CC 302 Exam 2

Comparison: Julius Caesar 1) Values 2) Personality 3) Behavior 4) Political policies 5) Strengths/Weakness

1) Caesar was a progressive that stuck to his guns. 2)

Comparison: Augustus 1) Values 2) Personality 3) Behavior 4) Political policies 5) Strengths/Weaknesses

1) Augustus was a progressive that accomplished much while following laws and political traditions. ∙The underlying motivation of every civil war campaign was that Augustus felt it his duty, above all, to avenge Caesar and keep his decrees in force. ∙During the first civil war, he ran away from the first battle and did not reappear until the next day, having lost both his charger and his general's cloak. But it is generally accepted that in the second engagement he showed not only skill as a commander but courage as a soldier: when the standard bearer of his legion was seriously wounded, Augustus himself shouldered the Eagle and carried it for some time. ∙Augustus defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. After the victory, he showed no clemency to his beaten enemies, but sent Brutus' head to Rome for throwing at the feet of Caesar's statue. 2) Augustus was driven by revenge for Caesar but otherwise was calm and collected. 3)Augustus learned from Caesar's mistakes. ∙In 43BC, Cicero sent Octavian with two consuls to defeat Antony. Both consuls were killed and Octavvian defeated Antony but chose not to pursue him. Instead, he returned to Rome with eight legions and 'suggested' that he be made consul. Kamm: Augustus: Restorer of the Republic? (27BC-14AD) ∙Octavian had to assemble his powers nto an acceptable constitutional form and depart from Caesar's legacy to avoid angst about about the return to a monarchy/dictatorship. He did so gradually over a number of years in a way that did not appear to undermine the Senate. While continuing to hold successive consulships, he formally resigned all the special powers he had been granted in 27BC. In exchange he accepted several strategic provinces for ten years. ∙Octavian accepted the name Augustus in 27BC. ∙Augustus was confirmed as the divine successor to the pharaohs in Egypt. In 23BC, he gave up his claim to hold the office of consul for life due to illness. In its place, he was granted the privileges of a tribune of the people (including veto power and to present matters direct to the popular assemblies). ∙His method of retaining the official titles of the republic and consulting with the Senate were important distinctions between himself and Julius Caesar. ∙Caesar sent Augustus to Apollonia. News then came that Caesar had been assassinated after naming him his heir. He considered to put himself under the protection of quartered troops nearby. However, deciding that this would be rash and injudicious, he returned to Rome and there entered upon his inheritance. 4) Augustus did what he wanted within the bounds of the constitution. ∙As consul, he ratified the triumviri reipublicae constituendae (the second triumvirate), a formal, legal, five-year appointment emporing Antony, Lepidus, and himself to 'restore' the Roman constitution. There were still elections and formal consultation with the Senate, giving the appearance of a republic 'under construction.' However, they killed or confiscated property of at least 150 equites and 150 senators, including Cicero, who was beheaded. ∙Octavian had to assemble his powers nto an acceptable constitutional form and depart from Caesar's legacy to avoid angst about about the return to a monarchy/dictatorship. He did so gradually over a number of years in a way that did not appear to undermine the Senate. While continuing to hold successive consulships, he formally resigned all the special powers he had been granted in 27BC. In exchange he accepted several strategic provinces for ten years. ∙Augustus was confirmed as the divine successor to the pharaohs in Egypt. In 23BC, he gave up his claim to hold the office of consul for life due to illness. In its place, he was granted the privileges of a tribune of the people (including veto power and to present matters direct to the popular assemblies). ∙He led many restorations projects. Also big on preventing natural disasters. 5)

Vergil's Aeneid: Context

∙Virgil lived at the height of the first age of the Roman Empire, during the reign of the emperor Octavian, later known as Augustus. Before Augustus became emperor, though, internal strife plagued the Roman government. During Virgil's youth, the First Triumvirate—Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus—governed the Roman Republic. Crassus was killed around 53 B.C., and Caesar initiated civil war against Pompey. After defeating Pompey, Caesar reigned alone until the Ides of March in 44 B.C., when Brutus and Cassius, two senators, assassinated him. Civil war erupted between the assassins and the Second Triumvirate—Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus. By 36 B.C. only Octavian and Antony remained, and they began warring against each other. At the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C., Octavian defeated Antony and his ally Cleopatra of Egypt, finally consolidating power in himself alone. Four years later, he assumed the title Augustus. Virgil witnessed all this turmoil, and the warring often disrupted his life.

Kamm: Caligula (37-41AD)

∙When Cordus Sutorius Macro, a former chief of the fire service in Rome and now commander of the imperial guard in succession to Sejanus, proposed Caligula's name to the Senate as emperor, there was no objection. He had met Caligula in Capri and they got along well. More importantly, the role of the imperial guard in nominating the emperor had been established. ∙At first, it seemed that the choice was correct, for Caligula was everything a young (24) and charismatic ruler should be: generous to the public (and the imperial guard), genuinely interested (though inexperienced) in matters of government, sensible, witty, and just. ∙He recalled many political exiles and dropped the charges against them, and banished all male prostitutes. He formally adopted his cousin, Tiberius Gemellus, and appointed his uncle Claudius to be, with him, consul suffectus (deputy) in 37AD. ∙Six months into his reign, Caligula fell ill. When he recovered, the citizens of Rome found they were living in a nightmare. Caligula had since childhood suffered from epilepsy, known in Roman times as the 'parliamentary disease' since it was regarded as an especially bad omen if anyone had a seizure while public business was being conducted. This, or some other ailment, violently affected Caligula's mental state and he became irrational, with delusions of not only grandeur but divinity. ∙In the wake of his illness, Caligula showed no respect for political, military, economic, religious, or social practices. He was the antithesis of Augustus' school of leadership. He put Tiberius Gemellus and Macro to death without trial. He made his favorite horse consul. He claimed a very successful battle against the English Channel after firing artillery into the sea and sending his men to collect shells on the beach as the spoils of war. His extravagance knew no bounds and he introduced heavy taxation to help balance his personal expenditure. ∙Caligula was assassinated by members of his imperial guard. He had been emperor for less than four years at the time of his death. He had four wives and committed incest with each of his three sisters.

Suetonius: Julius Caesar (Assassination; 76-

∙Yet other deeds and sayings of Caesar's may be set to the debit account, so that he is judged to have abused his rule and been justly assassinated. Not only did he accept excessive honors, such as continual consulships, a life dictatorship, a perpetual censorship, the title Imperator put before his name and the title Father of His Country after it, a statue among those of the ancient kings, and a raised seat in the orchestra of the theater, but he took honors which, as a mere mortal, he should have refused. These included a golden throne in the Senate House and on the tribunal, a couch for his image at religious festivals, a flamen, and the renaming of a month after him. ∙But what provoked particularly biter hostility was that when one day the entire Senate, armed with an imposing list of honors that they had just voted him, came to where he sat, he did not rise to greet them. ∙This open insult to the Senate was emphasized by an even more arrogant action. Someone put a laurel wreath on the head of his statue. Two tribunes of the people order for it to be removed and the offender imprisoned. But Caesar reprimanded and degraded them both. However, he did not allow people to call him king or put a wreath on his own head. ∙What made matters worse was a persistent rumor that Caesar intended to move the seat of government to Troy or Alexandria. ∙Because his enemies shrank from agreeing to this proposal, they pressed on with their plans for his assassination. Several group, each consisting of two or three malcontents, now united in a general conspiracy. Even the people had come to disapprove of how things were going, and no longer hid their disgust at Caesar's tyrannical rule but openly demanded champions to protect their ancient liberties. ∙More than sixty conspirators banded together against him, led by Gaius Cassius and Marcus and Decimus Brutus. When Caesar called a meeting of the Senate in the Assembly Hall of Pompey for the Ides of March, they decided at once that this would be by far the most convenient time and place. ∙As soon as Caesar took his seat the conspirators crowded around him as if to pay their respects. TIllius Cimber, who had taken the lead, came up close, pretending to ask a question. Twenty-three dagger thrusts went home as he stood there. Caesar did not utter a sound after Casca's blow had drawn a groan from him. ∙As soon as the funeral was over, the people, snatching brands from the pyre, ran to burn down the houses of Brutus and Cassius, and were repelled with difficulty. ∙Some of his friends suspected that, having no desire to live much longer because of his failing health, he had taken no precautions against the conspiracy and neglected the omens and warning of well-wishers. Almost all authorities, at any rate, believe that he welcomed the manner of his death. He loathed the prospect of a lingerin gend and wanted a sudden one. ∙He was fifty-five years old when he died, and his immediate deification, formally decreed in the Senate, convinced the city as a whole. ∙Very few of the assassins outlived Caesar for more than three years, or died naturally. All were condemned to death, and all met it in different ways--some in shipwreck, some in battle, some using the very daggers with which they had treacherously murdered Caesar to take their own lives.

Comparison The Gracchi Brothers 1) Values 2) Personality 3) Behavior 4) Political policies 5) Strengths/Weaknesses

4) Tiberius had one major reform: ∙After Gaius fled to Aventine, Opimius and the Senate passed senatus consultum ultimum, which gave senior officials moral backing to act for the preservation of the state.

Book 10 Prompts A) Contrast Turnus' killing of Pallas (310-312) with Aeneas' killing of Lausus (323-324); B) Also, Aeneas on a killing spree after Pallas' death (how do some of his opponents die? Remember, Roman loved gory deaths in the arena).

A) Aeneas feels bad after kill Lausus, but Turnus does not feel anything after killing Pallas. B) One of his victims' heads splits open and his brain flies everywhere. Aeneas goes on a rampage after Pallas dies.

Book 11 Prompts A) Towards the end: Camilla, the warrioress

A) If Camilla is killed by an arrow of a person, Diana kills them with an arrow.

Book 6 Prompts A) Aeneas meets Dido again (pp. 174-176): how does that reunion go? B) Roman history in the preview mirror: the speech/prophecy of Anchises (who is he?), pp. 186-191. But, a damper on all the achievement and glory: the death of young Marcellus, Augustus' nephew and, to some, heir apparent (pp. 190-191) C) Repeat deaths of the young: Nisus and Euryalus in Book 9 (pp. 265-76); Pallas (pp. 309-12), Lausus and Mezentius (pp. 323-25) in Book 10

A) It goes really badly. The roles have reversed in the underworld. Aeneas is crying but Dido doesn't care and returns to her ex-husband. B) Anchises shows him what is going to happen (Romulus and Remus, Antony and Cleopatra) in Rome if Aeneas is successful in founding it. But to go along with the wealth and greatness, there is struggle i.e. Marcellus.

Aeneid characters

Anchises Ascanius/Julus: Aeneas' son Hector, Andromache, Helenus Anna Latinus Amata Lavinia Evander Pallas Nisus Euryalus Mezentius Lausus Camilla

Book 3: pp. 76-83: Who are Helenus and Andromache? What have they rebuilt? Why is that place not a good fit for Aeneas?

Helenus and Amndromache are surviving Trojans. They had been captured but they took command of the city after Pyrrhus died. They ruled the Greek city of Buthrotum.

Book 2: An action book. What's the Trojan Horse, how is Aeneas portrayed, what happens to his wife (and what's her name?)?

The Trojan horse was a giant wooden horse filled with Greek soldiers. A Greek youth told the Trojans that it was a monument to Minerva built by the Greeks. If they take it in, Minerva will help them destroy all of Greece. If they let it decay, Minerva will destroy Troy. Aeneas is a great warrior, but he realizes that he must leave with the survivors. Crusea is his wife. She was lost while they were leaving, but her ghost tells Aeneas to not be sad because he will find a new home and wife.

Book 7 Prompts A) Turnus is seized by the hell fury Alecto (pp. 210-213). After that, does he have any free will?

