C13: Psychoanalysis: The Beginnings
Resistance
A blockage or refusal to disclose painful memories during a free association session.
The Mommy Track
A boy dreams of his mother being carried by bird-like creatures 30 years later the dream is still emotional to the dreamer, Sigmund Freud Freud analyzes the symbolic content
Psychosexual stages are the developmental stages of childhood centering on societal sexual norms.
False
Repression is the process of ejecting or excluding from the unconsciousness any unacceptable ideas, memories, and desires.
False
Resistances referred to the point at which patients refused to continue treatment.
False
Resistances were when therapists reached a point where they considered it unhelpful to continue treatment.
False
The Freudian concept of dream symbolism can be traced to Freud's childhood.
False
The Oedipus complex is the conscious desire of a boy for his mother.
False
The first patient treated with psychoanalysis proved its effectiveness with her complete recovery.
False
The id contains our basic physical energy.
False
The id serves as the mediator between the ego and the circumstances of the external world.
False
The major conceptions of mental illness in the 19th century were the psychic and the mental.
False
The patient answers specific questions in free association.
False
The primary methods of psychoanalysis are the clinical methods of extirpation.
False
The superego develops in adulthood when the person assimilates the rules of conduct taught by society.
False
To Freud, instincts were mental representations of external stimuli that motivate people.
False
Transference occurs when a patient responds to the therapist as if the therapist were a complete stranger.
False
When real motives are seen by the person as casual, it is referred to as a Freudian slip.
False
Catharsis is using Aristotle's concept: a way of treating emotional difficulties by having the patient recall and describe unconscious conflicts.
True
Catharsis reduces a complex by recalling it to conscious awareness.
True
Defense mechanisms are adopted to protect the ego against anxiety.
True
Defense mechanisms are unconscious denials or distortions of reality.
True
Dream analysis was a psychotherapeutic technique.
True
Free association occurs when the patient lies on a couch and is encouraged to talk openly and spontaneously.
True
Freud claimed to have discovered a method for studying the human unconscious.
True
Freud hypothesized that almost all the symptoms of hysteria are residuals of psychic traumas, i.e., reminiscences.
True
Freud realized that he could not analyze himself with the free-association technique so he used dream analysis.
True
Freud retained catharsis as a treatment method and developed from it the technique of free association.
True
Freud's discovery of his patient's resistances led him to formulate the fundamental principle of repression.
True
Freud's doctrine of psychic determinism was influenced by the physiologist Brücke
True
Freud's doctrine of psychic determinism was influenced by the physiologist Brücke.
True
Freud's neurotic symptoms marked the development of dream analysis, his technique of self-analysis.
True
Freud's position that childhood seduction was imaginary was disputed in the 1930s by Ferenczi.
True
Freud's primary method of analysis was free association.
True
Freud's system was deterministic and mechanistic.
True
Id corresponds roughly to Freud's earlier notion of unconscious.
True
Instincts are the propelling or motivating forces of the personality, the biological forces that release mental energy.
True
Janet proposed that hysteria was caused by mental phenomena.
True
Leibnitz developed the idea of monadology.
True
Libido is the form of energy through which life instincts are manifested.
True
Libido is the psychic energy that drives a person.
True
Monads were not physical atoms but were nevertheless considered to be the individual elements of all reality.
True
Psychosexual stages are the developmental stages of childhood centering on erogenous zones.
True
Repression is the process of ejecting or excluding from consciousness any unacceptable ideas, memories, and desires.
True
Resistances referred to blockage or refusal to disclose painful memories.
True
Resistances were when patients reached a point in their recollections where they were unable or unwilling to continue.
True
Sigmund Freud believed that his system was one of three great shocks to Western civilization.
True
The Oedipus complex is the unconscious desire of a boy for his mother.
True
The ego serves as the mediator between the id and the circumstances of the external world.
True
The id contains our basic psychic energy.
True
The most prevalent theme in Freud's dreams was ambition.
True
The patient says whatever comes to mind in free association.
True
The schools of psychology arising concurrent with Freud's system were distinct from his in their attempt to maintain a pure science.
True
The superego develops early in life when the child assimilates the rules of conduct taught by parents or caregivers
True
To Freud, instincts were mental representations of internal stimuli that motivate people.
True
Transference occurs when a patient responds to the therapist as if the therapist were a significant person.
True
When what might seem casual is actually a reflection of real, though unacknowledged, motives, it is referred to as a Freudian slip.
True
Wundt and Titchener rejected the unconscious as subject matter because it could not be studied experimentally.
True
Freud attempted to develop his system using the principles of --- related to mechanics, electricity, and hydraulics
physics
Id
The source of psychic energy and the aspect of personality allied with the instincts.
