CCJS451 Midterm 2

School Influence

"bad" schools = students don't trust or respect teachers, student's lack commitment to school, unclear and inconsistent rule enforcement

Incarceration Costs

$20-30,000 per inmate; invisible costs: collateral consequences, family, community, etc.; $1300 for probationer and $3000 for parolee

C.R.A.V.E.D. "Hot Products"

1. Concealable 2. Removable 3. Available 4. Valuable 5. Enjoyable 6. Disposable

Situational Crime Prevention: Research

1. Jane Jacobs (1961): The Death and Life of Great American Cities 2. Ray Jeffrey (1971): Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTD) 3. Oscar Newman (1972): Defensible Space

RNR Principles

1. Risk: focus on resources on people most likely to reoffend; target high-risk 2. Need: target the factors that change a person's likelihood to commit a crime; criminogenic needs; target the dynamic risk factors (anti-social attitudes, values, beliefs, temperamental & personality factors, impulsivity, poor problem solving, low levels of education, substance abuse, family factors) 3. Responsivity: consider individual factors influencing potential for results/ change; general = cognitive-behavioral and specific = appropriate matching of offenders to programs

Ways Drugs Cause Crime

1. diminish enforcement risks for non-drug crimes 2. diminish deterrence by high incarceration of drug offenders 3. diminish community-law enforcement relationships 4. diminish conventional life with criminal history (diminish chances of staying law abiding)

Situational Crime Prevention Measures

1. directed at highly specific forms of crime 2. involve the management, design, or manipulation of the immediate environment in as systematic and permanent way as possible 3. aim to reduce opportunity for crime and increase the risks perceived by offenders

Increasing the Risk: Risk of offenders being spotted

1. entry/exit screening: i.e., parking attendants; security device on clothing 2. formal surveillance: security guards 3. surveillance by employees 4. natural surveillance

Why gang members commit more crime than non-gang members

1. facilitation 2. selection 3. enhancement (most likely)

Correctional Approaches to Preventing Crime

1. incapacitation 2. deterrence 3. rehabilitation

Risk/Needs Assessment

1. professional/clinical judgments; subjective 2. actuarial, static factors 3. actuarial, dynamic

Family-level risk factors

1. psychology (behavioral training for parents; parent management training) 2. public health (advice and guidance to parents; parent education) 3. what works (parent management training has more consistent support than parent education)

Goldstein (1985) Tripartite Typology

1. psychopharmacologic: under the influence; weakens self-control and reduces foresight 2. systemic: some illicit drug markets are violence; drug use and drug control policies can both cause crime 3. economic: 30% of property offenders in state prisons committed the current offense to get money for drugs

Legal Strategies

1. restrictions on legal substances 2. prohibition 3. decriminalization 4. legalization

Principles of Classical Theory

1. sole justification for punishment is its utility (crime prevention) 2. punishment is for deterrence, not revenge 3. punishment should be the least possible 4. punishment should be proportionate, dictated by law

Gang joining risk factors

1. stress and trauma (at home, victimization experience, school, relationships) 2. impulsivity, risk-taking 3. delinquent beliefs, neutralization 4. weak parental monitoring 5. peer delinquency 6. negative peer influence

Clarke (1992): Four Situational Prevention Techniques

1.target hardening (more difficult for offenders to access target) 2. access control (block access to target) 3. deflecting offenders (try to change movement of offenders) 4. controlling facilitators (things used by offenders to commit a crime ie., cell phone)

Total arrests for drug offenses, by rates, 1978-2006

1978: blacks almost twice as high rates than whites; rates expanded in the next 20 years with blacks having much higher rates than whites

Evaluations of MST

25-70% reduction in loong-term rearrests, 47-64% reductions in out-of-home placements; improvements in family functioning; decreased mental health issues, decreased drug use; despite high costs, moderately cost-effective; one of the most cost-effective programs aimed at serious juvenile offenders; meets RNR principles

Level of Service Inventory-Revised (LSI-R)