When the gods made Aeneas and Dido fall in love, that's still their free will. However, Alecto appears to Turnus in a dream and attacks him with a torch. That sets his blood boiling with war. Turnus does not have any control over his desire for war.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book I

∙Aeneas is fleeing Troy, which has been ravaged by war with Achilles and the Greeks ∙Juno, queen of the gods, does not like Aeneas because there is a prophecy that the race that descends from the Trojans will destroy Carthage, her favorite city. She also does not like him because another Trojan, Paris, chose her rival Venus in a beauty contest. ∙She calls Aeolus, god of wind, to bring a storm upon Aeneas and he obliges. ∙Just as Aeneas' fleet seems doomed, Neptune, god of the sea, says that Aeolus overstepped his bounds and pacifies the storm. ∙The seven remaining ship head for the nearest land, the coast of Sicily. ∙On Mount Olympus, Venus, Aeneas' mother, begs Jupiter, king of the gods, to protect her son. He tells her Aeneas will find his home in Italy and that his descendants, Romulus and Remus, will create the world's greatest empire. Jupiter sends a god to Earth to make sure that the people of Carthage treat the Trojans hospitably. ∙Venus visits Aeneas in disguise. She tells him of how Dido became the queen of Carthage: her husband was murdered and she fled from Tyre with others that opposed the dictator. They founded Carthage, which has become a powerful city. ∙Venus advises Aeneas to go into the city and talk to Dido. They arrive and find a mural depicting the events of the Trojan war. Inside, they find many of their comrades that had been lost asking Dido for help in repairing their fleet. Dido grants their request and asks the Trojan leaders to dine with her. ∙Venus sends another sons, Cupid, to make Dido fall in love with Aeneas which he does.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book VIII

∙Aeneas readies his army but is still worried about his prospects. Tiberinus, the river god, tells him to ask the Arcadians, who are also at war with the Latins for help. Aeneas does and the Arcadian king Evander agrees to help and invites Aeneas to a feast. ∙After the feast, holy rites are performed to Hercules. Evander tells Aeneas that Latium was founded by Saturn when he formed a nation of the wild savages that wandered the land. Arcadia is still a small and simple place. ∙Venus is worried about the upcoming war. She convinces her husband, Vulcan, the god of fire and forging, to make special weapons for Aeneas. He commands cyclopes inside Etna to begin work on the project. ∙The next day, Evander gives Aeneas the several thousand troops that he can spare and bids neighboring kingdoms to help Aeneas. He also sends his son, Pallus, and ask Aeneas to teach him the art of war and return him safely. ∙After marching all day, Venus visits Aeneas and presents him with his new helmet, corselet, sword, spear, and shield, all of them stronger than could be produced by man. The shield depicts the story of Rome: Romulus nursing on a she wolf, the defeat of the Gauls, Augustus' defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, and more.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book II

∙Aeneas tells Dido about his 7 year journey: he begins by telling her of the Trojan horse. A Greek youth tells the Trojans that the Greeks had wanted to leave but were stopped by storms. He was supposed to be sacrificed, but he escaped and they left him behind. The horse is an offering to the goddess Minerva, who had turned against the greeks. Sinon tells them that if any harm comes to the statue, Troy will be destroyed by Minerva's wrath, but if they install it inside their city walls, they will be victorious in the war against Greece with the help of Minerva ∙After Sinon finishes telling him this, two serpents rise up and eat a Trojan priest who had thrown a spear at the horse, so they take it inside. ∙At night, Sinon opens the belly of the horse and the Greek warriors come out. They kill the Trojan guards and open the gates for the rest of their forces. Hector (dead) visits Aeneas in a dream and wakes him. Aeneas looks out and sees his city in flames. ∙He runs to the middle of the city with some of his men and kill many Greeks. However, they are too outnumbered. They go to King Priam's palace. The Greeks, led by Pyrrhus come in and kill Priam. ∙Aeneas looks around and sees Helen. He is about to kill her when Venus stops him and tells him to flee because his fate is elsewhere. Aeneas goes to his house, but his father Anchises does not want to leave. After some omens, he agrees. ∙Aeneas takes his father on his back and flees with his wife, son, and other followers. Creusa, his wife, is lost from the group. He goes back for her, but her spirit tells him not to be sorrowful because a new home and wife await him in Hesperia.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book III

∙After escaping from Troy, Aeneas leads them to the coast and they build a new fleet. ∙They first sail to Thrace. While there, Polydorus (Priam's son) appears to him and tells him that the king of Thrace had sided with the Greeks and killed him. ∙Next they sail to the holy island of Delos. Apollo tells them to go to the land of their ancestors. Anchises interprets that as meaning Crete, where Teucrus was from. ∙They sail to Crete and begin to build a city, but are struck by a plague. Trojan gods appear to Aeneas in a dream and tell him that they are mistaken. They must go to Italy, home of Dardanus, and "build great walls for a great race." ∙The Trojans end up in Strophades to avoid a storm. They slaughter cows and goats and hold a feast, which provokes an attack from the Harpies. One of the Harpies confirms the Italy prophesy but says they will not establish their city until they are so hungry they have to eat their own tables. ∙The Trojans next travel to Leucrata, where they make sacrifices to Apollo. Then they stop in Buthrotum on their way to Italy. They find that Helenus (son of Priam) and Andromache are ruling a Greek city. They had been taken captive but had taken power after Pyrrhus was killed. ∙Andromache tells them about the path to Italy. They must go south around the base of Sicily. To the north is Charybdis, a whirlpool, and Scylla, a six-headed monster. ∙They take the south route to Italy. While resting, a Greek soldier asks them to take him in. He says their crew was captured by a cyclops but he escaped after his commander stabbed it in the eye. ∙The cyclops and other cyclopes find them on the beach, but Aeneas, his followers, and the Greek escape. ∙On the way to Italy, Aeneas' father dies at Drepanum. ∙Aeneas finishes his story by telling Dido that divine will drove him to her shores.

Kamm: Slaves and Slavery

∙After the decline of peasant farming in Italy from about 200BC, Romans based much of the social and economic fabric of their empire on slavery. There was hardly any aspect of daily life, or work, or the leisure industry, in which slaves were not involved. ∙Acquisition of slaves by conquest was standard practice. ∙Until the empire, marriage between slaves was not recognized, and their children automatically assumed the status of slaves. A slave could keep what he could save towards buying his freedom, but if he ran away and was caught, the punishment was either branding or death. Their treatment was entirely the responsibility of their owners and varied according to their skills and the labor demanded of them. ∙They were trained to fight each other, and wild animals, to the death in the arenas of the empire. It was from a training establishment for gladiators that Spartacus the Thracian led out a band of slaves and in 73BC began his two-year campaign of revolt. ∙While the experience of Roman slaves was probably not much different from that of African slaves, comparing the systems of slavery in ancient and modern contexts can be problematic. Roman slaves came from all over the known world, from a number of cultures, races, and religions. In some cases, they were highly educated. The range of roles they could occupy was diverse. Emancipation was a viable prospect. A slave could purchase his freedom or achieve it by a process of manumission, which became so popular at the beginning of the empire that Augustus introduced laws to restrict it. Freedmen had full rights of citizenship except that of holding public office. ∙Urban slaves were brought into a comfortable Roman household, where they learned a language and trade. The social mobility of freedman clearly had its limits. However, the fact that wealthy, aspirant freedmen such as Trimalchio became objects of ridicule for imperial court poets suggests that they could achieve sufficient levels of success to provoke resentment and bitterness among impoverished members of the elite.

Kamm: Claudius (41-54AD)

∙After their assassination of Caligula, members of the imperial guard, who were systematically sacking the palace, found his uncle Claudius cowering behind a curtain. Instead of killing him too, they pushed him into a litter and carried him off to their camp. There he was made an offer: to be the imperial guard's nominee for emperor. Claudius cemented the deal by promising a special bonus in return for their support, thus creating a precedent which future aspirants would have to follow. ∙Claudius was 50 years old, a scholar, being the author of historical works in both Latin and Greek. However, he had no experience of administration or government. Indeed, his unsuitability as a candidate may explain why, unlike so many other members of the imperial family, Claudius had not been murdered during or immediately after Caligula's reign. ∙Claudius comes across as a mishmash of conflicting characteristics: absent-minded, hesitant, muddled, determined, cruel (by proxy), intuitive, wise, and dominated by his wife and personal staff of freedmen. ∙His was a thoroughly sound if not glittering reign, which lasted almost fourteen years. ∙He revived the office of censor, which had fallen into disuse, and took on the job himself, introducing into the Senate several chiefs from Gaul as new members. With the help of his personal staff, he reorganized and rationalized the financial affairs of the state and the empire, setting aside a separate fund for the emperor's private household expenses. He repaired roads, restored aqueducts, and supervised the supply of grain. He built a port at Ostia. ∙His most far-reaching initiative was a successful full-scale invasion of Britain, after reconnaissance by the expedition's leader, Aulus Plautius. Britain presented a threat that could no longer be ignored by Rome. Claudius, for so long the butt of family jokes, wanted military glory, and here was a chance for him to get it. Plautius got into difficulties. Claudius went to Britain for only 16 days and put them down. Plautius followed up the advantage gained, and was from 44 to 47AD governor of this newest province of the Roman empire. Claudius' victory in Britain gave him military clout as well as the agnomen 'Britannicus' ∙ Despite his lack of charm or good looks, Claudius' political, military, and economic projects set him out as the most successful heir of Augustus. ∙At his succession, he was on his third wife, who three weeks later presented him with a son, who would be known as Britannicus. She was caught too many times in flagrante delicto and was disposed of. Claudius chose Agrippina, Caligula's sister and his own niece, as his next wife. She already had a teenage son from her former marriage, known as Nero. She persuaded Claudiuss to adopt him and give him his own daughter Octavia in marriage. Then, she poisoned him.

Kamm: The Role of Women

∙All women, because of their innate weakness, should be under the control guardians. The guardian might be her father, husband, or male relative, or someone appointed by the will of the father or husband, or by an official of the state. ∙The only exceptions up to the time of Augustus were the six Vestal Virgins. ∙After Augustus, the rule was relaxed in cases of free-born women who had had three children and freedwomen who had had four, provided there was no father or husband to exercise control. ∙Nearly all the voices of Roman women are recorded by men. ∙Nothing, it seems, was a woman's own. Maidenhead was split between woman and parents. ∙Customary for marriages to be arranged, and the size of the dowry was expected to match the social standing of the prospective bridegroom. ∙There were several ways of celebrating a Roman marriage, of which the simplest involved the consent of both parties, without rites or ceremony. The other three gave the husband legal power over his wife (manus): 1. By cohabiting for a year without the woman being absent for more than a total of three nights (usus). 2. By a symbolic form of purchase, in the presence of a holder of a pair of scales and five witnesses (coemptio). 3. By full ritual (confarraetio), in the presence of the pontifex maximus. This was obligatory for patrician families, and comprised a form of religious service with prayer, a bloodless sacrifice, the offering and eating of sacred bread, and the taking of auspices. The bride and bridegroom sat on two chairs, bound together and covered with lambskin. ∙After the second century AD a different kind of ritual emerged, which began with a formal betrothal, at which the prospective bride slipped a gold ring on to the finger now known as the wedding finger in the presence of guests. For the marriage ceremony itself, she wore a veil of flaming orange-red, surmounted by a simple wreath of blossom. There was animal sacrifice and the inevitable examination of the entrails for happy omens, after which the couple exchanged vows and the guests shouted their congratulations. ∙sine querella (without a quarrel), carissima (most dear), catissima (most chaste), piissimia (most pius) ∙In Roman times, women, though discriminated against and subjected to abuse by such poets as Horace and Juvenal, were still capable of standing up for themselves. One of the most contentious pieces of Roman legislation was the Oppian Law, introduced after Hannibal's victory at Cannae in 216BC with the object of reducing spending on luxury goods: for example, no woman could possess more than an ounce of gold, wear a dress dyed in a number of colors, or ride about the city in horse-drawn carriage. In 195BC, when a proposal to repeal the law was submitted to the Tribal Assembly, literal tons of women protested in mass assemblies and pressured the tribunes to repeal the law, which they did. ∙There are records of a few female doctors, clerks and secretaries, hairdressers, teachers, and the occasional fishmonger, vegetable seller, dressmaker and wool or silk merchant. There were certainly female gladiators, too. There were women that fought in the fights right after the completion of the Colosseum in 80AD. ∙There were also prostitutes who were required to register with the aedile. A law of Augustus declared adultery by women to be a public offense. ∙The story of Lucretia shows another side to the legislation against women's adultery. She was technically--and legally--guilty and felt she must pay the penalty. Lucretia's nobility and constancy in legend are matched historically by Cornelia, mother of the brothers Gracchus. When her husband died in 154BC, she rejected a proposal of marriage from King Ptolemy VIII in order to instead raise her 12 sons, only 3 of whom lived to adulthood. That both her surviving sons were inspired by civic, rather than mere political, duty to bring about changes in the system suggests some maternal influence. She prevailed upon Gaius to withdraw a law aimed at banning from public office anyone who had once been voted from office by the people, as had the tribune who tried to get his elder brother's land bill referred to the Senate. After her death, the citizens of Rome erected a bronze statue of her with the inscription 'Cornelia, mother of the Gracchi' ∙Roman women were expected to possess considerable pietas, particularly to their husbands. One example of pietas is Octavia, Octavian's sister. She was originally married to Gaius Claudius Marcellus. Caesar proposed that she should marry Pompey. Pompey declined and she remained with Marcellus. When he died in 40BC, she was immediately married to Marc Antony to cement the agreement between him and Octavian to divide responsibility for the empire. That same year, Antony and Cleopatra's twins were born. She had a daughter Antonia (grandmother of Nero) with him in 39BC before Antony sent her back to Italy while he dallied with Cleopatra in Antioch. In 35BC, she returned to Athens with supplies for Antony, who accepted them but sent her back without even seeing her. Octavian begged her to leave Antony but she refused. Antony divorced her in 32BC. After the death of Antony, Octavia broughter her three children with Marcellus, her two daughters with Antony, Antony's three children with Cleopatra, and his surviving children with his previous wife. ∙Imperial women were able to attain a degree of education and absorb and reflect the culture of the times. Livia, wife of Augustus and mother of Tiberius, and Agrippina the Younger, wife of Claudius and mother of Nero, are two examples. Tacitus implies that both poisoned their husbands. Each woman undoubtedly manipulated the system to ensure that her son by an earlier marriage became emperor, and each of those sons eventually demonstrated considerable distaste for his mother. ∙Livia was a traditional and successful Roman upper-class wife. As a good wife should, she helped her husband with his correspondence, and altogether eased his imperial burden, while undoubtedly increasing her own influence. There had never been a Roman empress before, and someone had to lay down the ground rules. Livia filled the position very well, as is suggested by Augustus' public recognition of her role. Statues were erected to her. She sat with the Vestal Virgins at public shows, she had the right to manage her own affairs, and she was even granted the same tribunician privileges as her husband. In his will, Augustus formally adopted her into his line--with the name Julia Augusta-- and subsequent empresses came to adopt the title of Augusta too. Livia's prestige was such that she was awarded the services of a lictor to walk before her. When she died, the Senate voted that a triumphal arch should be erected in her memory. She was finally deified in 42AD, at the instigation of her grandson Claudius. ∙Agrippina was implicated in a plot to assassinate Caligula in 39AD and banished. When recalled to marry Claudius, she established herself and her son by her first marriage in virtually unassailable positions. She was granted the title of August, which even Livia had not received until after her death. In 50AD, her son was formally adopted by Claudius and tok the name Nero. Being three years older than Claudius' own son Britannicus, he took precedence over his stepbrother. If she was responsible for Claudius' death in 54AD, then it may have been because she wanted to exercise full control while Nero was still too young to take charge of hisown affairs. Not only was she now the widow of a god, but in the east she was herself hailed as divine. She had gold and silver coins carry portraits of her and Nero. She was controlling and eventually Nero had her murdered.