Psychosexual stages of personality development
"In psychoanalytic theory, the developmental stages of childhood centered on erogenous zones." Key Freudian conviction: neuroses arise from childhood experiences Thus Freud one of the first to emphasize the importance of child development By age 5: adult personality almost completed Children are autoerotic: sensual pleasure derives from stimulation of bodies erogenous zones Each stage focuses on a different erogenous zone Inadequate (too little or too much) stimulation at a given stage leads to adult behaviors tied to that stage Oral stage Erogenous zone = mouth Birth to age 2 Primary source of sensual pleasure is stimulation of the mouth through sucking, biting, swallowing Inadequate stimulation: adult with habits focused on the mouth, e.g., smoking or eating or exhibiting behaviors such as undue optimism or sarcasm Anal stage Erogenous zone = anus Age 2 to 4 Primary source of sensual pleasure is stimulation of the anus through expelling or withholding feces Issue: control; obeying or disobeying parents' wishes Inadequate stimulation: adult who is messy, dirty, wasteful (anal-expulsive) or one who is exceedingly neat, clean, compulsive (anal-retentive) Phallic stage Erogenous zone = genitals Age 4 to 5 Primary source of sensual pleasure is stimulation of the genitals through fondling or exhibition or through sexual fantasies Occurrence of Oedipus complex: "At ages 4 to 5, the unconscious desire of a boy for his mother and the desire to replace or destroy his father." In general: child attracted to opposite sex parent and fearful of the rival same sex parent Resolution of the complex: identification with same sex parent; socially acceptable form of affection for opposite sex parent Attitudes toward the opposite sex that develop persist into adulthood Child assumes the same-sex parent's superego standards if identification is complete Latency stage No erogenous zone Age 5-12 Genital stage Erogenous zone = genitals Onset of puberty Heterosexual behavior is prominent Love/marriage, work, parenthood
The Development of Psychoanalysis: Freud's place in history
"Psychoanalysis" and "Sigmund Freud": known all over world Freud recognizable to general public Cover of Time magazine: 3 times, once 60 years after death Recently revered on 150th anniversary of his birth (2006) Pivotal person in history of civilization Changed the way we think of ourselves Three great shocks to the collective human ego (Freud, 1917) Copernicus: earth not center of universe Darwin: humans not a distinctive species Freud: unconscious forces rather than rational thought govern our lives Chronological overlap with other schools of thought 1895 : Formal beginning of psychoanalysis Wundt: age 63 Titchener: age 28 Functionalism: beginning to thrive in U.S. Watson: age 17 Wertheimer: age 15 1939: Freud's death Wundtian psychology, structuralism, and functionalism were past Gestalt psychology: in the process of transplantation Behaviorism was dominant
Instincts
"To Freud, mental representations of internal stimuli (such as hunger) that motivate personality and behavior." Propelling or motivating forces Biological forces that release mental imagery Are not inherited predispositions Did not use the German Instinkt: innate drives in animals Did use the German Trieb: human impulse or driving force Not inherited predispositions More exactly, sources of stimulation within the body Goal: to remove or reduce the stimulation through behavior, e.g., eating, drinking, sexual intercourse The life instincts, e.g., hunger, thirst, sex Relate to self-preservation and survival of the species Manifested in libido: "To Freud, the psychic energy that drives a person toward pleasurable thoughts and behaviors." The death instinct, e.g., suicide, hatred, aggression Destructive force Can be directed inward or outward The construct Appeared autobiographical Supposedly a response to personal experience of cancer, war horror, and family deaths, but new research refutes this He did have awareness of own aggressiveness and capacity to hate Bitterness and irrevocability with which he severed relationships with dissenting colleagues Aggression-as-motivator acceptable but death instinct not accepted by psychoanalysts
The Sexual Basis of Neurosis
1885: Freud received a mini-grant to study with Charcot Trained in hypnosis to treat hysteria Charcot became his father-figure Attracted to Charcot's daughter; imagined career advancement through marriage with her Informed by Charcot of the function of sex in hysteria Upon return to Vienna, Rudolph Chrobak, gynecologist, reinforced possible link between sex and emotional problems Freud became dissatisfied with hypnosis A long-term cure not effected Patients vary in ability to be hypnotized Retained catharsis as a treatment method Developed the method of free association (intrusion, evasion) Free association: "a psychotherapeutic technique in which the patient says whatever comes to mind." Goal of psychoanalysis: bring repressed memories into conscious awareness Repressed memories: the source of abnormal behavior Free association material Not random The experiences recalled are predetermined Cannot be consciously censored The nature of the conflict forces the material out to be articulated to therapist Its roots were in early childhood Much of it concerned sexual matters 1898: "...the most significant causes of neurotic illness are to be found in factors arising from sexual life"
Studies on Hysteria
1895: Studies on Hysteria written by Breuer and Freud The formal beginning of psychoanalysis (term 1st used by Freud one year later) Contained papers by both authors plus case histories, including that of Anna O. Mostly favorable reviews throughout Europe Conflicts between Breuer and Freud Breuer reluctant to publish Not convinced, as was Freud, that sex is the sole cause of neurosis Breuer felt Freud had insufficient evidence Disagreement between them led to estrangement Freud's position Believed he was right; therefore no need for additional data Concerned that delay in publication might result in others laying claim to same ideas May reveal Freud's ambition Breuer concerned with Freud's dogmatic attitudes Complete break between the two within a few years Freud resentful But gave Breuer written credit as a pioneer in hysteria treatment Upon Breuer's death in 1925, a considerably mellowed Freud wrote a perceptive obituary and sent a sympathy letter to Breuer's son
The Pinnacle of Success
1901: The Psychopathology of Everyday Life Freudian slip: "An act of forgetting or a lapse in speech that reflects unconscious motives or anxieties." Occur in everyday life Appear to be casual but signal inner motives 1902: began weekly psychoanalytic discussion group with students Included Jung and Adler Most viewed as neurotic themselves Discussed own problems as well as those of others Freud would brook no disagreement about the role of sexuality in the genesis of emotional problems Those who deviated were expelled 1905: Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality 1909: Freud and Jung invited by G. Stanley Hall to Clark University's 20th anniversary Freud lectured; received honorary doctorate in psychology Self-described in lectures as scientist and therapist with significant findings Received with high regard James, Titchener, and Cattell were among the leading American psychologists with whom he met 1909/1910: publication of the Clark lectures in the American Journal of Psychology, with numerous translations His work discussed at American Psychological Association meeting 1911: American Psychoanalytic Association founded Americans very receptive to idea of unconscious mind Had been introduced to concept by writings of Canadian H. Addington Bruce Freud critical of America 1911: the break with Adler 1914: the break with Jung 1923: diagnosis of cancer, followed by 33 surgeries in 16 years, continues to smoke 20 cigars a day 1933: public burning of Freud's books by the Nazis 1934: Nazi obliteration of psychoanalysis in Germany 1938 Anna Freud arrested and detained by the Nazis Move to Paris, then London 1939: death by overdose of morphine injected by Dr. Max Schur who had promised not to let Freud suffer
The influence of Charles Darwin
1979: Freud: Biologist of the Mind by Frank J. Sulloway Studied books in Freud's library, including those by Darwin All Darwin's works read by Freud, who made marginal notes Enormous influence on Freud
Benjamin Rush (1745-1813)
1st practicing psychiatrist in U.S. Signed Declaration of Independence Started 1st psychiatric hospital Mechanistic forms of treatment Hypothesis: some irrational symptoms due to excess or deficit of blood Solution: drain or infuse with blood Devised revolving chair: rapidly rotate patients at high speed Used type of shock treatment: plunged patients into ice water First tranquilizing technique: restrained in a chair; pressure to head via wooden blocks held by vise Methods appear extreme to us but were used to relieve sickness rather than merely institutionalizing patients and ignoring them or worse Two major schools of thought in psychiatry Somatic: causes of abnormal behavior are physical, e.g., brain lesions or "understimulated" or "tight" nerves Dominant view Supported by Kant Psychic: causes of abnormal behavior are emotional or psychological Psychoanalysis: a revolt against the somatic orientation
Free association
A psychotherapeutic technique in which the patient says whatever comes to mind.
