Cerebral

A pregnant woman asks about prenatal diagnosis of hydrocephalus. The nurse's response should be based on which knowledge? a. It can be diagnosed only after birth. b. It can be diagnosed by chromosome studies. c. It can be diagnosed with fetal ultrasonography. d. It can be diagnosed by measuring the lecithin-to-sphingomyelin ratio.

ANS: C Hydrocephalus can be diagnosed by fetal ultrasonography as early as 14 weeks of gestation. Most incidents of hydrocephalus are not chromosomal in origin. The lecithin-to-sphingomyelin ratio can be used to determine fetal lung maturity.

The nurse is planning care for a school-age child with bacterial meningitis. What intervention should be included? a. Keep environmental stimuli to a minimum. b. Have the child move her head from side to side at least every 2 hours. c. Avoid giving pain medications that could dull sensorium. d. Measure head circumference to assess developing complications.

ANS: A The room is kept as quiet as possible and environmental stimuli are kept to a minimum. Most children with meningitis are sensitive to noise, bright lights, and other external stimuli. The nuchal rigidity associated with meningitis would make moving the head from side to side a painful intervention. If pain is present, the child should be treated appropriately. Failure to treat can cause increased intracranial pressure. In this age group, the head circumference does not change. Signs of increased intracranial pressure would need to be assessed.

A child develops syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) as a complication to meningitis. What action should be verified before implementing? a. Forcing fluids b. Daily weights with strict input and output (I and O) c. Strict monitoring of urine volume and specific gravity d. Close observation for signs of increasing cerebral edema

ANS: A The treatment of SIADH consists of fluid restriction until serum electrolytes and osmolality return to normal levels. SIADH often occurs in children who have meningitis. Monitoring weights, keeping I and O and specific gravity of urine, and observing for signs of increasing cerebral edema are all part of the nursing care for a child with SIADH.

The nurse is preparing to admit a 6-month-old infant with increased intracranial pressure (ICP). What clinical manifestations should the nurse expect to observe in this infant? (Select all that apply.) a. High-pitched cry b. Poor feeding c. Setting-sun sign d. Sunken fontanel e. Distended scalp veins f. Decreased head circumference

ANS: A, B, C, E Clinical manifestations of increased ICP in an infant include a high-pitched cry, poor feeding, setting-sun sign, and distended scalp veins. The infant would have a tense, bulging fontanel and an increased head circumference.

The nurse is caring for a child with meningitis. What acute complications of meningitis should the nurse continuously assess the child for? (Select all that apply.) a. Seizures b. Cerebral palsy c. Cerebral edema d. Hydrocephalus e. Cognitive impairments

ANS: A, C, E Acute complications of meningitis include syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH), subdural effusions, seizures, cerebral edema and herniation, and hydrocephalus. Long-term complications include cerebral palsy, cognitive impairments, learning disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and seizures.

he nurse is caring for a child with increased intracranial pressure (ICP). What interventions should the nurse plan for this child? (Select all that apply.) a. Avoid jarring the bed. b. Keep the room brightly lit. c. Keep the bed in a flat position. d. Administer prescribed stool softeners. e. Administer a prescribed antiemetic for nausea.

ANS: A, D, E Other measures to relieve discomfort for a child with ICP include providing a quiet, dimly lit environment; limiting visitors; preventing any sudden, jarring movement, such as banging into the bed; and preventing an increase in ICP. The latter is most effectively achieved by proper positioning and prevention of straining, such as during coughing, vomiting, or defecating. An antiemetic should be administered to prevent vomiting, and stool softeners should be prescribed to prevent straining with bowel movements. The head of the bed should be elevated 15 to 30 degrees.

The nurse is caring for a child with severe head trauma after a car accident. What is an ominous sign that often precedes death? a. Delirium b. Papilledema c. Flexion posturing d. Periodic or irregular breathing

Periodic or irregular breathing is an ominous sign of brainstem (especially medullary) dysfunction that often precedes complete apnea. Delirium is a state of mental confusion and excitement marked by disorientation for time and place. Papilledema is edema and inflammation of the optic nerve. It is commonly a sign of increased intracranial pressure. Flexion posturing is seen with severe dysfunction of the cerebral cortex or of the corticospinal tracts above the brainstem.