Suetonius: Augustus (Political Career; 27-)

∙At the age of twenty he usurped the consulship, marching on Rome as though it were an enemy city and sending messengers ahead in the name of his army to demand the appointment. Nine years later Augustus undertook his second consulship, and his third after another two years. Having held the next nine in sequence, he declined any more for as many as 17 years, then sought a twelfth term and two years later a thirteenth. ∙For ten years Augustus remained a member of the triumvirate commissioned to organize the commonwealth, and, though at first opposing his colleagues' plan for a proscription, yet once tis had been decided upon he carried it out more ruthlessly than either of them. ∙Under the triumvirate, many of Augustus' acts won him people's hatred. Once, while addressing a soldiers; assembly at which a crowd of civilians, he saw a Roman eques transcribing his speech, and had him stabbed there and then as taking too close an interest in the proceedings. ∙The people awarded Augustus lifelong tribunician power, and once or twice he chose a colleague to share it with him for a five year period. The Senate also awarded him the task of supervising public moral and scrutinizing the laws--another lifelong appointment. ∙Twice Augustus seriously thought of restoring the republic. On reconsideration, however, he decided that to divide the responsibilities of government among several hands would be to jeopardize not only his own life but also national security. ∙Aware that the city was architecturally unworthy of its position as capital of the empire, Augustus so improved its appearance that he could justifiably boast, 'I found Rome built of bricks; I leave it clothed in marble.' He also used as much foresight as could have been expected in guarding against future disasters. ∙Among his larger public works, three must be singled out for mention: the Forum dominated by the Temple of Mars Ultor, the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine, and the Temple of Jupiter Tonans on the Capitoline. Some of his public works were undertaken in the names of relatives. ∙Augustus divided the city into districts and wards, placing the districts under the control of magistrates annually chosen by lot and the wards under supervisors locally elected. ∙Finally, on assuming the office of pontifex maximus vacated by the death of Lepidus, Augustus collected all the copies of Greek and Latin prophetic verse then current, the work of either anonymous or unsuitable authors, and burned more than 2000. ∙Since official negligence allowed the calendar to fall into confusion, he put it straight again and while doing so he renamed the month Sextilis after himself, because it was during Sextilis that he had won his first consulship and his most decisive victories. ∙He increased the priesthoods in number and dignity and in privileges too, being particularly generous to the college of Vestal Virgins. ∙Next to immortal gods, Augustus most honored the memory of those citizens who had raised the Roman people from small beginning to their present glory; this was why he restored many public buildings erected by men of this caliber. ∙August stationed armed police in bandit-ridden districts. He added a fourth, inferior division of jurors to the three already existing; these ducenarii judged cases which involved only small monetary claims. ∙Augustus proved assiduous in his administration of justice, often remaining in court until after nightfall, and if he happened to be unwell he would have his litter carried up to the tribunal. As a judge, he was both conscientious and lenient. ∙The existing laws that Augustus revised and the new ones that he enacted dealt, among other matters, with extravagance, adultery and unchastity, bribery, and the encouragement of marriage in the senatorial and equestrian orders. ∙The number of senators had been swollen by a coarse and ungainly crowd: there were more than a thousand. Augustus restored the order to its former size and repute by two new acts of enrollment. Each member was allowed to nominate one another, then Augustus and Agrippa together reviewed the list and announced their own choice. ∙To give more men some experience in the administration of public affairs, he created new offices dealing with the upkeep of public buildings, roads and aqueducts, the clearing of the Tiber channel, and the distribution of grain to the people. ∙With the assistance of ten senators, he cross-examined every eques on his personal affairs. Some, whose lives proved to have been scandalous, were punished, degraded, or reprimanded. ∙Augustus thought it most important not to let the native Roman stock be tainted with foreign or servile blood, and was therefore very unwilling to create new Roman citizens or permit the manumission of more than a limited number of slaves. ∙His generosity to all classes was displayed on many occasions. His awards of largesse to the people were frequent. In times of food shortage he often supplied grain to every man on the citizen list at a very cheap rate, or occasionally even free, and doubled the number of vouchers. ∙No one before had ever provided so many, so different, or such splendid public shows. In short, Augustus honored all sorts of professional entertainers by his friendly interested them: athletes, gladiatorial games, stage players. ∙After thus improving and reorganizing Rome, Augustus increased the population of Italy by personally founding 28 veteran colonies. He also encourage the birth rate of the Roman people. ∙Augustus kept for himself all the more vigorous provinces--those that could not be safely administered by an annual governor; the rest went to senatorial governors chosen by lot. ∙Finding that certain cities which had treaties of allegiance with Rome were ruining themselves through political irresponsibility, he took away their right of self-governance; but he also granted subsidies to other crippled by public debts, rebuilt some cities which had been devastated by earthquakes, and even awarded partial or full citizenship to those that could show a record of faithful service in the Roman cause.

Kamm: Education

∙At the beginning of the republic, education was a case of mos maiorum, being left entirely to the parents, and consisting of a mixture of martial and practical arts. Boys were expected to emulate their fathers, and girls their mothers. ∙From about 250BC, largely as a result of the influx of educated Greek slaves, tutors were employed in richer homes or were set up as teachers of informal schools. Towards the end of the republic, a two-tier educational system evolved, leading to higher education in oratory and philosophy. ∙At about the age of 7, children of the privileged were sent to primary school. Girls as well as boys could benefit from this basic schooling. Formal education ceased for girls at the age of twelve, but boys who showed academic promise were sent on, if their parents could afford the fees, to 'grammar' school.

Suetonius: Julius Caesar (Personal Information; 45-75)

∙Caesar is said to have been tall, fair and well built, with a rather broad face and keen, dark eyes. ∙His health was sound. He was something of a dandy, so that he not only kept himself carefully trimmed and shaved but also, as some people have charged, depilated with tweezers. ∙His baldness was a disfigurement which his enemies harped upon. He was pleased by the privilege of wearing a laurel wreath on all occasions. ∙His dress was, it seems, unusual: he had added wrist-length sleeves with fringes to his purple-striped senatorial tunic, which he wore not only belted but loosely belted at that. ∙The only charge ever brought against him regarding his sexual tastes was that he had been King Nicomedes' bedmate--always a dark stain on his reputation, and frequently quotes by his enemies. ∙Among his mistresses were several queens, the most famous being Cleopatra. He often feasted with her until dawn, and they would have sailed together in her state barge nearly to Ethiopia had his soldiers consented to follow him. He even allowed her to give his own name to the son whom she had borne him. ∙Yet not even his enemies denied that he drank abstemiously. Marcus Cato: "Caesaer was the only sober man who ever tried to overturn the republic." ∙He was not particularly honest in money matters, either while a provincial governor or while holding office at Rome. ∙Caesar equalled, if he did not surpass, the greatest orators and generals the world had ever known. His prosecution of Dolabella unquestionably placed him in the first rank of advocates. ∙Caesar was a most skillful swordsman and horseman, and showed surprising power of endurance. He always led his army, more often on foot than in saddle, went bareheaded in sun and rain alike, and could travel lightly in a carriage for long distances at incredible speed, a hundred miles in a single day. He often arrived at his destination before the messengers whom he had sent ahead to announce his speech. ∙It is a disputable point which was the more remarkable when he went to war: his caution or his daring. He never exposed his army to ambushes, but made careful reconnaissances. On the other hand, when news reached him that his camp in Germany was being besieged, he disguised himself as a Gaul and picked his way through the enemy outposts to take command on the spot. ∙Religious scruples never deterred him for a moment. ∙Sometimes he fought after careful tactical planning, sometimes on the spur of the moment--at the end of a march, often, or in miserable weather, when he would be least expected to make a move. It was his rule never to let enemy troops rally when he had routed them, and always therefore to assault their camp at once. ∙If Caesar's troops gave ground he would often rally them single-handedly, catching individual fugitives by the throat and forcing them round to face the enemy again. ∙Caesar's reputation for presence of mind is fully borne out by the instances quoted. ∙He judged his men by their fighting record, not by their morals or social position, treating them all with equal severity--and equal indulgence, since it was only in the presence of the enemy that he insisted on strict discipline. ∙If rumors about the enemy's strength were causing alarm, his practice was to heighten moral not by denying or belittling the danger, but on the contrary by further exaggerating it. ∙Though turning a blind eye to much of their misbehavior and never laying down any fixed scale of penalties, he allowed no deserter or mutineer to escape severe punishment. He always addressed them not as soldiers but as comrades. Caesar loved his men dearly; when news came that Titurius' command had been massacred, he swore neither to cut his hair nor to trim his beard until they had been avenged. ∙By these means he won the devotion of his men as well as making them extraordinarily brave. At the outbreak of the civil war every centurion in every legion volunteered to equip a cavalryman from his savings, and the private soldiers unanimously offered to serve under him without pay or rations, pooling their money so that nobody should go short. Throughout the entire struggle not a single man deserted, and many of them, when taken prisoner, preferred death to the alternative of fighting against him. ∙Their stout-heartedness in fighting is attested by the fact that after their only reverse, at Dyrrhachium, they themselves demanded to be punished; whereupon Caesar felt called upon to console rather than upbraid them. In other battles, they easily beat enormously superior forces. The centurion Cassius Scaeva, blinded in one eye, wounded in thigh and shoulder, and with no fewer than 120 holes in his shield, continued to defend the approaches to the fort. ∙Caesar's men did not mutiny once during the Gallic wars, which lasted ten years. ∙Even as a young man Caesar was well known for the loyalty he showed his dependents. ∙He showed consistent affection to his friends. Having attained supreme power, he raised some of his friends, even men of humble birth, to high office and brushed aside criticism. ∙When given the chance, he would always cheerfully come to terms with his bitterest enemies. ∙Yet, even when he did take action, it was his nature to show restraint; if he crucified the pirates who had held him to ransom, this was only because he had sworn in their presence to do so, and he first mercifully cut their throats. ∙Nobody can deny that during the civil war, and after, he behaved with wonderful restraint and clemency. Whereas Pompey declared that all who were not actively with him were against him and would be treated as public enemies, Caesar announced that all who were not actively against him were with him.

Kamm: Alea Iacta Est: The Die is Cast

∙Caesar marched on Rome. 'The die is cast' indicates he didn't want to but felt there were no viable options. ∙Pompey met him in the provinces, preventing Italy from becoming a battlefield. ∙Caesar defeated Pompey in Spain. In 48BC, he defeated Pompey in Greece. Pompey was killed after he fled to Egypt. ∙Caesar went to Egypt, where he met and impregnated Cleopatra after she convinced him she was the rightful heir to the Egyption throne.