Dream analysis defn
A psychotherapeutic technique involving the interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts.
Hypnosis
Advanced emerging focus on psychological causes of mental illness
Gustav Fechner
Also used threshold concept Mind: iceberg analogy Much of mind is unconscious (concealed below surface of water) Is influenced by unobservable forces 1860: Elements of Psychophysics Influenced psychoanalysis as well as experimental psychology Freud quoted from Fechner Freud took ideas from Fechner: Pleasure principle Psychic energy Pmportance of aggression 1880's Europe: ideas about the unconscious A part of the intellectual climate A fashionable topic of conversation Book called Philosophy of the Unconscious: 9 editions attest to its popularity Freud claimed did not originate the unconscious, only a way to scientifically study it
Freudian slip
An act of forgetting or a lapse in speech that reflects unconscious motives or anxieties.
Occurs when the ego is being threatened
Anxiety
Oedipus complex
At ages four to five, the unconscious desire of a boy for his mother and the desire to replace or destroy his father.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) and the Development of Psychoanalysis
Background Born in Freiburg, Moravia (now Pribor, Czech Republic) Moved to Vienna when four; lived there approximately 80 years Much of his theory is autobiographical Father 20 years older than mother Strict, authoritarian Both feared and loved by Freud Mother: Protective, loving Freud emotionally attached to her She was enormously proud of him Oedipus complex: Fear of father Sexual attraction to mother As a young student: Early signs of intellectual ability Accordingly given special treatment and privileges Entered high school a year early and preformed brilliantly University career Darwin's theory: elicited an interest in science 1873: began study of medicine at University of Vienna Goal: research, not practice Eight years to get his degree: took courses outside of medical curriculum, e.g., philosophy Initially concentrated on biology: eel testicle morphology Inconclusive findings Sexually related topic Moved to physiology: the spinal cord of the fish 6 years in physiological institute Experimented with cocaine Not illegal Use: for self, friends and family, medical patients Enthusiastically maintained it ameliorated his depression and indigestion Called it a miracle drug; thought it would lead to his fame Carl Koller, a colleague, learned of drug through Freud; used it to anesthetize eye during surgery Freud's article on cocaine benefits in part responsible for its widespread use in U.S. and Europe until 1920s For rest of career downplayed his initial approval Used it himself until middle age Wished for appointment in academic research lab Brücke, his professor and director of the physiological lab where Freud trained, dissuaded him Used financial grounds Would take years to obtain professorship Freud too poor to provide for himself in interim 1881: earned MD and started clinical neurology practice Did not like his work Money kept him going Engaged to Martha Bernays Several wedding dates postponed due to finances When did marry, Freud pawned watches and borrowed money to pay costs 4 year engagement to Martha Highly jealous of her Wanted to be center of her affection Would prefer she renounce her family Spent little time with her or their children Vacationed alone or with sister-in-law Minna Said Martha could not keep up with him while hiking and sightseeing
Defense mechanisms
Behaviors that represent unconscious denials or distortions of reality but which are adopted to protect the ego against anxiety.