54 items with 10 domains: criminal history, education/employment, financial, family/marital, accommodation, leisure/recreation, companions, alcohol/drug problems, emotional/personal, attitudes/orientation

Evaluation of CBT

CBT reduces recidivism by 27% and larger effect of high-risk offenders; meets RNR principles; very cost effective

Classical Theory of Crime

Cesare Beccaria (1764): On Crimes and Punishment; Jeremy Bentham (English advocate of utilitarianism)

Welsh & Farrington (2007): CCTV

Formal surveillance; Expected benefits: increased detection, deterrence, feel safe and attract people resulting in natural surveillance, or false sense of security (feel safe but sense of safety may prevent you from taking over preventative actions); effective: most effective in reducing crime in car parks

RAND Evaluation (1993)

ISP evaluation; random; Findings: ISP more expensive than originally thought, programs increased commitments to jail and prison, did not reduce arrests for new offenses, technical violations, enhanced treatment + surveillance seems promising in reducing recidivism

Andrews, Bonta, & Gendrea: Principles of Effective Correctional Intervention

Martinson did not review cognitive-behavior programs (47% of these are effective

Defensible Space

Newman (1972): physical environment matters to crime; physical characteristics of an area can inhibit crime

community influences

Shaw & McKay: the neighborhood matters more in the level of delinquency, then the individuals who live in those neighborhoods; delinquency level doesn't change much in a neighborhood, regardless of who lives there; Sampson: collective efficacy and the cohesion of community, members care about the common good of community

Perry Preschool Project

Ypsilanti, Michigan; 123 disadvantaged African American children that were randomly assigned; involved a daily preschool program and weekly home visits; encouraged intellectual stimulation, thinking and reasoning abilities; Findings: gain at age 5 (difference between ages 4-7 but soon the IQ difference somewhat faded), followed these kids until adults (age 40), life outcomes improved overall employment, graduated from high school, less CJS involvement, more money; at age 40-$17 benefit per dollar of cost

Incredible Years

a set of 3 comprehensive curriculums for parents, teachers, and children designed to promote emotional and social competence, precent, reduce, and treat behavior and emotion problems in young children; children, ages 2 to 10, at risk or presenting conduct problems; can be Selective or Indicative prevention; parent management; Findings: reduced harsh discipline, increased use of non-violent discipline techniques/monitoring of children; reductions in parents depression and increases in parental self-confidence, increases in positive family communication and problem-solving, reduced conduct problems, cost-effective

Deviance Training (DT)

a social learning process of "cognitive positive reactions to rule-breaking discussion that often occurred among boys and their friends; summer camp: unstructured, recreational, summer cap increased problem behaviors

Community-Based Programs

after-school an community based mentoring programs are "promising"; juvenile crime peaks around 3-4pm and after-school programs target this time period

Offender Drug Prevalence

among jail inmates, 1/2 were under the influence at the time of arrest; 1/2 of federal prisoners and 20% of state prisoners for drug crimes; co-occurring with mental illness

Crime Pattern Theory

analysis of patterns of routine activities by offenders and targets; if your routine activity crosses with that of a motivated offender, then there is a greater potential for crime, basis for geographic profiling

Racial Disparity and War on Drugs

anti-drug abuse act of 1986 created the 100-1 crack-powder cocaine ratio (same sentence); crack possession/trafficking was over 80% Blacks; powder was only 27% Blacks;

BAM:participants

at-risk students in Chicago Public School

NRC Report 1978

avaiable studies provide no useful evidence on the deterrent effect of capital punishment; the report appeared shortly after the 1976 Gregg decision (SC decision to reintroduce the death penalty); new generation of studies based on post-Gregg data have reached widely varying conclusion

Utilitarianism

basis of all social action must be the greatest good for the greatest number of people

D.A.R.E.

began in LA, 1983; most widely used of all programs, cost over $200 million; focuses on teaching students to resist peer pressure to use drugs; universal prevention program; bottom line: doesn't work;