Suetonius: Julius Caesar (Reforms as Consul for Life; 40-44)

∙Caesar next turned his attention to domestic reforms. First he reorganized the calendar. He linked the year to the course of the sun be lengthening it to 365 days, abolishing the intercalary month and adding an entire day every fourth year. ∙He brought the Senate up to strength, created new patricians, and increased the yearly quota of praetors, aediles and quaestors, as well as of minor officials. ∙Also, he arranged with the people that, apart from the consuls, half the magistrates should be popularly elected and half nominated by himself. ∙He limited jury service to equites and senators. Since the population of Rome had been considerably diminished, he forbade any citizen between the ages of 20 and 40 that was not on military service to absent himself from Italy for more than three years in succession. ∙Caesar also granted the citizenship to all medical practitioners and professors of liberal arts resident in Rome, thus inducing them to remain and tempting others to follow suit. ∙In his administration of justice he was both conscientious and sever, and went so far as to degrade senators found guilty of extortion. He imposed a tariff on foreign manufactures. ∙Caesar was continually planning great new works for the embellishment of the city and for the empire's protection and enlargement. His most notable projects were a temple of Mars, the biggest in the world, and an enormous theater sloping down from the Tarpeian Rock. ∙Another task he set himself was the reduction of the civil law to manageable proportion, by selecting from the unwieldy mass of statutes only the most essential, and publishing them in a few volumes. ∙All these schemes were cancelled by his assassination.

Suetonius: Julius Caesar (Triumvirate-Civil War; 20-39)

∙Caesar's first act as consul was to rule that a daily record of proceedings in the Senate and before the people should be taken and published. ∙Next he introduced an agrarian law, and when Bibulus delayed its passage by announcing that the omens were unfavorable, he drove him from the Forum by force. Bibulus lodged a complaint to tthe Senate but nobody dared move a vote of censure, so Bibulus stayed home out of frustration. Caesar was thus enabled to govern alone and do very much as he pleased. ∙Caesar freely granted all pleas whatsoever, and either met no opposition or intimidated anyone who dared intervene. ∙Caesar married Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Piso, his successor to the consulship, and at the same time betrothed his own daughter Julia to Gnaeus Pompey. ∙Having thus secured the goodwill of his father-inlaw Piso and his son-in-law Pompey, Caesar surveyed the provinces open to him and chose Gaul as being the likeliest to supply him with wealth and triumphs. ∙At the close of his consulship the praetors demanded an inquiry into his official conduct during the past year. Caesar referred the matter to the Senate, which would not discuss it, and the left for Gaul. ∙Lucius Domitius (one of the praetors that accused him) stood for consulship and openly threatened that, once elected, he would remove Caesar from his military command. He called upon Pompey and Crassus to prolong his governorship of Gaul for another five years and to run for consulship themselves. ∙Caesar expanded his regular army with legions raised at his own expense. He now lost no opportunity of picking quarrels--however flimsy the pretext--with allies as well as hostile and barbarous tribes. He had many successful campaigns and the public liked him more and more. ∙He brought all of Gaul into the province and was the first to build a bridge and deal heavy losses to the Germans as well as the first to extend into Britain and defeat the natives. ∙After the assassination of consul Publius Clodius, Pompey was appointed consul. Caesar was picked by the tribunes of the people to be his colleague, and they allowed Caesar to do so while still remaining in Gaul. ∙He gained by popular support by giving many senators loans and giving gifts to tons of people including people of less distinction. ∙Marcus Claudius Marcellus, the consul, sought to relieve Caesar of his command before his term as governor expired as well as forbid him to stand for the consulship without appearing at Rome in person. ∙Caesar delayed all this but eventually could not anymore. Since the Senate did not intervene and his opponents refused to make any deal where the public good was concerned, he was resolved to defend the rights of the tribunes by war if the Senate took any serious action against the ones who were working in his interests. Theories that Caesar started the civil war because he did not want to answer for the irregularities of his first consulship or that the constant exercise of power gave him a love of it. ∙He led his army to the further bank, where he welcomed the tribunes of the people who had fled to him from Rome. He occupied different areas and then marched along the Adriatic coast to Brundisium, where Pompey and the consuls had fled from Rome. He marched on Rome, entered it, summoned the Senate to review the political situation, and then hurriedly set off for Spain, where he defeated Pompey. ∙Pompey fled to Alexandria; Caesar followed, and, when he found that King Ptolemy had murdered Pompey and was planning to murder him as well, declared war. Caesar was victorious. ∙He then handed the government of Egypt to Cleopatra and her younger brother, fearing that, if it were made a Roman province, some independent-minded governor might one day launch a bid for power from there. ∙Throughout the civil war Caesar was never defeated himself. ∙Afterwards, he celebrated five triumphs in one month and gave his soldiers and citizens of Rome many gifts.

Kamm: Roman law and administration: Cicero, In Verrem, and the extortion courts of Rome

∙Cicero prosecuted a provinical governor in one of the quaestiones perpetuae (extortion courts). He was obviously guilty and did little to hide his accumulated wealth. This was after the suggestion that two-thirds of the jurors be quites was rejected. He told the Roman jury that it was important that they convict him to show the world that a Senatorial jury could prosecute a very guilty but very rich man. Gauis Verres (defendent) fled eventually. ∙Cicero's prosecution marked the young lawyer out for greatness and exposed the seedy underbelly of Sulla's unchecked aristocracy in the Senate. ∙The doors of opportunity and justice now seemed to be open again, despite Sulla's attempts to close them.

Kamm: Infrastrucure

∙Despite its elaborate entertainment venues, Roman architecture was more than just a pretty facade. Practical elements such as roads, walls, bridges, and aqueducts formed the vital framework that linked the aforementioned buildings both in Rome and throughout the empire. ∙Walls were needed to discourage attackers and mark the Roman border. Roads and bridges were needed for communications and deployment of troops, while aqueducts were essential for the supply of water. ∙Permanent defenses were built to an elaborate standard pattern that involved digging ditches thirty Roman feet deep and a hundred feet wide. The earth that had been excavated was built up into a mound behind the ditch and supported on either side by a retaining wall made of standard-sized blocks of tufa rock. The end result was about fifteen meters deep and fifteen meters high. ∙The empire was held together by its network of roads, which branched out from all the main towns and linked with the quickest and safest sea routes. The building and upkeep of these roads were the responsibility of the state; military roads in the provinces were constructed by the army, usually with some additional forced labor from the local people. There were approximately 22400 km of paved roads in the second century AD Italy, 1400 km in Gaul, 11200 km in Spain, 4500 km in Britain, 1400 km in Africa, and 15200 km in Asia. ∙Early Roman bridges were made of wood, and this continued until the end of the empire for military bridges (so the army could easily destroy them if necessary). The construction of more permanent river crossings began under Augustus. The ornate, five-arched bridge at Ariminum, which dates from his reign, is still in use. ∙Most of Rome's water transport was accomplished through underground siphons and pipes or tunnels bored through hills. The Romans knew the rule of dynamics: that water always rises to the level of its source. The Claudian aqueduct, begun by Caligula and finished by Claudius, had a 70 km long channel and started its final overhead descent to Rome 12 km from the city. Frontinus estimated that over 1000 million liters of water came into Rome every day though eight aqueducts. ∙The aqueduct represented a triumph on a number of levels. First, only a militarily secure place could ever contemplate leaving something as potentially vulnerable as its water supply out in the open countryside. Second, it was also a triumph over nature, a means to support public baths, latrines, a other amenities, as well as irrigate farmland. The Romans were able to manipulate the laws of nature in unprecedented ways to create buildings that would be unparalleled in size and ingenuity for more than a millennium. While they borrowed from the styles and visual language of number cultures, it is their innovative use of science, technology, and manpower that survives as the most impressive legacy of Roman architecture.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book IV

∙Dido falls more in love with Aeneas while he tells the tale. However, she said she would never marry again after the death of Sychaeus, her husband. However, marrying Aeneas would improve the strength of Carthage. ∙Juno wants to use the prospect of marriage between the two as a way to keep Aeneas from going to Italy. She tells Venus she wants to end their feud and help the Trojans and Tyrians reach peace. Venus knows what Juno is up to, but allows her to do it anyway. ∙One day, while Dido, her court, and Aeneas are hunting, Juno causes a large storm. Dido and Aeneas are alone and make love. When they return to Carthage, they openly live as lovers and neglect their responsibility as rules. ∙When Jupiter learns of these proceedings, he sends Mercury to remind Aeneas that he must go to Italy. Aeneas realizes he must leave, but does not know how to tell Dido. He prepares his fleet in secret, but Dido finds out. She is very angry and accuses him of stealing her honor. He tells her must leave because it is the will of the gods. ∙Dido feels both fierce love and bitter anger. While Aeneas sleep, Mercury tells him he must leave at once. So Aeneas immediately prepares his fleet and sets sail. ∙Dido cannot bear to live anymore and throws her self upon Aeneas blade while cursing his name. Juno ends her suffering.

Kamm: Domestic Architecture

∙Domestic space was not necessarily private. The process of salutatio meant that a patron would receive many people in the atrium of his home, making this the most visible showroom of ahouse where family relics were kept. The Roman tradition of hierarchy applied even inside the house, where certain parts of the building (peristyle gardens and dining rooms) were more private than others, reserved only for distinguished guests and acquaintances. ∙The early Roman townhouse was little more than a single room, known as the atrium. There was a basin, the impluvium, that would catch rainwater that was used for drinking, but it also had a decorative function (reflecting sunlight) and helped to regulate the temperature (absorbing heat in the day and retaining it longer at night). As time went on, small extra rooms were built inside the atrium, against its walls, or separated off by partitions. By the second century BC, Greek influence had brought the peristylum, a garden court surrounded by a colonnaded passage off which were further rooms. The tablinum was a dining room, reception room, or office for the head of the household. A dining room is sometimes called a triclinium in reference to the three couches that were often placed below a wall painting. ∙Many individuals could not afford such extravagance, especially in an urban environment. These individuals lived in apartments above shops in small towns and apartment blocks called insulae in cities such as Rome. ∙Urban congestion was a problem in Rome from early times. In the second century AD there were 1782 houses that accommodated 50,000 people. The other 1.5 million lived in apartments. The ground floor was usually where the more well-off people lived, with access to a sewer or water source. ∙For the rich, there were two kinds of villa or country house. The villa rustica was a glorified farmhouse which contained living quarters for the owner of the estate when he happened to be in residence. The villa urbana was where one luxuriated or retreated for a holiday from the bustle of Rome. In a typical villa the principle parts of the townhouse were usually reversed. ∙Central heating was invented by Sergius Oresta in about 100BC and was achieved by circulating hot air from a furnace through cavities under the floor and inside the walls.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book X

∙From Olympus, Jupiter notices what is happening in Italy. He expected the Trojan settlement to be peaceful. He summons a council of all the gods, where Venus blasts Juno for the suffering of Aeneas and the Trojans. Juno responds that she did not force Aeneas to go to Italy. Jupiter decides that he will not interfere anymore and will allow the merits and efforts of the men decide their fate. ∙Aeneas continues his journey back, aided by Tarchon of Tuscany, who has provided him with fleets and many warriors to sail back. Aided by the sea nymphs, Aeneas makes it back quickly. Turnus spots the ships and moves his troops to the beach to confront them. A battle ensues. ∙Pallas lead the Arcadian warriors while Aeneas slaughters Latins and helps tilt the battle in favor of the Trojans. Turnus challenges Pallas, who is already a great warrior in his youth, in the center of the battle. ∙Pallas causes Turnus a fleshwound, but Turnus kills him. Arrogant, Turnus takes Pallas' belt as a prize. ∙Aeneas hears of Pallas' death and becomes enraged. He sets out for vengence, slaughtering many Latins in his hunt for Turnus. Some of the Latin troops beg Aeneas for mercy on their knees, but he slaughters them mercilessly. Turnus' troops fall into chaos. ∙Juno asks Jupiter to allow her to spare Turnus. He consents. She creates an image of Aeneas, which Turnus follows onto a ship. Juno subsequently makes the ship set sail and carry Turnus down the coast. ∙The great Latin warrior Mezentius takes Turnus' place but becomes disheartened when Aeneas kills his son, Lausus. Aeneas then cuts him down after his shield blocks several spears. Thus the Trojans win the battle.