James Braid (1795-1860)
Called trancelike conditions neurohypnology, later known as hypnosis Meticulous work Contempt for overstated claims Impact: lent scientific respectability to study of hypnosis
Process of reducing or eliminating a complex by recalling it to conscious awareness and allowing it to be expressed
Catharsis
Pierre Janet (1859-1947)
Charcot's student Director of psychological laboratory at Salpêtrière Rejected conception of hysteria as somatic Hypothesized that mental phenomena (e.g., memory problems or unconscious forces) are causes Used hypnosis as the method of treatment Influenced Freud Significance of Charcot's and Janet's work with the mentally ill Psychiatrists began changing from somatic to psychic point of view Treatment of emotional disturbances: focus on mind, not body In U.S. and Europe, psychotherapy was a common practice by time of Freud's 1st book
Contributions of Psychoanalysis
Despite concerns about scientific adequacy, which exist for all theories, psychoanalysis has been accepted by its advocates on the basis of other types of evidence The experimental method is not the sole method for discovery Tntuitive plausibility is another criterion Strong impact on American academic psychology Attention to Freudian concepts continues at a high level Interest in psychoanalytic therapy has decreased both in terms of clients and of trained analysts Freudian therapy: expensive, long-term investment Alternative therapies: less expensive, briefer Contextual forces: cost-cutting of health management organizations and development of psychoactive drugs Enormous impact on popular culture Misinterpretation of Freud's message about sex: did not advocate sexual freedom but instead thought that inhibition of the sex drive was essential for the continuation of civilization Regardless of his intention, Freud's emphasis on sex led in part to increase in sexual liberation and to the popularity of his ideas Notwithstanding concerns about lack of scientific accuracy and methodological problems, Freudian psychology vitally affected contemporary psychology
Use to find hidden and symbolic content in order to detect unconscious conflicts
Dream Analysis
Levels of personality
Early conception: two parts of mental life, conscious and unconscious Conscious part like tip of iceberg Small and insignificant A superficial representation of the total personality Unconscious part like the huge, submerged part of iceberg Vast and powerful Contains the instincts; driving forces of behavior Revised conception: conscious/unconscious distinction replaced by id, ego, superego representation Id (Es or "it"): "The source of psychic energy and the aspect of personality allied with the instincts." Corresponds more or less to earlier unconscious The most primitive and least accessible part of personality Tncludes sexual and aggressive instincts "cauldron full of seething excitations" (Freud) Irrational, unrelenting passions and blind cravings Unaware of reality Operates in accord with the pleasure principle Goal: reduce tension Methods: seek pleasure; avoid pain Contains basic psychic energy (libido) Ultimately, to satisfy needs and balance tension, interactions with the external world become necessary Ego (Ich or "I"): "The rational aspect of personality responsible for controlling the instincts." The mediating agent between id and the external world Goal: to facilitate their interaction Represents rational thought, reason Freud himself used term "ego" infrequently; did not like it Is aware of reality and manipulates it to regulate id Operates in accord with the reality principle: restraining id urges until suitable object is located which fills the need and thus reduces tension Derives its power from id, cannot exist independent of id Superego (über-Ich or "above I"): "The moral aspect of personality derived from internalizing parental and societal values and standards." Develops when child incorporates rules of behavior from caregivers Develops in response to a system of rewards and punishments Two parts of superego: Conscience: child's incorporation of what the caretakers (as representatives of society) think is wrong and punishable Ego-ideal: child's incorporation of what the caretakers consider to be acceptable and worthy of reward Represents morality Goal: perfection Attempts to completely inhibit id Represents a conflict model of personality: unremitting struggle among id, ego, and superego
Monads were considered to be physical atoms that were the individual elements of all reality.
False
Ideas from Romanes
Elaboration on developmental continuity in emotional expression from childhood to adulthood Idea that sex drive appears as young as 7 weeks
The Emmanuel Movement
Emmanuel Church Healing Movement Fostered drift to psychic approach in U.S. Advocated psychotherapy Focus on talk therapy increased salience of psychological causes of mental illness to both general public and therapeutic community Originator: Elwood Worcester Rector of Emmanuel Church, Boston, Massachusetts Ph.D. in philosophy and psychology from University of Leipzig Studied under Wundt Height of movement: 1906-1910 Talk therapy sessions Both individual and group Led by religious leaders from different denominations Methods: power of suggestion and moral authority Goal: appropriate course of patient behavior Outcome of movement Widespread popularity Magazine articles Best-selling book on "scientific psychotherapy": Religion and Medicine: the Moral Control of Nervous Disorders (Worcester and 2 co-authors). Opposition to ministers as psychotherapists: medical community + Witmer and Münsterberg Warm welcome for Freud/psychoanalysis in 1906 U.S. visit Talk therapy = part of zeitgiest
Neurohypnology was given scientific credibility by Janet.
False
Among Freud's few original ideas was the notion of catharsis.
False
Breuer, not Freud, coined the phrase "the talking cure".
False
Catharsis is using Aristotle's concept: a way of treating emotional difficulties by having the patient submerge unconscious conflicts even further.
False
Catharsis reduces a complex by submerging it in unconscious awareness.
False
Defense mechanisms are adopted to protect the id against anxiety.
False
Defense mechanisms are conscious denials or distortions of reality.
False
Dream analysis was never considered to be a psychotherapeutic technique.
False
Free association occurs when the patient lies on a couch and is required to answer specific questions.
False
Freud called his theory "unconscious determinism."
False
Freud developed catharsis as a treatment method from his technique of free association.
False
Freud did not distinguish between animal instincts and human drives or impulses.
False
Freud followed through on his intention to model psychology after physics.
False
Freud himself held a positive attitude toward sex.
False
Freud hypothesized that the three components of the human psyche are Es, Ich, and Trieb.
False
Freud initially proposed that neurotic behavior in adults was the result of positive transference with the parent of the opposite sex.
False
Freud posited that there are three types of instincts: the life instinct, the death instinct, and the sex instinct.
False
Freud realized that he could not analyze himself with dream analysis so he used the free-association technique.
False
Freud's break with Breuer was the result of the positive transference Anna O. developed for Freud while Breuer was on vacation.
False
Freud's discovery of his patient's repression led him to formulate the fundamental principle of resistances.
False
Freud's term for what is known as the superego was Einfall.
False
Freud's use of cocaine was limited to research and some careless affairs while still a young man.
False
Freudian slip does not refer to simple things like an act of forgetting or a lapse in speech.
False
Id was originally Freud's later notion of unconscious
False
Id was originally Freud's later notion of unconscious.
False
Instincts are the propelling or motivating forces of the intellect, the biological forces that store mental energy.
False
Kant's construct of apperception is comparable to Freud's notion of consciousness.
False
Leibnitz demonstrated that the idea of monadology was wrong.
