp? where is it found? # double bonds? examples?
solid at room temp; found in animals; no double bonds; ex: butter, bacon, beef
substance that is dissolved
solute
does the dissolving/ dissolving agent
solvent
inductive reasoning
specific principles to predict general ex: if poodles, terriers have hair and all dogs you see have hair you may conclude that all dogs have hair
what is a gene
specific sequence of DNA that codes for a specific protein
amylose
starch with the simplest structure crystallizable form of starch composed of α-1→4 linkages, are unbranched around 20%
what are the functions of DNA
stores and transmits hereditary/genetic info (gives you genotypes)
functions of nucleic acids
storing information (DNA) transmitting information (RNA)
shows bonds of each atom in space
structural formula
differ in covalent arrangement
structural isomers
functions of carbohydrates
structural support energy storage
what is a chromosome
structure that contains DNA
nuetrons
subatomic particle of an atom locate in the nucleus and has a neutral charge
protons
subatomic particle of an atom located in the nucleus and has a positive charge
electrons
subatomic particle of an atom located in the orbitals/shells that are negatively charged
enantiomers
subcategory of stereoisomers, mirror images of one another -dextrorotatory= rotate plane to right -levorotatory= rotate plane to left
solute
substance dissolved in a solution
Corepressor is a
substance that inhibits the expression of genes. inducible operon, regulatory repressor protein is normally bound to the operator, which prevents the transcription of the genes on the operon.
quaternary structure
subunit arrangements. when two or more polypeptide chains associate to form functinal protein
glucose + fructose =
sucrose (table sugar)
What builds the backbone of a double helix DNA?
sugar-phosphate
Disaccharide-
sugars fromed by joining two monosacchardies through a "glycosidic lineage"(examples- Lactose, Sucrose, Maltose)
if cells are small, the surface area to volume ratio is greater or lower?
surface area increases while the total volume remains the same
what group of the phospholipids is hydrophobic?
tails
binding capacity of carbon
tends to form 4 covalent bonds, can form single, double, or triple bonds
what is scientific law; give example
tested theory, has been observed to occur without variation under the same conditions; law of thermodynamics
-gen
that which produces
which carbon number of the pentose sugar is the phosphate group attached to?
the 5th carbon
electronegativity
the ability of an atom to attract shared electrons -high electronegativity
energy
the ability to do work
Mendel's law of independent assortment:
the allele a gamete receives for one gene does not influence the allele received for another gene.
one mole of something is the same as
the amount in grams equal to its molecular mass
specific heat
the amount of heat 1g of a substance must absorb or lose to change its temperature by 1-degree celsius
gene
the basic unit of hereditary; sequence of DNA nucleotides on a chromosome that encodes a protein
what is the basic structural and functional unit of life?
the cell
Peptide Bond
the covalent bond between two amino acid units, formed by a dehydration reaction; repeated over and over, process yields a polypeptide
Double Helix
the form of native DNA, referring to its tow adjacent polynucleotide strands wound into a spiral shape
Nucleotide
the monomer of a nucleic acid, consisting of a five-carbon sugar covalently bonded to a nitrogenous base and a phosphate group
Deoxyribose
the pentose sugar component of DNA, having one less hydroxyl group than ribose, the sugar component of RNA
Ribose
the pentose sugar component of RNA
Nucleoside
the portion of a nucleotide without any phosphate groups
Monosaccharide
the simplest carbohydrate, active alone or serving as a monomer for disaccharides and polysaccharides; also known as simple sugars; molecular formulas are generally some form of CH2O
what is the importance of greater surface area-to-volume in smaller cells?
the smaller the cell is, the greater surface area to volume the smaller the cell is, the faster the rate of metabolism, transportation, and growth.
Protein structure
the structure of a protein determines its function
Monomer
the subunit that serves as the building block of a polymer
what is the major source of energy in the earth
the sun
hydrophobic exclusion
the tendency of nonpolar molecules to aggregate in water
control experiment
the variable is left unaltered
what is common among steroids?
they have a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings
triglyceride
three fatty acids for one glycerol which is the basic structure of lipids
Found only in DNA
thymine
organelle
tiny structures that complex molecules are assembled into