Kamm: The Rise of Augustus and the Second Triumvirate

∙Gaius Octaviuanus was Caesar's heir and adopted son. He was 18 when his uncle died. He took the name Caesar. ∙He arrived in Rome a month after Caesar's death, in April 44BC. Marc Antony and Marcus Aemlius Lepidus, Caesar's chief assistants, had assumed control over the state and Caesar;s fortune. ∙Cicero, who was attacking Anthony with orations, took Octavian under his wing, hoping to ally the young man with the Senate. ∙In 43BC, Cicero sent Octavian with two consuls to defeat Antony. Both consuls were killed and Octavvian defeated Antony but chose not to pursue him. Instead, he returned to Rome with eight legions and 'suggested' that he be made consul. ∙As consul, he ratified the triumviri reipublicae constituendae (the second triumvirate), a formal, legal, five-year appointment emporing Antony, Lepidus, and himself to 'restore' the Roman constitution.Included powers to enact laws without the Senate's approval, exercise jurisdiction without appeal, and nominate magistrates. The also divvied up provinces and legions among themselves. There were still elections and formal consultation with the Senate, giving the appearance of a republic 'under construction.' However, they killed or confiscated property of at least 150 equites and 150 senators, including Cicero, who was beheaded. ∙In 42BC, they sought to avenge Caesar at the Battle of Philippi against Brutus and Cassius. Antony won while Octavian was routed. Overall they won the battle. Antony stayed in the east to continue the campaign, Lepidus headed to Africa, and Octavian went back to Italy to piece it back together. That included dealing with Sextus Pompey (Pompey's son) who was acting as a pirate and causing a grain crisis. Marcus Vispsanius Agrippa, Octavian's childhood friends and admiral, defeated him. ∙Lepidus tried to assume control of Sicily but was defeated by Octavian. ∙Antony had married Octavian's sister, but after he went east he sent her back to Rome and sued for divorce. He chose Cleopatra and Alexandria over Rome. Caesarion, son of Caesar and Cleopatra, was the only other heir of Caesar. In 31BC, Octavian fought Antony at Actium in their final showdown. Agrippa won the battle with naval skill. Antony committed suicide. Caesarion was murdered. Cleopatra fled before also committing suicide.

Suetonius: Augustus (Military career; 10-26)

∙He fought five civil wars, associated with the geographical names Mutina, Philippi, Perusia, Sicily, and Actium. The first and last were against Mark Antony, the second against Brutus and Cassius, the third against Antony's brother Lucius, and the fourth against Sextus Pompey. ∙The underlying of every campaign was that Augustus felt it his duty, above all, to avenge Caesar and keep his decrees in force. ∙On his return from Apollonia, he decided to punish Brutus and Cassius immediately; but they foresaw the danger and escaped, so he had reourse to the law and prosecuted them for murder. ∙Because stronger authority was needed to implement his plans, Augustus announced his candidacy for tribuneship of the people. Mark Antony, one of the two consuls, opposed this action and denied him even his ordinary legal rights, except on the payment of a heavy bribe. ∙Augustus therefore went over to the optimates, well aware that they hated Antony. The Senate awarded him praetorian rank, gave him the command of this army, and instructed him to join Hirtius and Pansa, the two new consuls, in the relief of Decimus Brutus (who was being besieged by Antony). ∙Augustus brought the campaign to a successful close within three months. According to Antony, he ran away from the first battle and did not reappear until the next day, having lost both his charger and his general's cloak. But it is generally accepted that in the second engagement he showed not only skill as a commander but courage as a soldier: when the standard bearer of his legion was seriously wounded, Augustus himself shouldered the Eagle and carried it for some time. ∙Because Hirtius fell in battle and Pansa later succumbed to a wound, a rumor went about that Augustus had engineered both deaths with the object of gaining sole control over their victorious armies after Antony's defeat. ∙When Augustus heard that Mark Antony had been taken under Lepidus' protection and that the other military commanders, supported by their troops, were coming to terms with these two, he at once deserted the optimates. ∙Having formed an alliance with Antony and Lepidus, Augustus defeated Brutus and Cassius at Philippi. After the victory, he showed no clemency to his beaten enemies, but sent Brutus' head to Rome for throwing at the feet of Caesar's statue. ∙The victors divided between them the responsibilities of government. Antony undertook to pacify the eastern provinces if Augustus led the veterans back to Italy and settled them on municipal lands. However, Augustus failed to satisfy either the landowners, who complained that they were being evicted from their estates, or the veterans, who felt entitled to better rewards for their service. ∙At his point Lucius Antonius felt strong enough, as consul and brother of Marc Antony, to raise a revolt. Augustus forced him to take refuge in the city of Perusia, which he starved into surrender. ∙After the fall of the city, Augustus took vengeance on crowds of prisoners and returned the same answer to all who sued for pardon: 'You must die.' ∙The Sicilian war, one of his first enterprises, lasted a long time. He eventually was able to attack after storms destroyed parts of his fleet. He exercised his crews all one winter, and when sailing season opened he defeated Sextus Pompey, even though on the eve of the battle he fell so fast asleep that his friends had to wake him and ask for the signal to begin hostilities. It would be safe to say that the Sicilian was by far his most dangerous campaign. ∙Lepidus, the third member of the triumvirate, whom Augustus had summoned from Africa to his support, thought himself so important as the commander of 20 legions that, when Sextus Pompey had been beaten, he violently demanded the highest place in the government. Augustus deprived him of his legions, and Lepidus, though successfully pleading for his life, spent what was left of it in permanent exile at Circeii. ∙Eventually Augustus broke his friendship with Mark Antony, which had always been a tenuous one and in continual need of patching, and proved that his rival had failed to conduct himself as befitted a Roman citizen by ordering the will he had deposited at Rome to be opened and publicly read. It listed among Antony's heirs the illegitimate children father by him on Cleopatra. ∙Shortly thereafter he defeated Antony is a sea battle off Actium, where the fighting went on so long that he spent the whole night aboard his ship. ∙In winter quarters on Samos, after this victory, Augustus heard the alarming news of a mutiny at Brundisium among troops whom he had picked from every unit in the army. He returned to Italy. ∙He stayed no more than 27 days in Brundisium, just long enough to pacify the mutineers, then took a roundabout route to Egypt by way of Asia and Syria, besieged Alexandria, where Antony had fled with Cleopatra, and soon reduced it. At the last moment Antony sued for peace, but Augustus ordered him to commit suicide, and inspected the corpse. He was so anxious to save Cleopatra as an ornament for his triumph that he actually summoned Psylli to suck the poison from her wound, supposedly the bite of an asp. He had the elder of Antony's sons executed and sent cavalry in pursuit of Caesarion, whom Cleopatra claimed to be the son of Caesar, and killed him when captured. However, he spared Cleopatra's children by Antony, brought them up no less tenderly than if they had been members of his own family, and gave them the education which their rank deserved. ∙He had the sarcophagus containing Alexander the Great's mummy removed from the mausoleum at Alexandria and showed his veneration by crowning the head with a golden diadem and strewing flowers on the trunk. When asked, 'Would you now like to visit the mausoleum of the Ptolemies?' he replied, 'I cam to see a king, not a row of corpses.' ∙Augustus turned the kingdom of Egypt into a Roman province, and then, to increase its fertility and its yield of grain for the Roman market, set troops to clean out the irrigation canals of the Nile, which had silted up after many years' neglect. ∙Next he suppressed a series of sporadic riots and revolts, besides certain conspiracies, all of them detected before they became dangerous. ∙Augustus commanded armies in only two foreign wars: against the Dalmatae while he was still in his teens, and against the Cantabri after defeating Antony. The remainder of his foreign wars were conducted by his legates. ∙Either as a local commander or as a commander-in-chief at Rome, Augustus conquered Canatabria, Aquitania, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and the whole of Illyricum. Yet Augustus never wantonly invaded any country, and felt no temptation to increase the boundaries of the empire or enhance his military glory. Even when tribes rebelled frequently or showed particular ill faith, Augustus' most severe punishment was to sell as slaves the prisoners he took. Such was his reputation for courage and clemency that the very Indians and Scythians--nations of whom we then knew by hearsay alone--voluntarily sent ambassadors to Rome, pleading for his friendship and that of the Roman people. ∙He suffered only two heavy and disgraceful defeats, both in Germany. ∙Augustus introduced many reforms into the army, besides reviving certain obsolete practices, and exacted the strictest discipline. ∙When the civil wars were over, Augustus no longer addressed the troops as comrades but as soldiers. He thought comrades too flattering a term, consonant neither with military discipline nor with peacetime service nor with the respect due to himself and his family. ∙The two faults which he condemned most strongly in a military commander were haste and recklessness. It was a principle of his that no campaign or battle should ever be fought unless more could clearly be gained by victory than lost by defeat.

Suetonius: Juluis Caesar (Pre-Triumvirate; 1-19)

∙He lost his father at the age of fifteen ∙He married Cornelia, daughter of Cinna who had been consul four times. She bore him a daughter named Julia. ∙Sulla tried to make Caesar divorce Cornelia but he refused. Sulla treated him like a political enemy and Caesar went into hiding. He eventually won Sulla's pardon due to other people pressuring him. ∙First saw military service in Asia. Not much success early, but his reputation improved later in the campaign. ∙He campaigned in Cilicia until he heard of Sulla's death and hurried back to Rome, where a revolt headed by Marcus Lepidus seemed to offer prospects of rapid advancement. He turned down Lepidus' offers. ∙After the revolt was suppressed, he brought a charge of extortion against Cornelius Dolabela, a consular. No sentence, so he decided to go to Rhodes to avoid trouble. He was captured by pirates on the way. Kept as a prisoner for 40 days. As soon as he was free, he raised a fleet, found them, and killed them. ∙When he returned to Rome, the people voted him the rank of military tribune. He undid Sulla's legislation by restoring the tribunes of the people to their ancient powers. ∙After Cornelia died, he married Pompeia, Quintus Pompeius' daughter. He divorced her for adultery. ∙He had a dream of raping his own mother. Soothsayers encouraged him by interpreting it so that he would conquer the Earth, our natural mother. ∙Caeser plotted with Marcus Crasses (consular) , Publius Sulla, and Lucius Autronius. They agreed to wait until the new year, and then attack the Senate House, killing as many senators as convenient. Crassus would then proclaim himself dictator and Caesar his master of the horse. Crassus did not show up at the appointed hour and the plot did not go through. He also plotted with Gnaeus Piso, Piso died and the plan did not go through. ∙Caesar garnered the goodwill of the people by putting on public shows, including a gladiatorial show so large that the Senate rushed to pass a bill limiting the number of gladiators that anyone could keep in Rome. ∙He campaigned and plotted to try to be put in charge of Egypt but failed. ∙Pissed off a bunch of senators and equites by not wanting to execute those involved in the Catilinarian conspiracy. ∙Elected as praetor, but was quickly suspended before being reinstated. ∙Caesar was accused of being involved in the Catilinarian conspiracy, but managed to clear his name and imprison his accusers. ∙He received the province of Further Spain. Quickly pacified the area and returned to Rome. Wanted to run for consulship, which required him to forfeit the triumph that he wanted. ∙He and Marcus Bibulus were elected consuls, but the optimates continued to restrict Caesar's influence by ensuring that, when he and Bibulus had completed their term, neither should govern a province of any significance; they would be put in charge of the forests and public pasturelands in Italy. ∙Infuriated by this slight, he brought Gnaeus Pompey and Marcus Crassus together and they formed a triple pact, jointly swearing to oppose all public policies of which any one of them might disapprove.

Kamm: Hail Caesar!

∙In his absence and during a time of crisis, Caesar was appointed dictator, which he assumed for life. ∙He led military campaigns against Pompeians in Africa and Spain from 48 to 44BC. Pllaned reforms in Rome: calender, public buildings (port at Ostia), removed tax syndicates in Asia, encouraged resettlement of Romans in provinces, and offered citizenship to a number of provincials. ∙Caesar won gratitude but not loyalty The senate kept giving him more priveleges and honours: uninterrupted consulship, dictator for life, censor, and pater patriae (father of this country). ∙Resentment grew between Caesar and the Senate. He wouldn't stand to greet them at one meeting and did other stuff that disrespected them. His appropriation of public funds, personal appointment of officials and generals, and general insouciance towards repoublic traditions were too much for some senators. IN 44BC, they stabbed and kiled him. ∙Caesar's driving ambition and energy led him to enact too many changes too quickly, without showing proper respect or consideration for the traditions and constitutional practices that he was sweeping away. ∙Caesar's assassination was an unpopular event, which only served to increase his fame and respect among the people. ∙Caesar's will was ratified. He had pardoned his enemies. If they declared him an enemy of the state, all of his acts would be repealed or nullified, so they couldn't do that. His gifts to the public (three gold pieces each) were carried out. His funeral was public and had a large turn out. Brutus and Cassius, his murderers, left Rome after the funeral mourners attempted to torch their homes.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book IX

∙Juno sends Iris to tell Turnus that Aeneas is away from his camp (the journey back from Arcadia is slower because they have a bigger army and have to march instead of row). Turnus immediately turns his army to attack the Trojans without their leader. The Trojans see him coming and bunker down in their fortress. Turnus does not see any weaknesses in it, so he instead burns their vulnerable ships. ∙However, when the fleets were constructed, Cybele (mother of the gods and sister of Saturn) asked Jupiter to make them immortal because they were made with wood from trees in her sacred forest. As the ships burn, they turn in to sea nymphs. Turnus is undeterred and sets up camp outside the Trojan fortress. ∙Nisus and Euryalus, eager for glory, volunteer to notify Aeneas of the happenings. As they sneak out in the night, they find the Latins asleep. They kill many great Latin captains, and Euryalus takes on of their helmets as a prize. As they approach the forest, enemy horsemen see the helmet flash in the distance and kill both of them. The Latins put their heads on sticks and put them outside the fortress. ∙Then the Trojans attack. They burn down a tower and begin to invade the fortress. Ascanius kills Remulus (Latin captain) with an arrow and renews some Trojan hope. The Trojans surprise the Latins by opening the gate and rushing out, killing many Latins. However, Turnus joins the battle and forces their retreat. Pandarus closes the gate, but allows Turnus inside while trying to let as many Trojans back in as possible. Turnus easily kills many Trojans and escapes by jumping into the Tiber.