False
Libido is the instinct through which life energies are manifested.
False
Libido is the physical energy that drives a person.
False
Psychoanalysis as a method of treatment
Free-association not always free Patients reached point of being unable or unwilling to continue Freud called these points resistances: "a blockage or refusal to disclose painful memories during a free-association session." Served as protection against emotional pain Pain indicated closeness to problem genesis Necessitated further probing on the part of the therapist Experience with resistance led Freud to develop principle of repression: "The process of barring unacceptable ideas, memories, or desires from conscious awareness, leaving them to operate in the unconscious mind." Job of therapist: bring repressed material back to conscious awareness To do so, patient and therapist must have a close personal relationship Therefore, transference was essential to therapeutic process One goal: wean patients from childlike dependency on therapist to function as adults Dream analysis Dreams represent a disguised satisfaction of repressed desires A dream's essence is wish fulfillment Two dream levels Manifest content: conscious dream recollection Latent content: underlying meaning Freud had no passion for helping Little personal interest in his system's potential therapeutic value Goal: the explanation of the dynamics of human behavior Viewed the techniques of association and dream analysis as research tools for data collection His passion was the research Was described as an indifferent therapist Sometimes allowed his dog, Jofi, to participate in therapy sessions Freud's system Unlike traditional experimental psychology of his time in both content and method Developed without experimental approach or statistics; used free association, dream analysis, and case histories instead Nonetheless, believed by him to be scientific Freud believed his cases and self-analysis provided ample support for his theories Based on evidence formulated, revised, and extended by Freud who was sole interpreter Guided by Freud's own critical abilities Freud insisted only psychoanalysts who abided by his methods could judge its scientific worth Rarely responded to his critics "Psychoanalysis was his system, and his alone."
Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893)
French physician Worked with insane women at Salpêtrière, a Paris hospital Found hypnosis an effective treatment of hysterical patients Used medical terminology in descriptions of symptoms and use of hypnosis Work primarily neurological, not psychological
Psychoanalysis as a System of Personality
Freud explored otherwise ignored areas: Unconscious motivating forces Conflicts among those forces Effects of the conflicts on behavior
The Childhood Seduction Controversy
Freud viewed sex as the key cause of neurosis Believed a normal sex life precludes neuroses 1896: based on free-association data, reported in a paper that patients exposed childhood seduction traumas often caused by the father or other older family member His conclusion: seduction traumas caused adult neurotic behavior Patients very tentative when describing the incident The paper was received with skepticism Krafft-Ebing: described it as a "scientific fairy tale" Freud response: "said his critics were asses and could go to hell." General conclusion by historians: negative reaction caused by audience shock and anger about suggestion of frequent child abuse Outcome: paper not the success that Freud hoped for 1897: Freud reversed his position The seduction scenes were fantasies Patients believed they were real experiences Fantasies sexual in nature, so sex remained the root of the problem For Freud, sex remained the cause of neurosis 1984: Jeffrey Masson, briefly director of Freud Archives, wrote that Freud lied Sexual abuse of Freud's patients actually occurred Freud called them fantasies to make his theory more agreeable to professionals and laymen Masson's claims denounced by most scholars Freud had thought that some reported abuse had actually happened; what he doubted was that they were as prevalent as reported by patients Contemporary data: child sexual abuse more frequent than professionals agree to Whether Freud deliberately suppressed the truth is undetermined 1930's Ferenczi determined there were real acts of sexual abuse 1932 psychoanalytic meeting, Freud unsuccessfully attempted to keep Ferenczi from speaking Led the resistance to Ferenczi's standpoint Other possible reason for reversal: if Freud's initial seduction theory was true, his father, like all fathers might be guilty of abuse
Act of forgetting or a lapse in speech that reflects unconscious motives or anxieties
Freudian slip
Additional Influences
From Freud's university training: Mechanistic orientation of Ernst Brücke, his major professor Prevailing determinist attitude reflected in Freud's concept of psychic determinism From zeitgeist: 19th century Viennese attitude toward sex Generally permissive Freud and neurotic upper-middle-class women: more sexually inhibited Victorian England and Puritan U.S.: not as stereotypically prim, proper, and inhibited as sometimes portrayed 1880s-1890s: from sublimation of sex to overt expression Sexual interest evident in everyday life and prior research Sexual pathologies Infantile sexuality The suppression of sexual impulses and its consequences Sex drive is present in children as young as 3 Adolf Patze, Germany: 1845 Henry Maudsley, Great Britain: 1867 Psychopathia Sexualis (Krafft-Ebing, 1886) Albert Moll (1897) Viennese physician Childhood sexuality The child's love for the parent of the opposite sex Moritz Benedickt Viennese neurologist and colleague of Freud Cures with hysterical women Patients talked about their sex lives Alfred Binet: published on sexual perversions Libido: a term already in use Receptive zeitgeist led to interest in Freud's concepts Catharsis: Already a popular concept 1890: more than 140 publications on topic in German Freud's concepts about dreams Anticipated in the literature of philosophy and physiology Already studied by Charcot, Janet, and Krafft-Ebing Freud's genius: his ability to weave the threads of ideas and trends into a tapestry of a coherent system
Criticisms of Psychoanalysis
General targets Freud's methods of data collection Conditions were unsystematic and uncontrolled Data consisted of what Freud recollected Freud may have reinterpreted patients' words Freud may have recalled and recorded primarily the material consistent with his theses Discrepancies exist between Freud's notes and the published case histories Freud destroyed most of his data (patient files) Only six case histories were published, and none provides compelling support Accuracy of patient's reports not corroborated Undisclosed reasoning process and method for deriving inferences and making generalizations from data Data not quantified or analyzed statistically Not possible to determine their reliability Freud's views on women Lack of penis as cause of women's alleged weak superegos and feelings of bodily inferiority Karen Horney's defection and ultimate retort: men have womb envy Verdict by contemporary analysts: Freud's views regarding psychosexual development of women unproven and wrong Social forces must be taken into consideration Criticisms by neo-Freudians The denial of free will The focus on past behavior and exclusion of hopes and goals for the future Theory based on neurotics, not on normal people Consequences: rise of alternative theories and increasing divisiveness within psychoanalysis
Freud's own sex life
Held a negative attitude toward sex Experienced sexual difficulties Intermittent impotence At times refrained from sex because disliked the available birth control methods, condoms and coitus interruptus Sexuality a dangerous, animal need Considered the act itself to be degrading Age 41: gave up sex Blamed wife Resented her fertility, morning sickness, refusal of sex except for procreation Attracted to beautiful women who became his students in inordinate numbers Freud became "a textbook example of his theory His sexual frustrations emerged as neuroses Year he gave up sex had "odd states of mind" Fears of death, travel, open spaces Diagnosed self as suffering from anxiety neurosis and neurasthenia as a consequence of sexual tension Krüll, 1986: "Freud's theory of actual neurosis is thus a theory of his own neurotic symptoms" Freud decided that he required psychoanalysis and analyzed himself using his dreams
Source of psychic energy and the aspect of personality allied with the instincts
Id
Psychosexual stages
In psychoanalytic theory, the developmental stages of childhood centering on erogenous zones.
