Blood

Red Blood Cells

(Eryhrocytes) Transports oxygen from lungs to all living tissues of the body and carry away carbon dioxide

White Blood Cells

(Leukocytes) Gets rid of dead blood cells

Immune Proteins

(gammaglobulins); also known as antibodies; made by leukocytes, components of immune system

Names of the two basic categories Leukocytes are divided into

*Granulocytes* contain cytoplasmic granules that are released when activated while *agranulocytes* lack visible granules

T Lymphocytes

Also activated by specific antigens; do not produce antibodies; have membrane-bound receptors for individual antigens ______________ activate other immune system components and directly destroy abnormal body cells, such as cancer cells or virally infected cells

Platelets

Clots blood

Eosinophils

Have a bilobed nucleus and appear red due to the uptake of eosin dye -Phagocytes that ingest foreign molecules Respond to infections with parasitic worms and allergic reactions

What is the most and least common blood type in U.S.?

Most: O+ Least: AB-

Hemostasis Part 3: Coagulation

Process that forms molecular glue; binds platelets, endothelial cells, and other formed elements together Cascade of events proceeds down two pathways: Intrinsic Extrinsic Both converge at a common pathway; leads to activation of fibrin

What's the best way to approach the coagulation cascade? Remember that the entire process has three simple goals:

Produce factor Xa Produce thrombin Produce fibrin The end result of both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways is the same: activation of factor X to the active enzyme factor Xa.

Hemostasis

The process that results in the formation and removal of a blood clot.

Hemostasis Part 2: Platelet plug formation

A patch, consisting mostly of platelets, adheres only to injury site, further reducing blood loss.

Hemostasis Part 1: Vascular Spasms

Begins immediately when a blood vessel is injured and blood leaks into extracellular fluid with following two responses -Vasoconstriction and increased tissue pressure both act to decrease blood vessel diameter -Blood loss is minimized as both blood pressure and blood flow are reduced locally by these responses

Transport Proteins

Bind to lipid-based molecules that otherwise are incompatible with mostly water-based plasma; allows transportation of these molecules in blood

Maintaining body temperature

Blood carries away heat generated as a byproduct of many chemical reactions in body

Mechanisms of hemostasis

Blood coagulation involves the interaction of three pathways: - activation of blood coagulation, inhibition of blood coagulation, dissolving of blood clots - The extent of blood coagulation is determined by which of these three pathways predominate. - The state of the tissue, hormones, and other circulating factors (e.g. endotoxin) determine which of the three factors predominate.

Three types of Formed Elements

Erythrocytes - also known as red blood cells (RBCs) Leukocytes - also known as white blood cells (WBCs) Platelets - small cellular fragments

Explain the regulation of erythropoiesis through erythropoietin

Erythropoietin triggers negative feedback loop; maintains hematocrit within normal range

Describe the basic functions of blood.

Exchanging gases, Distributing solutes, Performing immune functions, Maintaining body temperature, Functioning in blood clotting, Preserving acid-base homeostasis, & Stabilizing blood pressure

What are the plasma proteins and where in the body are they produced?

Form a colloid and make up about 9% of plasma volume - most made by the liver. Albumin Immune Proteins Transport Proteins Clotting Proteins

Other 1% of Plasma volume include what?

Glucose, amino acids, ions dissolved gases, and wastes

Discuss the difference in leukopoiesis of granulocytes and agranulocytes.

Granulocytes are characterized by granules in the cytoplasm Agranulocytes lack granules in the cytoplasm

Each polypeptide is bound to an iron-containing compound called what?

Heme group

Describe the process of hemostasis, including the vascular phase, the formation of the platelet plug, and the formation of fibrin.

Hemostasis involves a series of events that form a gelatinous blood clot to "plug" the broken vessel. Primary function is to limit significant blood loss. Steps: Part 1: Vascular Spasm Part 2: Platelet Plug Formation Part 3: Coagulation (Intrinsic and Extrinsic Pathway) Part 4: Clot Retraction Part 5: Thrombolysis

Distinguish between the terms hemostasis and coagulation.