Kamm: Nero (54-68AD)

∙Nero was artistic, sporty, brutal, weak, sensual, extravagant, sadistic, bisexual, and latterly almost certainly deranged. He was sixteen when his mother secured him the office of emperor by engineering his presentation to the trrops as a candidate and by promising the imperial guard what was now the customary bonus. Shortly after, Britannicus was removed from the race, possibly by poison. ∙During the early years of his reign, he was kept in hand by his tutor Seneca and Sectus Africanus Burrus, praetorian prefect, both of who attempted to restrain the young ruler and control his mother Agrippina's attempts to exert influence. ∙In 58AD, Nero took Poppaea as his mistress. Agrippina sided with his wife, Octavia. Nero retaliated by murdering her in 59AD. ∙He celebrated finally killing his mother (after several failed attempts) by redoubling his bouts of excessive licentiousness and by creating two new festivals. No one was allowed to leave during his performances. Suetonius writes of women giving birth during a Nero recital and of men pretending to die and being carried out as if to burial. ∙Burrus died in 62AD and soon after Seneca retired, leaving Nero subject to corrupt advisers who indulged his passions for sport, music, and rowdy parties, during which he and his guests publicly performed sexual acts of unimaginable ingenuity. ∙Having divorced Octavia in 62AD, he had her executed and then married Poppaea. But then he killed her too: Sutonius says he kicked her to death when she complained about his coming home late from the races. ∙In 65AD there was a conspiracy to assassinate him. When it was discovered, there was terrible retribution in which both Seneca and his nephew, Lucan, died. There were no trials: anyone Nero suspected or disliked was sent a note ordering them to commit suicide. ∙In 64AD fire had ravaged Rome for six days. This was the occasion when Nero was said to have 'fiddled while Rome burned.' Such reports made people suspicious of the genuine relief measures that Nero initiated. His appropriation of a vast tract of land razed by the fire for his Domus Aurea (Golden Palace) only added to suspicions of foul play. The vast luxury complex was blatantly built in the faces of the Roman people. It did not matter that he had residential areas in the city rebuilt at his own expense to a proper grid pattern with broad streets and open spaces. ∙He found scapegoats in the members of the latest religious sect, Christianity, whose adherents were rounded up and torn to death by dogs or crucified in public spectacles. ∙Nero's sexual proclivities, his public performances, his proposed abolition of taxes and his excessive personal expenditure, as well as his willingness to be worshipped as a living god, set him out as the antithesis of Augustus in social, political, economic, and religious matters. ∙In 68AD, governors Gaius Julius Vindex and Servius Sulpicius Galbas led a revolution. It was suppressed by legions and Vindex committed suicide. Galba, however, informed the Senate that he was available to head a government. The Senate, relieved that someone was prepared to take personal responsibility, not only declared Nero a public enemy but sentenced him to death by floggint. Nero killed himself with the help of his secretary. Such was the end of the Julio-Claudian dynasty.

Kamm: Augustus: Restorer of the Republic? (27BC-14AD)

∙Octavian had to assemble his powers nto an acceptable constitutional form and depart from Caesar's legacy to avoid angst about about the return to a monarchy/dictatorship. He did so gradually over a number of years in a way that did not appear to undermine the Senate. While continuing to hold successive consulships, he formally resigned all the special powers he had been granted in 27BC. In exchange he accepted several strategic provinces for ten years. ∙Octavian accepted the name Augustus in 27BC. ∙Augustus was confirmed as the divine successor to the pharaohs in Egypt. In 23BC, he gave up his claim to hold the office of consul for life due to illness. In its place, he was granted the privileges of a tribune of the people (including veto power and to present matters direct to the popular assemblies). ∙His method of retaining the official titles of the republic and consulting with the Senate were important distinctions between himself and Julius Caesar. ∙Many of his reforms weren't what they cracked up to be. Ex. he would 'restore' monuments but it was really just an excuse to move them into his new forum. ∙His reign lasted over 40 years and gave the western world the term 'Augustan' to denote an age of literary achievement. He consolidated the Roman boundaries by reorganizing and strengthening the army, and removing it from Italy to patrol the provinces. He remodeled the civil service, largely rebuilt parts of Rome, and appointed 3500 firemen to guard against conflagration. After a century of civil war and strife, Augustus gave the Roman people four decades without civil wars, a capital city of marble, and a new concept of what it meant to be Roman in a growing empire. ∙He died at the age of 76 in the family house at Nola in Campania. ∙One difficulty for his was producing a viable successor. His only child was a daughter by his second wife (of three). He nominated his stepson Tiberius as his successor.

Kamm: The Twilight of the Roman Republic: Administering an Empire (121-60BC)

∙Optimates were a prominent group of patricians the senate. Dominated by a successively smaller number of Roman families who shared both the patrician and plebian posts between themselves, leaving the balance of power in the hands of fewer and fewer individuals. Tried to uphold the oligarchy. ∙Populares challenged the Optimates. Sought popular support to fight the oligarcy.

Kamm: The events leading up to the triumvirate (67-60BC)

∙Pirates in the Mediterranean threatened Roman markets and citizens. Caesar was captured by them but hunted them down and killed them afterwards. ∙The solution was proposed in 67BC. Gave extraordinary ilitary command and unprecedented authority and resources to Pompey. ∙He was successful in the Mediterranean and offered another massive campaign in Asia Minor (66-63BC). Meanwhile, Crassus was elected censor and gaining popular support. ∙Julius Caesar ran for pontifex maximus and Cicero became consular. ∙There was discontent among Romans over the senatus consultum ultimum, although Cicero used it when Catiline threatened to rebel after losing an election for consulship. ∙Caesar spent 62BC recovering debts in Spain as quaestor then stayed on as governor. Conquered local tribes and gained notoriety. ∙The common denominator between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus in 60 BC was Cato the Younger, who fought to check the rising powers of wealthy generals (like his ancestor). ∙However, they were all denied by the Senate in something. Cato persuaded the Senate to deny Caesar's request to register in absentia for the upcoming consular election. When his consulship ended, the Senate allocated the smallest provincial settlement to him. Pompey's efforts to give his veterans land stalled in 61-60BC. Crassus argued for a remittance on behalf of a tax syndicate that could not make its payments, which Cato blocked even though it would have disastrous effects on trade in general and a number of Roman businessmen. ∙Crassua dn Pompey formed pooled their resources with Caesar as an intermediary. Cicero declined to join them.

Kamm: A Typical Roman Theater

∙Pompey's theater, which was incredibly extravagant (running water down the aisles for air conditioning and saffron-scented air spray), became famous for two reason: first as a universally popular meeting place for lovers and, second, as the site of Julius Caesar's assassination. ∙Public toilets were important civic aminites that were found across the empire. They improved the quality of everyday life and were not overlooked by imperial benefactors. ∙Theaters could seat anywhere from 7500 to 40000 peopl. Compared to the Royal Opera House in London that seats 2200 and the Metropolitan Opera House in New York that seats 3800. ∙The Colosseum had a capacity of 45000 and 265000 spectators could watch the chariot races at Circus Maximus. There were no individual seats, so these buildings had quite flexible capacities. ∙Some Roman theaters (at Orange and Verulamium) took advantage of natural slopes while the theater in Palmyra was built into the ground. Many others were freestanding and their stage buildings were elaborate affairs. Provincial buildings were built on a smaller scale out of local materials.

Kamm: Trouble in Paradise: The Collapse of the First Triumvirate

∙Pompey's wife Julia died in 54BC and Crassus died during a campaign in Syria in 53BC. ∙The following year, Pompey became the sole consul after an episode between rival gangs resulted in the death of Clodius. Pompey began to distance himself from Caesar. ∙Tensions grew between Pompey and Caesar as the time came for Caesar to return to rome. They could not compromise and Caesar was declared an enemy of the state after the Senate passed a senatus consultm ultimum against him.

Kamm: Art, Architecture, and Engineering

∙Roman engineering was very adaptive. They used the natural features such as hills (theatre at Orange) or to dig into the ground (theatres at Palmyra and Pompeii). The adaptability and dynamic nature of Roman buildings and art played a crucial role in its acceptance and transmission across the empire. ∙Roman sculpture, learned from the Greeks and Etruscans, reached a peak in the first and second centuries AD. IT was the development of the arch, the vault, and the dome, and the use of concrete, which gave distinction, serviceability and grandeur to Roman domestic and public architecture and civil engineering.

Kamm: Painting and Mosaic

∙Roman painting and mosaic, found both in private homes and in public buildings, show similar developments over time. ∙During the republic there was a vogue for collecting and exhibiting narrative paintings of battles and mythological scenes. ∙In imperial times, paintings ceased to be portable and were used almost exclusively to cover walls inside houses. These frescoes often depict scenes from Greek mythology and reflected the home-owner's taste. Still-life paintings were also made of game birds, fish, and vegetables. These may have represented the gifts that guests would take away from a party. These literary allusions, landscapes, and depictions of exotic scenes and animals were designed to impress the viewer with the wealth and education of their patron. ∙Mosaic seems to have originated in Babylon and was widely practiced in Egypt in the third century BC. Because it is comparatively indestructible and the medium spread throughout the Roman empire, it has come to represent Roman pictorial art to those who have not seen the sculptures and paintings which Italy has to offer. ∙Three types: opus sectile consists of small pieces of different-coloured marble cut into various shapes and fitted together in a geometrical pattern; in opus tessellatum the dice are square and all of the same size; in opus vermiculatum, the dice are of varied shapes and sizes, sometimes of minute proportions and are often set in wavy lines. Opus incertum, a fourth style, was used in the second century BC; it consisted of pieces of rubble fitted together to make rough patterns. Mosaics follow similar themes to paintings, respresenting mythological and historical events (the Alexander Mosaic from the House of Menander in Pompeii) or scenes from literature as well as exotic fauna and gladiatorial games or hunts in domestic contexts, such as houses. Like houses, they were also used in commercial contexts.

Kamm: The First Triumvirate (60-48BC)

∙Rome's movement towards monarchy was a product of many facts, crucial among which were the consolidation of power in the hands of generals, the prevalence of bribery in elections, and the increasing dominance of the Senate. ∙The first triumvirate was an unofficial alliance between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. ∙Caesar won the elction for consulship in 59BC. Both sides used bribery to gain votes. Caesar was immediately denied by the Senate for a proposal for land redistribution. ∙Caesar turned to the popular sasembly, but his co-consul Bibulus kept calling off the meetings. In order to appoint a dictator, both consuls had to agree. ∙Caesar took control of sole consulthip and immediately passed his land reform, forgave the debts of Crassus' tax syndicate in Asia, arranged the land settlements for Pompey's veterans, and regulated the conduct of provincial governors. ∙After a sucessful but controversial year in office, Caesar arranged a five-year appointment in Gaul so he couldn't be indicted for any acts he committed. The triumvirate sealed their bonds with marriage: pompey married Caesar's daughter Julia and Caesar married Calpurnia. The triumvirate was renewed in 56BC when Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls. ∙Caesar was very successful in Gaul and remained popular.

Suetonius: Augustus (Summary; 1-9)

∙The Octavii were famous in ancient Velitrae. King Tarquinius Priscus admitted the Octavii to the Roman Senate and Julius Casear made them patricians. ∙At the age of four Augustus lost his father. At sixteen, having now come of age, he was awarded military decoration when Caesar celebrated his African triumph, though he had been too young to take part in the war. ∙Caesar sent Augustus to Apollonia. News then came that Caesar had been assassinated after naming him his heir. He considered to put himself under the protection of quartered troops nearby. However, deciding that this would be rash and injudicious, he returned to Rome and there entered upon his inheritance. ∙Augustus now took command of the army of the army and governed the commonwealth: first with Mark Antony and Lepidus and then only with Antony, for nearly twelve years; finally by himself, for another forty-four years.