Anxiety
Indicates ego is stressed or threatened Three types of anxiety Objective anxiety: fear of actual dangers Neurotic anxiety: derivative of objective anxiety; fear of punishment for expressing id impulses Moral anxiety: derivative of objective anxiety; fear of one's conscience, expressed through guilt or shame Anxiety produces tension which motivates a person to reduce it Defense mechanisms: "Behaviors that represent unconscious denials or distortions of reality but which are adopted to protect the ego against anxiety." Protective devices developed by the ego Unconscious Distort reality
Freud: mental representations of internal stimuli that motivate personality and behavior
Instincts
The Case of Anna O.
Josef Breuer (1842-1935) Famous for study of respiration Discovered the functioning of the semicircular canals Make friends with the younger Freud Successful, experienced father figure who lent money and gave advice to Freud Discussed patient cases with Freud, including Anna O. Anna O. Her case crucial to development of psychoanalysis 21 years old Intelligent, attractive Wide range of hysterical symptoms Symptoms first manifested while nursing her dying father with whom she was very close Breuer began with hypnosis When Anna talked about symptoms connected with specific experiences, symptoms abated Daily sessions for 1 year Anna's terms for symptom relief: "chimney sweeping" and "the talking cure" Repulsive acts recalled under hypnosis Reliving the experiences under hypnosis ameliorated the symptoms Positive transference Breuer's wife jealous of emotional bonds connecting her husband and Anna Anna transferring her love for her father to love for her therapist A threatened Breuer terminated the therapy Distorted data of history: the false pregnancy myth Hours after learning that her therapy had ended, Anna felt labor pains from hysterical childbirth Breuer ended the pregnancy through hypnosis For a type of second honeymoon, Breuer took wife to Venice Breuer's wife becomes pregnant Known fact: none of Breuer children was conceived at alleged time Anna O. (Bertha Pappenheim) not cured by Breuer Institutionalized Spend hours under portrait of father, talking about visiting his grave Exhibited a myriad of symptoms Addicted to the morphine prescribed by Breuer for facial pain Breuer described Anna as deranged to Freud; wished for her death to end her suffering Bertha Pappenheim's (Anna O's) later life Somehow overcame emotional problems Social worker Feminist Proponent of education for women Published short stories and women's rights play Honored on German postage stamp Anna O. case introduced Freud to the method of catharsis, the talking cure
Symbolic content of a dream
Latent content
Dorothea Dix (1802-1887)
Leading reformer of U.S. insane asylums Very religious Depressed Actively worked to establish Pinel's reforms all over U.S. Self-described advocate of the mentally ill
Monadology
Leibnitz's theory of psychic entities, called monads, which are similar to perceptions.
Dream analysis
Lesson from patients: dreams a rich source of information providing clues to causes of disorder His deterministic belief that everything has a cause led him to look for unconscious sources of the meaning in dreams Dream analysis: "A psychotherapeutic technique involving interpreting dreams to uncover unconscious conflicts." Every morning Freud wrote down dream as he remembered it and free associated to the resultant material Emergent themes Hostility toward father Childhood sexual attraction to mother Sexual wishes regarding eldest daughter Result: the basis of his theory Two-year duration of self-analysis 1900: The Interpretation of Dreams The culmination of Freud's self-analysis His major work Outlined the Oedipus complex For the most part favorably reviewed Read by Carl Jung, who adopted psychoanalysis Freud embraced dream analysis as a psychoanalytic technique Continued to analyze his own dreams at the end of each day Not much sexual content, contrary to his assertion that dreams can reveal infantile sexual desires Ambition was a significant dream theme, but was not a personal trait he accepted
Freud: psychic energy that drives a person toward pleasurable thoughts and behaviors
Libido
Philippe Pinel (1745-1826)
Mental illness is a biological phenomenon to be treated by natural-science methods Freed patients from chains Paid attention to their problems Maintained precise case histories Maintained careful records of cure rates Number of "cured" patients increased Concomitant changes in United States and Europe Chains removed from patients Mental illness became a research topic Patients as machines that need to be fixed when broken. Instruments used to aid "repair" of patients
An influence on the psychoanalytic movement was the shift in how those who are --- are treated by others
Mentally ill
Hypnosis had been present before Freud, and began with this
Mesmerism
Original source material on psychoanalysis from Freud's first lecture at Clark University, September 9, 1909
Modest introduction Discusses the following regarding Breuer's patient, Anna O. Breuer's role in the development of psychoanalysis Anna's symptoms Differentiation between symptoms of hysteria and those resulting from organic lesions Genesis of symptoms Anna tended for her father during illness that led to his death She herself fell ill while caring for him Suffered from absences during which she muttered words to herself Hypnotic treatment Breuer repeated Anna's words to her while she was hypnotized expressed her emotions during the absences For several hours afterward was symptom-free Fhe called the treatment "talking cure" or "chimney sweeping" Gives an example of apparent hydrophobia stemming from an encounter with her disliked governess and the latter's dog who drank water from a glass Describes Breuer's meticulous efforts to replicate the treatment Freud deduces that symptoms of psychic traumas determined by original sources and perhaps repeated trauma; later traumas must be cleared away before original can be dealt with Freud's conclusion: "Our hysterical patients suffer from reminiscences. Their symptoms are the remnants and the memory-symbols of certain traumatic experiences."