Hemostasis refers to cessation of blood flow through an injured vessel, whereas coagulation refers to solidification of plasma.

Formed Elements

Include cells and cell fragments found suspended in plasma

The other basic Leukocyte; Argunulocytes

Include lymphocytes and monocytes both of which lack visible cytoplasmic granules; do contain lysosomes (like granulocytes)

Explain the differences between the intrinsic and extrinsic clotting cascades.

Intrinsic Pathway, so named because all involved clotting factors are found *in* blood, important in specific circumstances such as a very clean cut (slower) Extrinsic Pathway, so named because it is initiated by a factor *outside* blood, most important for the overall clotting.

Albumin

Large protein synthesized in liver; responsible for blood's colloid osmotic pressure; draws water into blood by osmosis

Leukocytes (White Blood cells)

Larger than erythrocytes with a prominent nucleus; use blood-stream as transportation; generally don't perform their functions within blood -Adhere to walls of blood vessels then squeeze between endothelial cells to enter surrounding tissue

Monocytes

Largest leukocyte; large U-shaped nuclei surrounded by light blue or purple cytoplasm. Only circulate in blood briefly before exiting capillaries to enter tissues where some mature into macrophages

Basophils

Least common leukocyte; Have an S-shaped nucleus and appear dark purple due to uptake of methylene blue dye

Neutrophils

Most common leukocyte; have cytoplasmic granules that absorb both dyes; stains their cytoplasm a light lilac color -Active phagocytes that ingest and destroy bacterial cells; Also called polymorphonucleocytes (polys or PMNs); uniquely shaped nucleus composed of three to five lobes

Garnulocytes are divide into three categories based on color :light lilac, dark purple, or red, when stained with basic methylene blue or acidic eosin dye. What are they?

Neurophils, Eosinophil, Basophil

Describe the overall composition of plasma

Pale yellow liquid whose volume is 90% water; factor in determining viscosity, or thickness, of blood

Macrophages

Phagocytic cells that ingest dead and dying cells, bacteria, antigens, and other cellular debris

Describe the major components of blood.

Plasma, Red Blood Cells, White Blood Cells, and Platelets

Discuss the role of the megakaryocyte in the formation of platelets.

Platelets are produced from very large bone marrow cells called megakaryocytes from the myeloid cell line.

Discuss the process of thrombolysis.

Process that begins after injury has healed and blood clotting is no longer necessary. It is a break down of blood clots formed in blood vessels using medication.

Garnulocytes

Readily distinguished by their unusual nuclei; single nucleus composed of multiple connected lobes.

Lymphocyte

Second most common leukocyte in blood, contain large, spherical nuclei and a light blue rim of cytoplasm Two basic types; (B lymphocytes - B Cells & T lymphocytes - T Cells) similar appearances but different functions; both types are activated by cellular markers found on all cells called antigens

Describe the structure and function of erythrocytes.

Shape and components of erythrocytes facilitate their transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide through blood. Typical erythrocyte, or red blood cell (RBC), is a biconcave disc; flattened, donut-shaped cell that is concave on both sides

Explain the basic process of erythropoiesis

Specific hematopoietic process that produces red blood cells (erythrocytes). Takes approximately 5-7 days to complete. It is stimulated by decreased O2 in circulation, which is detected by the kidneys, which then secrete the hormone erythropoietin.

Clotting Proteins

Stop bleeding from injured blood vessels by forming a blood clot with assistance from platelets

What are platelets?

The smallest of the formed elements, are involved in hemostasis, a process that stops blood loss from an injured blood vessel.

Fibrin

Threadlike protein that converts a soft, liquid platelet plug into a more substantial solid mass; found circulating in plasma and in platelets in an inactive form called fibrinogen Fibrinogen is converted into fibrin by a series of reactions that occur at surface of platelets and/or damaged endothelial cells; called coagulation cascade

Describe the causes and symptoms of anemia.