"Shock Programs"

brief incarceration, then community supervision; rationale: put juveniles in prison, scare them with prison life, then pull them out and put them on regular probation; Shock Incarceration (boot camps): modeled after military basic training, discipline, military drills, and physical drills; no effect on recidivism

controlling facilitators

caller id

HOPE probation program

certain and swift punishment; low sanction risk and high violation/offending rate are mutually supporting; targets serious drug offenders; very effective in Hawaii

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

change dysfunctional, criminal thinking that contributes to criminal behavior (impulsivity, social-cognitive skills--neutralization techniques, Code of the Street, etc.) Steps: self-monitor thinking, identify & recognize biased, risky, deficient thinking patterns, consider all aspects of a situation, test whether one's beliefs are accurate and functions (alternative ways of thinking or responding)

Rehabilitation

change law-breakers into law-abiders (requires change within the offender); to reduce desire/motivation and need to commit crime; positivist assumption of human behavior

Montreal Longitudinal-Experimental Study

child skills training + parent training to foster social skills & self control; aggressive/hyperactive boys at age 6 from low SES neighborhoods; random assignment; findings: higher school achievement, lower delinquency, less involved in fights, gangs, getting drunk or taking drugs; conclusions: individual-based early interventions are effective; delinquency is a secondary outcome of interest, disrupt the continuity of childhood antisocial behavior and later offending; improve other outcomes (make benefits outweigh the costs), many programs involve other domains (family, teachers, schools, etc)

Carolina Abecedarian Project

children born to low income, multi-risk families, mostly African American, random assigned; teaches cognitive and language skills; Findings: less likely to be convicted (not significant), more likely to have attended college, fewer teenage parents, employment, every dollar spent, $4 saved

Big Brothers Big Sisters

community mentoring program, matches an adult volunteer to a child with the expectation that a caring and supportive relationship will develop; 10-16 years old; one-to-one meeting 3-4 times a month for at least 1 year; random; found: less likely to hit someone, less likely to have initiate drug/alcohol use, better school attendance and better school performance $3 saved for every dollar spent

Project PATHE

comprehensive program to alter school organization and management structures; designed to reduce school disorder and improve the school environment to enhance student experience and attitudes about school

Routine Activities Theory

crime as the convergence in time and space of three factors: motivated offender, suitable target, lack of capable gaurdianship; macro: dramatic increase in the predatory crime over 1947 to 1974, especially in the 1960s; micro: individual victimization

Operation Cul-de-sac

deflecting offenders; LAPD installed concrete barriers in certain stress; cars can come in on one side of the street but cannot get out; reduced drive-by shootings by gang members

social bond theory

deterrent effects of official sanctions work best when they trigger informal sanctions such as worried about losing jobs, not gettingi a new job, etc.

Child-Parent Center

disadvantaged children in Chicago, extended early intervention (up to age 9), not a randomized experiment, matched on: age, eligibility and participation in government funded programs, neighborhood and family poverty; Findings: by 18, less likely to be arrested, higher rate of high school graduation, for every dollar spent, more than $7 saved to society

Boys and Girls Club of America (BGC)

evaluated in public housing sites in 5 cities, reading classes, sports, homework assistance; not random, found: less juvenile crime, less substance use, damaged units, less drug trafficking

Risk Perceptions

experienced criminal offenders tend to have lower and more accurate risk perceptions; punishment experience increases risk percpetions, punishment avoidance or unsanctioned offending leads to lower risk offending

Multisystemic Therapy (MST)

for serious juvenile delinquents at high-risk for out-of-home placement; multimodel intervention: change the "ecology" in which juveniles are embedded (family, school, peers, community); views youth as embedded within multiple interconnected systems; therapist assigned to juvenile and available 24/7; family therapy, parent management training, CBT; remove deviant peers and help develop better peer relationships; lasts approx 4 months, 60 hours face-to-face contact with family