The Scientific Validation of Psychoanalytic Concepts
More valid tests of Freudian concepts followed the more unconvincing studies of the 1930s and 1940s Major analysis of 25,00 studies from psychology and other relevant disciplines Difficult to experimentally test some concepts: e.g., id, ego, superego, libido Some support for: Aspects of oral and anal personality Castration anxiety Relationship between dreams and emotional processes Those parts of the Oedipus complex dealing with rivalry with father and sexual fantasies regarding mother No support for: Satisfaction of repressed motives, wishes, desires through dreams Link between male Oedipal complex resolution and identification with and acceptance of superego standards of father through fear Inferiority of women's bodily conceptions, morality, and sense of identity Later research and perspectives Support for multiple influences of unconscious processes as well as evidence that such influences are even greater than Freud thought Cognitive psychology: affirms existence of mental processes outside of conscious awareness Support for repression and Freudian slips Lack of support for personality formation by age 5, role of instincts in human motivation Most important learning: some psychoanalytic concepts can be operationally defined and tested by scientific methods
three types of anxiety: objective (from real dangers in the world), --- (fear of being punished for expressing impulses), and moral (fear of experiencing guilt or shame)
Neurotic
Psychoanalysis
Not a school of thought directly comparable to the others Distinct from mainstream Not a true science Arose from medicine and psychiatry Subject matter is abnormal behavior Primary method is clinical observation Deals with the unconscious Idea of the unconscious forces Not accepted by Wundt and Titchener Not amenable to study using introspection Cannot be reduced to sensory elements Functionalists disregarded it Although James acknowledged unconscious processes 1904: Angell devoted a mere 2 pages to topic in text 1921: Woodworth dealt with subject as postscript Watson: no use for either the unconscious or consciousness Freud: brought concept of the unconscious to psychology
Three types of anxiety: --- (from real dangers in the world), neurotic (fear of being punished for expressing impulses), and moral (fear of experiencing guilt or shame)
Objective
Antecedent Influences on Psychoanalysis: Theories of the unconscious mind
Philosophical speculations Leibnitz's (1646-1716) monadology: "theory of psychic entities, called monads, which are similar to perceptions" The monads Individual elements of all reality (not physical atoms) Not composed wholly of matter Each is an unextended psychic entity Each, while mental, has some properties of physical matter Mental events: the activity of the monads Have different degrees of consciousness: from completely unconscious to completely conscious Petites perceptions Smaller amount of consciousness, E.g., individual drops of water Each drop not consciously perceived
Early ideas about psychopathology
Provide understanding of what Freud revolted against History of treatment of mental disorders 2000 B.C. Babylonians: mental illness = possession by demons Treated humanely Used magic and prayer Hebrew cultures: mental illness = punishment for sin Used magic and prayer to treat it Greek philosophers: mental illness = disordered thought processes Used persuasive, healing power of words to treat it 4th century Christianity: mental illness = possession by evil spirits Treatment for next 1000 years: torture and execution 15th century + next 300 years: Inquisition Rigorously hunted for heresy and witchcraft Searched out symptoms of mental disorder Severely punished any symptoms of mental disorder 18th century view: mental illness = irrational behavior Confined mentally ill in institutions comparable to jails No longer put to death No treatment offered Patients sometimes displayed in public like zoo animals Some chained, restrained, hooked on a wall Their "prisons" called lunatic asylums More humane treatments Juan Luis Vives (1492-1540) Spanish scholar Called for sensitive and caring treatment Language and geographic obstacles restricted his sympathetic views to Spain
Relations Between Psychoanalysis and Psychology
Psychoanalysis for the most part outside the mainstream of psychology 1924: Journal of Abnormal Psychology Complaints about the number of papers on the unconscious Next 20 years: few articles on psychoanalysis accepted for journal publication Criticism by academic psychologists 1916: all things German were distrusted because of Germany's wartime aggression Christine Ladd-Franklin: psychoanalysis as product of "undeveloped German mind" Robert Woodworth: psychoanalysis as "uncanny religion" J. B. Watson: psychoanalysis as "voodooism" James McKeen Cattell: Freud as living in a world of dreams populated by sexually perverted orgies Psychology textbooks Early 1920's books included some of Freud's ideas Defense mechanisms, the unconscious mind, and dream analysis attracted important attention As a whole, in the heyday of behaviorism, psychoanalysis was ignored 1930's and 1940's psychoanalysis Popular with the general public Often confused with mainstream psychology A serious competitor of experimental psychology in terms of public perception The academics' response Experimental tests of psychoanalytic concepts Claimed to have verified inferiority of psychoanalysis to experimental psychology Showed the public experimental psychology was relevant 1950's and 1960's Translation of psychoanalytic concepts into behavioristic terms Psychology incorporated many of Freud's concepts [unconscious motivation, pivotal nature of childhood experience, use of defense mechanisms]
Involves forcefully excluding unwanted thoughts from consciousness
Repression
Unlike the other systems of psychology, Freud's system grew outside of academia and is not a ---
Science
Ideas from Krafft-Ebing
Sexual gratification and self-preservation the only human instincts Cumulative effect: in adhere to Darwin's leadership, scientists acknowledged sex as a fundamental human drive
Schools other than psychoanalysis