Kamm: Dress

∙The Romans applied their ingenuity and use of basic materials and principles not only to solving complicated architectural and engineering problems, but also to their clothes. Only wool and, to a lesser extent, linen were available. Stitching or sewing was neither elegant nor particularly effective. Clothes were fastened or held together mainly with enormous safety-pins, belts, knots, or not at all. No buttons. ∙Bathing was a feature of daily life that took place in the afternoon. ∙A woman might have a brassiere in the form of a band (to keep her breasts up not in). Otherwise, both men and women wore a loin cloth knotted around the waist, with a belted tunic or shift with short or long sleeves. The male tunic reached to the knees while women wore one that was longer, sometimes to the ground. ∙In winter Romans might wear two tunics. Some, like Augustus, wore up to four. For the poorer classes, slaves, and small children, that was the limit of their attire. ∙The outer garment was the classic toga for men and the palla for women was the the standard, and statutory, formal dress for a Roman citizen. The palla was rectangular in shape. ∙Those who were standing for public office were in the habit of whitening their togas with chalk, thus known as candidati (clothed in glittering white). For dinner parties, at which the toga could have been an intolerable burden, it was often replaced by the synthesis, a kind of dressing-gown. ∙There was little difference between the footwear of men and women; both usually wore sandals tied round the ankle with thongs, and on more formal occasions the calceus, a soft leather shoe. For men, shaving was the rule between about 100BC and 100AD, performed with iron razors by a slave or at a barber shop. ∙Women wore their hair up in a variety of styles.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book VI

∙The Trojans finally arrive in Italy, in Cumae. Following the instructions of his father, Aeneas goes to the temple of Apollo. He tells the Sybil, a priestess, that his wish is to settle in Latium. She warns him there are more trials in Italy: fighting on the scale of the Trojan war, an enemy of Achilles' caliber, and more interference from Juno. ∙Aeneas asks if he can visit Dis to see his father. The Sybil tells him that if he can find a golden branch in the nearby forest and easily tear it from the tree, it is a sign that he may visit and be able to return. ∙He says a prayer and a pair of doves lead him to the tree with the branch. He is able to tear it off. When he presents it to the Sybil, she leads him to the gates of the underworld. ∙Charon escorts Aeneas across Archeron (a river at the gate) into Dis. Aeneas sees that Palinurus is among those who are not allowed to cross because they did not have a proper burial. ∙Aeneas sees Dido in the Fields of Mourning, where those who died for love reside. Aeneas tries to speak to her and explain that he did not want to leave, but she turns to her husband Sychaeus. Aeneas sheds tears of pity. ∙Aeneas travels through the field of war heroes, where he sees many casualties of the Trojan War. ∙They finally arrive at the Blessed Groves, where the good wander in peace and comfort, and Aeneas finds his father. Anchises congratulates him on his journey. Anchises tells Aeneas why Italy is so important and what will become of the Trojan descendants: Romulus will found Rome, a Caesar will come to rule, and Rome will reach a golden age of rule over the world. Aeneas then realizes why his journey to Italy is so important.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book VII

∙The Trojans reach the Tiber River, near Latium. Its king, Latinus, has a a daughter, Lavinia. Turnus, a nearby ruler, is her best suitor. Worried by a prophet's prediction that a foreigner will conquer his kingdom, Latinus consults an oracle. It tells him that his daughter should marry a foreigner, not a Latin. ∙The Trojans are on the beach, eating fruit on top of bread. After they finish the fruit, they eat the bread. Ascanius jokes that the Harpies' prophecy was not so bad. Aeneas realizes they have landed at their promised land. ∙Aeneas sends emissaries to Latinus to ask for land to build a new city on. Latinus responds by granting Aeneas land and suggesting that he marry Lavinia. Latinus realizes that accepting fate, even if it means the Trojans will eventually rule his kingdom, is better than resisting destiny. ∙Having failed at preventing the Trojans from reaching Italy, Juno desires to delay the founding of their city and to make them suffer more. She sends Alecto, one of the Furies, to Latium to rouse anger against the Trojans among the natives. Alecto first infects Queen Amata, Latinus' wife, and causes her to resist the marriage of Aeneas and Lavinia. Then he makes Turnus outraged by the idea of losing Lavinia and submitting to a Trojan king. ∙Turnus gathers his army and prepares to attack the Trojans. Ascanius is hunting and, due to Juno's meddling, kills a stag that is the favorite pet of one of Latinus' herdsmen. The herdsmen summons the other shepherds to hunt down Ascanius. The Trojans come to his aid. Many Latins die in a small skirmish. The shepherds go to Latinus and ask him to declare war on the Trojans. He does not want to, but everyone in his court does, even his wife. He eventually goes to his chambers because he feels he cannot stop what the gods have set in motion. Turnus gathers a massive army and begins to march towards Aeneas.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book XI

∙The day after the battle, Aeneas weeps for Pallas. He sends 1000 men to return the body to Evander and join him in mourning. Evander forgives Aeneas because his son died honorably. He wishes only for the death of Turnus. ∙Messengers arrive at Aeneas' camp and ask for a 12 day truce to bury they dead. Aeneas agrees. Among themselves, they respect Aeneas' piety and believe Turnus should settle this with a duel to avoid more bloodshed. ∙At a council of King Latinus, the Latins learn that Diomedes, the great Greek warrior that fought at Troy, will not assist them. Latinus does not believe they can win and suggests giving the Trojans land in exchange for peace. Drances blames the whole war on Turnus. The council begins to turn on Turnus, who questions the courage and manhood of Drances and Latinus. He agrees to face Aeneas alone. ∙A messenger tells them that the Trojans are marching towards them. Everyone rushes to prepare defenses. They are now joined by Camila, leader of the Volscians, a race of warrior maidens. Turnus hears that Aeneas has split his army. The light cavalry gallop towards the city while Aeneas and other great warriors travel through the mountains. Turnus leaves to set a trap for Aeneas and leaves the defense of the city to Camila. ∙The Trojans soon arrive and the battle begins. Camila is the best warrior present. After she takes down many Trojans, Arruns catches her off guard, hitting her with his spear. However, Diana likes Camila a lot and sends Opis to kill Arruns in revenge. ∙The Latin troops retreat back to the city without a leader. Camila's companion Acca goes to tell Turnus that the Latins no longer have a leader. He leaves the ambush just as Aeneas reaches it. Both leaders prepare their troops.

Kamm: Holidays and Games

∙The games had existed and were popular throughout the republican period. However, the games and their venues were taken to a whole new level under imperial munificence. ∙Not only was the official Roman working day a short one by modern standards, there were comparatively few working days in the year, except for slaves. ∙In the reign of Claudius, 159 days of the year were designated public holidays, on 93 of which shows were offered at the public expense. By the middle of the fifth century AD, there were 200 holidays a year and 175 days with games. ∙Games originally had religious significance, but more secular games were introduced to celebrate notable events. ∙Ludi scaenici (theatrical events) suffered overwhelming competition from the other forms of spectacle; they had much smaller audiences and fewer days allocated to them. ∙Ludi circenses took place in the custom-built circuses, or race-tracks, and amphitheaters. It should not be difficult to appreciate the Romans' passion for chariot-racing. The drivers were slaves, but they were also professional sportsmen who could earn vast sums. A race was usually about seven laps of the track, 4000 meters in the Circus Maximus in Rome. The start was staggered and there were no lanes and no rules. In the reign of Augustus there may be ten or twelve races per day; for Caligula, 24 was commonplace. Ludi circenses also included the gladiatorial fights, either between individuals or teams. The single rule of such bouts was that similarly armed contestants or teams of contestants did not normally fight each other. The most usual contest was between a moderately protected and helmeted swordsman and a retiarius, armed only with a net and a trident. Gladiators were slaves, condemned criminals, or prisoners of war. Animal fights would usually happen in the morning before the gladiatorial contests in the afternoon. The last form of combat, which involved flooding the arena or transferring the whole show to a suitable stretch of water, was the naumachia, or sea-fight.

Kamm: Food and Drink

∙The ordinary Roman diet was fundamentally more vegetarian based; the word fumentum (grain also means military food supplies or rations. ∙The army diet was a balanced one of grain, some meat (usually bacon), fish, poultry, cheese, vegetables, fruit, salt, olive oil, and raw wine. When there was a delay in getting the grain ration through and meat had to be substituted, the soldiers complained. ∙At home, porridge and bread were the staple foods of most Romans, with many city-dwellers forced to rely on the grain dole for their needs. ∙In well-to-do homes the regimen was different. Jentaculum (breakfast) might be bread dipped in wine or eaten with cheese, dried fruits or honey. The equivalent of lunch was prandium, again a light meal, often consisting of leftovers from the previous day. The main meal of the day, cena, was eaten in the middle of the afternoon, after work and the daily bath, and could go on for hours. Dinner parties were elaborate and could be dignified or disgusting affairs, depending on the host and guests. It consisted of three courses. ∙Wine was the national, and natural, drink, usually diluted with water; beer was for Britons and Gauls. Win was also mixed with honey to make mulsum, which accompanied the first course at dinner.

Suetonius: Agustus (Personal;

∙There are numerous positive proofs of Augustus' clemency and unassuming behavior. To supply a full list of the political enemies whom he pardoned allowed to hold high office would be tedious. ∙Augustus did his best to avoid leaving or entering any city in broad daylight, because that would have obliged the authorities to give him a formal welcome or send-off. He hated being called 'lord.' ∙He made his Forum somewhat narrow because he could not bring himself to evict the owners of nearby houses. He would also cast a vote himself in his own tribe, like an ordinary citizen. ∙The degree of affection that Augustus won by such behavior can easily be gauged. The equestrian order voluntarily and unanimously decided to celebrate his birthday, spreading the festivities over two days. When his home on the Palatine burned down, a fund for its rebuilding was started by the veterans, the guilds of minor officials, and the citizen tribes, to which people of every sort made further individual contributions. ∙Both the people and the Senate wanted him to be Father of His Country. ∙Each of the allied kings who enjoyed Augustus' friendship founded a city called 'Caesarea' in his own dominions; and all clubbed together funds to provide funds for completing the temple of Olympian Jupiter at Athens, which had begun centuries before, and dedicating it to his genius. ∙Had four wives or betrothals. Scribonia bore him a child, Julia. Livia Drusilla was the one woman whome he truly loved until his death. ∙Julia's first husband was Marcellus, his sister Octavia's son. Her second husband was Marcus Agrippa. After his death, he chose Tiberius. ∙He found out that his daughter Julia and granddaughter Julia had been indulging in every sort of vice, and banished them. His grandsons Gaius and Lucius died. He then adopted grandson Agrippa Postumus and Tiberius. But he disowned Agrippa whose behavior had been vulgar and brutal. ∙When he exiled Julia, he forbade her to drink wine or enjoy any other luxury, and denied her male company of any kind. ∙Though slow in making friends, once Augustus took to a man, he showed great constancy and not only rewarded him as his qualities deserved, but even condoned his minor shortcomings. ∙Augustus behaved strictly but kindly towards his dependents and slaves, and honored some of his freedmen with close intimacy. ∙Not even his friends could deny that he often committed adultery, though of course they said in justification that he did so for reasons of state, not simple passion--he wanted to discover what his enemies were at by getting intimate with their wives. ∙Augustus' private banquet, known as 'The Feast of the Twelve Gods' caused a public scandal. The guests cam dress as gods or goddesses, Augustus himself representing Apollo. What made the scandal even worse was that the banquet took place at a time of food shortage. ∙Some found Augustus a good deal too fond of expensive furniture, Corinthian bronzes, and the gambling table. ∙Augustus' other personal habits are generally agreed to have been moderate and unexceptional. ∙He was frugal and, as a rule, preferred the food of the common people, especially the coarser sort of bread, whitebait, fresh hand-pressed cheese, and green figs of the second crop. ∙Augustus was also a habitually abstemious drinker. ∙He was remarkably handsome and very graceful even as an old man, but negligent of his personal appearance. He cared so little about his hair that, to save time, he would have two or three barbers working hurriedly on it together. ∙Augustus survived several dangerous illnesses at different periods. The worst was after his Cantabrian conquest. ∙As soon as the civil wars were over, Augustus discontinued his riding and fencing exercises. ∙Augustus gave all possible encourage to intellectuals: he would politely and patiently attend readings not only of their poems and historical works, but of their speeches and dialogues. Yet he objected to being made the theme of any work. ∙Augustus showed great respect towards all ancient and long-established foreign rites, but despised the rest. ∙He died at age 75 of natural causes in his home. ∙The senators bestowed many honors upon him after his death. He left Tiberius and Livia as his heirs.