Deviancy Training and the Cambridge-Somerville Youth Project

frequent and long-lasing relationship between boy (age 5-13) and cousnelor; counselor acts as mentor; Evaluation: random assignment, early evaluation showed no difference, McCord (1978) found remarkable similarity between treatment and control groups on criminal convictions, early deaths, treatment for alcoholism and psychiatric problems, diagnosis on treatment men who were treated in mental hospitals were more serious than control; treatment men had significantly higher rates of alcoholism and stress-related diseases than control men; overall control group had better life outcome

Mass Incarceration

from 1925 to 1973/4, incarceration was flat; skyrocketed from `973/4 until 2010; 1 in 100 adults behind bars (2.3 million); 1 in 31 adults in some sort of correctional control (7.5 million)

BAM: outcomes and limitations

graduation rate increased by 23%, reduction in violent arrests by 44%, $3 benefit for ever dollar spent; can only generalize findings to Chicago, mostly african americans, only males, fade-out

Assumptions of Human Nature

have free will and are rational; self-interested; hedonistic (maximize pleasure and minimize pain)

Preschool Intellectual Enrichment

highly effective (Farrington & Welsh, 2003); 13% reduction in offending

parent education

home visits that educate parents to improve the life chances of children; begins at birth or in the final trimester of pregnancy, prevent premature birth or low birth weight, healthy child development, prevention of abuse and neglect; Farrington & Welsh (2003): effective with a 12% reduction in antisocial behavior and delinquency; other systematic reviews found mixed results

BAM: type of evaluation

impact/outcome evaluation, random assignment

BAM: targeted risk factors

impulsiveness, intelligence, family history/substance use

Importance of separating incapacitation and deterrence

incapacitation requires larger prison populations; deterrence can lower crime rates and incarceration rates

Farrington & Welsh (2007): Lighting

increased outdoor activity and more natural surveillance, better detection ability, deter offenders, neighborhood investment and community confidence; reduce both nighttime and daytime crime; no civil liberty of "fortress" society concern (pride in community); improved lighting benefits everyone in the neighborhood vs. CCTV helps the people that use it for their space

Rational Choice Theory

individuals make decisions on whether to commit an offense by weighing costs and benefits; assume self-interested, rational beings; bounded rationality: don't always have perfect info on crime opportunity, make quick decisions, not fully informed; crime specific and crime scripts (outlines a list of actions/behaviors that crime commission involves)

Deterrence and Domestic Violence

initially found that arrest deterred, compared to mediation, or separation; no consistent findings in replications; domestic violence arrest had a deterrent effect depending on the offender personal characteristics

Head Start

large wide-scale program; launched in 1965 as part of LBJ's War on Poverty; provides low-income children (3-5) and their parents schooling, health, nutrition, social welfare services; serves nearly a million children (costs $7 billion), test score gains seemed to fade out over time; long-term effects: less likely to report being arrested or referred to court for a crime bu ages 18-30; initial gains disappear but long-lasting impact

Nurse-family partnership

long-term impact; youtube video; advice on how to stay healthy and keep your baby healthy; replications in elmira, memphis, and denver

criminal punishment and perceptions of risk

modest correlation; research limitations (measurement error, committed law-abiders vs. committed law violators, and contextual explanations)

Why DARE doesnt work

narrow focus on substance use, long-term heavy use and other crimes may not be causally linked to early initiation; not based on cognitive-behavioral methods, uniformed police officers are relatively inexperienced teachers

Deterrence: Perception-based process

offenders not always rational; bounded rationality; emotional and impulsive; under the influence; mental illness; miscalculations of pleasure and pain (offenders overestimate value of crime, CJS overestimates apprehension, conviction rates, pain does not equal objective, pain equals perception)

Syracuse University Family Development Research Project

parent education + full time day care (supplementary); pregnant women (poor African American single mothers); not random assignment; findings: lower delinquency, lower juvenile justice cost per child, costs exceeded benefits

Parent Management Training

parents are trained to alter their child's behavior at home, use reward and punishments consistently guided group meetings for parents; Farrington & Welsh (2003): effective, 20% reduction in antisocial behavior and delinquency