Three primary causes: decreased hemoglobin, decreased hematocrit, and abnormal hemoglobin. General symptoms include: pallor (pale skin), fatigue, weakness, and shortness of breath Most common form: Iron deficiency

Explain the components after being separated into three distinct layers

Top layer: Plasma - 55% Middle layer: Buffy Coat - 1% Bottom layer: Erythrocytes, also called hematocrit - 44&

ABO blood group features two antigens, A and B antigens; gives rise to four ABO types:

Type A - only A antigen is present on erythrocytes Type B - only B antigen is present on erythrocytes Type AB - both A and B antigens are present on erythrocytes Type O - neither A nor B antigens are present on erythrocytes; there is no O antigen; O denotes absence of A and B antigens only

Explain how the positive feedback loops in the platelet and coagulation phases promote hemostasis.

........

Describe the role of calcium ions and vitamin K in blood clotting

Vitamin K is essential for normal blood clotting. The synthesis of four clotting factors; II, VII, IX, and X - depends on the presence of vitamin K. These vitamin K dependent clotting factors are important targets of drug therapy intended to block coagulation. Vitamin K is responsible for the addition of areas of negative charge to some of the clotting factor. These areas of negative charge permit the binding of Ca2+ to the clotting factor's. Calcium ions are required for the interaction of factors with platelets in the platelet plug.

B Lymphocytes

When activated, produce antibodies which bind to and remove antigens from tissues Each population of ______________ secretes antibodies that bind only to a specific unique antigen

Preserving acid-base homeostasis

pH of blood is maintained between 7.35-7.45; remains relatively constant as blood contains several important buffering systems

Distributing solutes

plasma transports ions, nutrients, hormones, and wastes, and plays a role in regulating ion concentrations in tissues

Functioning in blood clotting

platelets and certain proteins form blood clot; seals damaged blood vessels to prevent blood loss

How many liters of blood flows through the body's blood vessels at all times?

5 Liters

What percent of total body weight does blood make up?

8%

A-

Antigens Present: A Antibodies Present: Anti-B, Anti-Rh May Receive From: A-, O- May Donate To: AB+, AB-, A+, A-

AB-

Antigens Present: A, B Antibodies Present: Anti-Rh May Receive From: AB-, A-, B-, O- May Donate To: AB+, AB-

AB+

Antigens Present: A, B, Rh Antibodies Present: None May Receive From: Universal Recipient May Donate To: AB+

A+

Antigens Present: A, Rh Antibodies Present: Anti-B May Receive From:A+, A-, O+, O- May Donate To: AB+, A+

B-

Antigens Present: B Antibodies Present: Anti-A, Anti-Rh May Receive From: B-, O- May Donate To: AB+, AB-, B+, B-

B+

Antigens Present: B, Rh Antibodies Present: Anti-A May Receive From: B+, B-, O+, O- May Donate To: AB+, B+

O-

Antigens Present: None Antibodies Present: Anti-A, Anti-B, Anti-Rh May Receive From: O- May Donate To: Universal Donor

O+

Antigens Present: Rh Antibodies Present: Anti-A, Anti-B May Receive From: O+, O- May Donate To: AB+, A+, B+, O+

Explain the role of surface antigens on erythrocytes in determining blood groups.

Antigens on erythrocytes (genetically determined carbohydrate chains) give rise to different blood groups Two groups of the 30 different antigens found on erythrocytes are particularly useful for clinical use: ABO blood group and Rh blood group.

Stabilizing blood pressure

Blood volume is a major factor in determining blood pressure

Performing immune functions

Both leukocytes and immune system proteins are transported throughout body in blood

Exchanging Gases

Both oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in blood

Describe the structure and function of hemoglobin, as well as its breakdown products.

Carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the body and also helps in the transportation of carbon dioxide and hydrogen ions back to the lungs. It is a large protein that consists of four polypeptide subunits: two alpha chains and two beta chains

Plasma

Carries red cells, white cells, and platelets and provides nutrients

What is anemia?

Common condition defined as a decreased oxygen-carrying capacity of blood

Explain how platelets differ structurally from the other formed elements of blood.

Don't have nuclei or organelles found in most whole cells. Contain several types of granules; contain clotting factors, enzymes, some mitochondria, and glycogen deposits; enable them to carry out oxidative catabolism; Also contain cytoskeletal elements; include microtubules associated with actin and myosin filaments