Kamm: Tiberius (14-37AD)

∙Though Tiberius had been groomed by Augustus as his successor, he was only the fourth choice after Agrippa, husband of Augustus' only child Julia and their sons, Gaius and Lucius, all three of whom died in the lifetime of Augustus. Thus, to an already diffident nature was added a sense of inferiority. ∙On Agrippa's death in 13BC, Augustus compelled Tiberius to divorce his wife Vispania and become Julia's third husband. In 6BC, during his five-year term as the equivalent of chief tribune of the people, Tiberius retired to Rhodes. This may have been related to Augustus' promotion of his grandsons Gaius and Lucius and/or the behavior of Julia. By the time he returned in 4AD, Julia had been banished for her adultery. In 4AD, after the deaths of Lucius (2AD) and Gaius (4AD), Tiberius was adopted by Augustus and sent to command the imperial armies, all based outside of Italy. From then until Augustus' death, he barely visited Rome. ∙He was summoned back by Livia, not the Senate. Livia had been sixteen when Tiberius was born; now in her seventies, she was a matriarch and she wanted a share in ruling the country. Tiberius would have none of that, but he had Agrippa Postumus, the last surviving grandson of Augustus, starved to death on the prison island to which he had been exiled for his antisocial behavior, possibly on the order or Livia. ∙Tiberius was 55 when he came to power. Despite being well groomed for office, he had an uneasy relationship with the Senate. He never accepted some of the titles voted to Augustus (e.g pater patriae--father of this country) and his attempts to relinquish certain powers met with resentment ("I ask you, Caesar, what part of the state do you wish to have entrusted to you"). ∙Suetonius describes him as an attractive, healthy man and a learned scholar, but whether he was cut out to be emperor is a separate question. ∙Several years of intrigue and counter-intrigue followed, as candidates to succeed Tiberius (and their wives or mothers on their behalf) jockeyed for position or were jockeyed completely out of the way, as happened to Drusus, his only son. Tiberius probably played no part in any of this, but merely sensing what was going on unsettled him and further contributed to his indecision in matters of government. ∙When Drusus died in 23AD, a grieving Tiberius began to lean heavily on Lucius Aelius Sejanus, the prefect of the imperial guard. Sejanus became his friend. There was little reason for Tiberius to trust the imperial family. ∙In 26AD, in his late sixties, Tiberius, always happiest when away from Rome, retired to his holiday mansion on the island of Capri, never to return to the city. However, he could still exercise power from a distance, and wrote a letter to the Senate expressing his suspicions of his old friend. Sejanus was executed and his corpse dragged through the streets before being thrown into the Tiber. The treatment of his children casts an especially chilling light on the workings of the Roman penal system: they were executed by strangulation and their corpses were thrown on the steps of the Capitol. The young girl was raped beforehand because there was no legal precedent for the execution of a virgin. ∙Tiberius' last years were still fraught with morbid distrust, reports of flagrant and more discreet family adulteries, and a continual narrowing down, by natural and unnatural death, of candidates for the succession. Not known whether he died naturally or was murdered. ∙Upon his death, two candidates for succession remained: his grandson Tiberius Gemellus, and his last surviving great-nepher, Gaius Caesar (Caligula--little boots). With his typical indecisiveness, Tiberius named them joint heirs.

Kamm: The Last Days of the Republic (79-60BC): Crassus, pompey, Caesar, and Cicero

∙Three men who would form the first triumvirate: the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus (115-53BC); the military genius Gnaeus Pompeius (106-48 BC); and Julius Caesar (100-44BC). Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43BC) gained prominence as a novus homo.

Kamm: The Architecture of Public Buildings

∙Three types of buildings fall under the category of public buildings: temples, entertainment centers (theaters, circuses, amphitheaters, and baths), and urban armatures (aqueducts, roads, and monumental arches or fountains. ∙While Romans are known for their square grid pattern with a main north-south (cardo decumanus) and a main east-west (cardo maximus)) road, often with a forum structure in the middle (the urban plan of Timgad, Algeria in the second century AD), the true nature of urban growth, as seen in the city of Rome, was often much more organic and disorganized. ∙The Romans clearly drew upon existing Etruscan and Greek traditions, including the three orders of architecture--Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian, based on different forms of column and the capital that surmounted it--and added to them a hybrid of their own, known as Composite. However, these decorative similarities do not necessarily reflect similarities in ideology or function. For example, the Greek temples tend to reflect symmetry while Roman temples planned axially (probably on an Etruscan model), with a frontal approach and a large podium that raised them higher off the ground. ∙As Roman engineering (particularly concrete) developed, so did her architectural pretensions. Provincial temples show both tradition and innovation. ∙Rome's entertainment buildings were defined by arches and barrel vaults that allowed the architects to build massive freestanding structures regardless of location or proximity to natural resources. The arch enables wide spaces to be crossed with the minimum of materials, thus relieving weight that would otherwise place an intolerable burden on the structure. Pozzolana (pumice) was mixed with lime to form a powerful, waterproof cement and/or mortar. Un turn, this was mixed with aggregate (chips of rock and broken brick) to make concrete. Theses inventions made possible the invention of the barrel vaults and aqueducts that carried water to urban baths and facilitated the re-enactment of massive sea-battles. ∙Among the most massive Roman structures are the Baths of Caracalla just outside the Appian gate to the south-east of the city. Such large bathing complexes, built during the empire, are known as thermae. In their construction of public baths as luxury-cum-cultural leisure and sports centers, the Romans combined their passion for opulence with their flair for hydraulics. The water was heated by furnaces and circulted by means of a network of cisterns and pipes. The essential rooms, separate for men and women, were the centrally heatted tepidarium, where bathers were encouraged to sweat after removing their clothes; the calidarium, where the bathed in tubs of hot water; and the frigidarium, where they took a cold plunge. These baths were the epitome of opulence, with larger-than-life marble sculptures, an Olympic-size swimming pool, elaborate mosaics, brightly colored pink and grey granite, yellow, red, and green marbles from across the empire, giant glass windows, toilets carved in the shape of chariots and private lockers with erotic scenes. Baths also included shops, libraries, and gymnasiums. ∙Roman theaters employed some elements of the tradition Greek theater plan, with tiers of seats in a semicircle facing on to a stage building. However, Romans made substantial adaptations in both theory and practice. Here, too, the values of axiality and hierarchy reigned supreme: the two side entrances of Greek theaters were replaced with a complicated series of entrances that allowed the social strata to be distinguished, even within a unified space. Augustus' Lex Julia Theatralis set these distinctions in stone, prescribing certain seats for senators, equites, Vestal Virgins, women, and slaves ∙Theaters in the republic were temporary and made of wood.

Kamm: The Gracchi and the Agrarian Crisis

∙Tiberius (168-133BC; elected tribune of the plebs in 133BC) and Gaius (159-121BC) Gracchus ∙Father was a famous consul, mother was a scipio ∙Championed for the poor ∙Successful military careers in Etruria ∙Latifundia-confiscated lands in Italy, Spain, Africa, Greece ∙Slaves hurt farmers at home ∙Some farmers had their farms sold while they fought in wars ∙Large influx of wealth, inflation, and foreign goods ∙Latifundia went to a few individuals who stopped paying rent ∙Increasing number of slave revolts ∙Discussion of wealth reallocation among senators, but wealth elite stopped it ∙Gracchi brothers and immediate family (including Claudii) sought to address the situation ∙Lex Sempronia Agraria (proposed by Tiberius in 133BC): upheld an earlier law limiting possession of public lands to 500 iugera, reaffirming the distinction between borrowed and owned lands (proprietas vs possessio). As a compromise the 500 iugera would be theirs to keep. Surplus land would be distributed, in packs of 40 iugera to the landless. Gave land to disenfanchised veterans, increased the number of eligible (landowning) citizen-soldiers, and removed a population of angry dissidents from Rome. Tiberius took the proposal straight to the Concilium Plebis to avoid confrontation with the Senate (who would oppose). Co-tribune Marcus Octavius opposed, so Tiberius shutting down the markets and treasury and convinced the Concilium Plebis to vote Octavius out. They did and the law passed. ∙Tiberius, Gaius, and father-in-law Appius Cladius were appointed triumvirs. They fought with the senate over budgets and won. Tiberius was re-relected, so the Senate claimed he was a threat to the state and murdered him on the steps of the Capitol. His reforms still went on and 75,000 new small plots of land were created ∙A decade later, Gaius returned to Rome and was elected tribune of the plebs. His reforms went even further than his brother's. Suggested the inclusion of equites (members of Rome's second class) on juries. ∙Gaius was replaced by Opimious after two terms. He fled to Aventine because he was afraid when he was summoned to a trial. Opimious and the senate passed senatus consultum ultimum, which gave a moral backing for senior officials to act for the preservation of the state. Gaius had one of his slaves stab him to death. ∙Cicero and other trace the end of the republic to this time. The powerful ruled for their own interests with might, not compromise. ∙Gracchi drew attention to the powers accumulated by the Senate through their jurisdiction of Rome's provinces. There was no check on the emerging senatorial powers in the system. A dictator was the only constitutional check on the senate's increasing power to rule corruptly.

Kamm: Sources on the Twelve Caesars

∙Transition from republic to empire was recorded by two Roman historians: P. Cornelius Tacitus and C. Suetonius Tranquillus. Tacitus wrote in a more 'political pages' style while Suetonius used a 'lifestyle pages' style. ∙They come to the same conclusion: all the empreros are greedy, lascivious tyrants. Inheritance does not appear to alleviate the problem. ∙Suetonius investigates imperial character through the development of the emperor as an individual. Tacitus examines the formalization and legitimacy of imperial power.

Vergil's Aeneid: Book XII

∙Turnus decided to fight Aeneas alone for the kingdom and Lavinia. Latinus and Amata want Turnus to surrender, but he refuses, valuing his honor over his life. ∙Juno is worried for Turnus because she believes she will will lose. She tells Juturna, Turnus' sister, to watch for her brothers safety. Latinus and Aeneas make a treaty to respect the 1v1 engagement, Juturna disguises herself as a Latin officer and convinces the troops to attack while the Trojans are unsuspecting. A soldier hurls a spear at the Trojan army, killing a young man. Both sides charge in rage. Aeneas yells for his men to stop, but he is hit in the leg by an arrow. ∙This gives Turnus new hope. Venus sends a healing balm to Aeneas' camp, which allows the physician to remove the arrow and close the wound. ∙Aeneas returns to battle. Both he and Turnus kill many men. Aeneas realizes that Latinus' city is unguarded. He gathers a group of soldiers and attacks the city, panicking its citizens. Queen Amata hangs herself. ∙Turnus hears the suffering citizens and returns. He challenges Aeneas to another 1v1, which now begins. ∙They throw spears at each other. Aeneas breaks Turnus' sword, which was actually one his men's weaker swords. Juturna gives him his real sword. Juno watches from above and Jupiter asks why; she already knows the outcome. Juno finally gives in and agrees to end her grudge against Aeneas if the victorious Trojans take on the name and language of the Latins. Jupiter agrees. ∙Jupiter sends down a fury, which scares and weakens Turnus. Aeneas hits him in the leg with a spear. Turnus begs for mercy. Aeneas is moved, but then he notices Pallas' belt around Turnus' neck. In the name of Pallas, Aeneas executes Turnus.

Kamm: Sculpture

∙Two influences drove the Romans to develop sculpture, the worship and reverence of images, not only of gods and goddesses but also of dead ancest, and the recordings of ritualistic and triumphant events on pillars, arches, and tombs. ∙Whereas the faces of Greek classical portrait sculptures tend to display an image of perfection rather than expression or emotion, the development of Roman sculpture represents a range of styles from Etruscan art to Veristic styles. ∙The drilling of eyes in Roman portraits to indicate the ring of the iris from the second century AD onward added further expression to such statues. Dramatic facial expressions were used to convey emotion in the third and fourth centuries. ∙Romans often favoured reality over flattery n their portraits, both on statues and on coins (with the exception of Augustus' classical sculpture). ∙Similar transitions can be seen on public monuments. Ara Pacis Augustae was a great marble edifice that exemplified this. ∙Trajan's column depicts stories in a spiral band that curls around 23 times, depicting his military victories and everyday life in the Roman army. 155 scenes. While Augustus depicts safety and security in Rome in an idealized civic scene, Trajan's image of Rome is much more martial. ∙The column of Marcus Aurelius (180AD) records his victories against the German tribes along the Danube, depicting increasing violence and suffering. The brutal imagery reflects an empire at its height, acknowledging the true cost of internal peace and prosperity. The tetrarchy loses the image of the individual completely. In their portrait, they are almost indistinguishable from one another, gripping each other and their swords firmly. Both look out determinedly with beady eyes and deep furrows between their brows. The natural, idealized youth of the Augustan age has been replaced with a more somber, abstract, and emotion image of a rules. When one considers the social, political, and economic climate of the late empire, a more complex and deliberate development of (abstract) artistic styles seems likely.