Peer Influence

peer delinquency, rejection by peers, delinquent siblings are risk factors; Thornberry: reciprocal effect--association with delinquent peers increase delinquency and delinquency increases association with delinquent peers; Sutherland's differential association theory; those who join gangs are more delinquent to start but joining increases delinquency

Scared Straight

program in NJ in the late 1970s; deterrence; gives a taste of prison life and presentations by inmate would "Scare" at-risk or delinquent children from a life of crime; evaluation: treatment group more likely to arrested, counterproductive and harmful; terrible cost-benefit evaluation

Parental/Early Intervention Project

random assignment; first-time mothers at a higher risk of health and developmental problems in infancy (19 or younger,unmarried or poor) prior to their 30th week of pregnancy; advice about prenatal and postnatal care, infant development, proper nutrition and the risk of smoking/drinking; findings: reduced child physical abuse and neglect, age 15 and children have fewer arrests, benefits 3-4 times larger than costs, good generalizability

Situational Crime Prevetion

reduce crime by changing the offenders motivation for offending; distant causes; attempts to limit the harm of crime by altering the more immediate causes of crime

Peer-based programs

reduce the influence of delinquent peers and increase the influence of prosocial peers; no systematic review about peer-based programs and delinquency; using "peer leaders" is effective in reducing substance user

Drug Court evaluation

reduced recidivism and cost effective; scaling is a problem

Fair Sentencing Act of 2010

reduced the crack-powder disparity from 100:1 to 18:1

Individual Risk Factors: What Works?

robust support for early childhood prevention; preschool intellectual enrichment; child skills training

indeterminate sentence

sentence has a minimum and maximum; once they serve minimum sentence, they can be considered for release; decided by parole board

Brutalization Effect

some researchers have found this effect from executions such that capital punishment actually increases the homicide rates;

Drug Court

specialty court; individualized treatment and relatively strict community supervision and judicial oversight; diversion program

Child Social Skills Training

target impulsivity, low empathy, and self-centerdness, social skills and problem-solving skills; Losel &Beelman (2006) say this is promising; there is mixed results for temporal efffects: significant immediate effects for many outcomes (once you implement program and evaluate program right after, the results look good), significant longer effects only for delinquency (but not other life outcomes)

Reducing the Rewards

target removal, identifying property (VIN number on cars), removing inducements (clean graffiti filled walls), rule setting (store manager tells you what is allowed and not allowed

Take Charge of Your Life (TCYL)

targets 7th graders with booster in grade 9; used similar content to DARE; more engaging instructional methods; still relied on DARE officers to deliver program; evaluation: random, 83 school districts from 6 metro areas; increased alcohol use and had no effect on marijuana use

Prison Drug Treatment

tend to produce good results; therapeutic communities (TC), group counseling; effective by reducing recidivism by 11% and drug use by 16%; TC most effective

Corrections and Crime Prevention

tertiary crime prevention (targets people who have already committed crime)

simultaneity problem

the effect of A on Be when A<-->B; crime rate causes incarceration rate or incarceration causes crime rates; studies are not useful; cannot separate deterrence from incapacitation

Seattle Social Development Project

universal, parent and teacher training in elementary school focused on: classroom management, teaching methods, improved social skills (children), parenting skills for learning rewards/punishments; random; found: (18 months) less aggressive, less delinquency, less drug use; (later) less violence, less alcohol abuse, fewer sexual partners, more HS graduates, saved $3 per child for every dollar spent

Responding in Peaceful and Positive Ways (RIPP)

violence prevention program in school, 6th grade students, low SES; build trust, non-violent problem solving, anger management, understanding the causes and consequences of violence and fighting, random, decreases violence

Illicit drug sales among youths ages 12-17, by race, 2001-2008

whites and blacks, rates are the same

Intensive Supervision Program (ISP)

widely used intermediate sanction; designed to increase prison diversion and public protections (focus on surveillance and control); designed to provide increased supervision for high-risk offenders (reduce caseloads, increased contacts, surveillance and control); grew dramatically in the 1980s