Shared an academic heritage Owed much to Wundt Concepts and methods refined in laboratories, libraries, and lecture halls Concerned with topics such as sensation, perception, and learning Attempted to maintain a pure science
Mechanism and Determinism in Freud's System
Strict mechanist and determinist In agreement with structuralists and behaviorists No free will Every action has a cause Both unconscious and conscious motives are causal Principles of natural science can explain all phenomena By using term psychoanalysis, Freud was signaling the importance of the analytic methods used in physics and chemistry 1895: Freud began project to elucidate scientific psychology All phenomena reducible to the principles of physics Mental phenomena are built on neurophysiological processes and reflect their characteristics Goal of psychology: to represent mental processes quantitatively as states of specified matter Project itself not completed Spirit of project reflected throughout his later work in adaptations from physics, particularly mechanics, electricity, and hydraulics This aspect of Freudian thought had been lost to history for 50 years Abandoned project because could not study human personality using techniques of physics and chemistry However, maintained positivist and mechanist positions yet remained willing to alter them when they became too constraining
Darwin discussed several ideas that Freud later made central issues in psychoanalysis, including unconscious mental processes and conflicts, the significance of dreams, the hidden --- of certain behaviors, and the importance of sexual arousal
Symbolism
Superego
The moral aspect of personality derived from internalizing parental and societal values and standards.
Transference
The process by which a patient responds to the therapist as if the therapist were a significant person (such as a parent) in the patient's life.
Repression
The process of barring unacceptable ideas, memories, or desires from conscious awareness, leaving them to operate in the unconscious mind.
Catharsis
The process of reducing or eliminating a complex by recalling it to conscious awareness and allowing it to be expressed.
Ego
The rational aspect of personality responsible for controlling the instincts.
Instincts defn
To Freud, mental representations of internal stimuli (such as hunger) that motivate personality and behavior.
Libido
To Freud, the psychic energy that drives a person toward pleasurable thoughts and behaviors.
A Freudian slip is an act of forgetting or a lapse in speech.
True
A contemporary Freud scholar has argued that "opposition to the seduction theory claim was based...on the grounds that findings obtained by means of Freud's clinical procedures were unreliable.
True
A major criticism of Freud's data is that there are discrepancies between his notes on the therapy sessions and the published case histories.
True
Among the concepts Freud borrowed from Darwin was the significance of dreams.
True
Freud's system was different because of its focus on the ---, an idea ignored by all but a few psychologists
Unconscious
Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841)
Unconscious (Leibnitz) sharpened to idea of threshold of consciousness (Herbart) Ideas influence each other in terms of the mechanics of forces Ideas below = unconscious To rise above the limen An idea must be compatible with ideas already in consciousness Include inhibited ideas Ideas forced out of consciousness due to incompatibility with other conscious ideas Exist below threshold Result in conflict as they fight to become conscious Herbart used mathematical formulas to explain the mechanical movement of ideas into and out of consciousness Ideas above = conscious When idea rises to consciousness, it is apperceived
Ideas from Darwin
Unconscious mental processes Unconscious mental conflicts The significance of dreams The hidden symbolism of certain behavioral symptoms The importance of sexual arousal Notion of continuity in emotional behavior from childhood to adulthood Humans are driven by biological forces of love and hunger
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734-1815)
Viennese physician Scientist Dramatic promoter Central concept: animal magnetism "mysterious, murky force" Origin: magnetic energy in body Process: penetrate objects and influence them from afar Effects: include healing of mental disorders through re-establishing equilibrium between magnetic levels of patient and the environment Development of methodology Patient grips metal bars, reverses illness Transfer to Mesmer's magnetism to patients by his touch or stroke Verdict of medical community: he's a quack Exotic group therapy sessions in Paris As a result of investigations, Mesmer escaped to Switzerland Mesmerism became very popular in U.S.
in the 1950's and 1960's the --- were translating psychoanalytic terminology into the language of behavior
behaviorists
Freud said that pressure on the ego causes anxiety and therefore tension, which is reduced by the use of ---
defense mechanisms
Freud's system was --- in that he believed that all mental events, even dreams, are predetermined; nothing occurs by chance or free will
deterministic
Freud said that pressure on the --- causes anxiety and therefore tension, which is reduced by the use of defense mechanisms
ego
Freud found that patients would come to a point while they were engaging in --- where they would stop, he called this resistance
free association
Freud's methods for collecting data have been criticized because his sample was small and of limited ---
generalizability
Scientific studies on --- revealed that some of its ideas received support, and others did not
psychoanalysis
eventually many ideas from --- were absorbed into psychology
psychoanalysis
Freud believed that --- showed that the analytic process was closing in on the source or the problem and that the analyst should continue to probe that line of thought
resistance
Freud found that patients would come to a point while they were engaging in free association where they would stop, he called this ---
resistance
Freud said --- happened because the thoughts were too shameful to be faced
resistance
Freud believed that the only people capable of testing psychoanalysis were those who had been --- in it
trained
Freud's methods for collecting data have been criticized because it was ---
unsystematic