A lumbar puncture (LP) is being done on an infant with suspected meningitis. The nurse expects which results for the cerebrospinal fluid that can confirm the diagnosis of meningitis? a. ↑WBCs; ↓glucose b. ↑RBCs; normal WBCs c. ↑glucose; normal RBCs d. Normal RBCs; normal glucose

ANS: A A lumbar puncture is the definitive diagnostic test. The fluid pressure is measured and samples are obtained for culture, Gram stain, blood cell count, and determination of glucose and protein content. The findings are usually diagnostic. The patient generally has an elevated white blood cell count, often predominantly polymorphonuclear leukocytes. The glucose level is reduced, generally in proportion to the duration and severity of the infection.

A 10-year-old child, without a history of previous seizures, experiences a tonic-clonic seizure at school that lasts more than 5 minutes. Breathing is not impaired. Some postictal confusion occurs. What is the most appropriate initial action by the school nurse? a. Stay with child and have someone else call emergency medical services (EMS). b. Notify the parent and regular practitioner. c. Notify the parent that the child should go home. d. Stay with the child, offering calm reassurance.

ANS: A Because this is the child's first seizure and it lasted more than 5 minutes, EMS should be called to transport the child, and evaluation should be performed as soon as possible. The nurse should stay with the recovering child while someone else notifies EMS.

An 18-month-old child is brought to the emergency department after being found unconscious in the family pool. What does the nurse identify as the primary problem in drowning incidents? a. Hypoxia b. Aspiration c. Hypothermia d. Electrolyte imbalance

ANS: A Hypoxia is the primary problem because it results in global cell damage, with different cells tolerating variable lengths of anoxia. Neurons sustain irreversible damage after 4 to 6 minutes of submersion. Severe neurologic damage occurs from hypoxia in 3 to 6 minutes. Aspiration of fluid does occur, resulting in pulmonary edema, atelectasis, airway spasm, and pneumonitis, which complicate the anoxia. Hypothermia occurs rapidly, except in hot tubs. Electrolyte imbalances do result, but they are not a major cause of morbidity and mortality.

1. An injury to which part of the brain will cause a coma? a. Brainstem b. Cerebrum c. Cerebellum d. Occipital lobe

ANS: A Injury to the brainstem results in stupor and coma. Signs of damage to the cerebrum are specific to the involved area. Individuals with frontal lobe injury may have impaired memory, personality changes, or altered intellectual functioning. Individuals with damage to the cerebellum have difficulties with coordination of muscle movements, including ataxia and nystagmus. Impaired vision and functional blindness result from injury to the occipital lobe.

The nurse is doing a neurologic assessment on a 2-month-old infant after a car accident. Moro, tonic neck, and withdrawal reflexes are present. How should the nurse interpret these findings? a. Neurologic health b. Severe brain damage c. Decorticate posturing d. Decerebrate posturing

ANS: A Moro, tonic neck, and withdrawal reflexes are three reflexes that are present in a healthy 2-month-old infant and are expected in this age group.

The nurse is caring for a 10-year-old child who has an acute head injury, has a pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale score of 9, and is unconscious. What intervention should the nurse include in the child's care plan? a. Elevate the head of the bed 15 to 30 degrees with the head maintained in midline. b. Maintain an active, stimulating environment. c. Perform chest percussion and suctioning every 1 to 2 hours. d. Perform active range of motion and nontherapeutic touch every 8 hours.

ANS: A Nursing activities for children with head trauma and increased intracranial pressure (ICP) include elevating the head of the bed 15 to 30 degrees and maintaining the head in a midline position. The nurse should try to maintain a quiet, nonstimulating environment for a child with increased ICP. Chest percussion and suctioning should be performed judiciously because they can elevate ICP. Range of motion should be passive and nontherapeutic touch should be avoided because both of these activities can increase ICP.

The nurse is preparing to admit a 5-year-old with an epidural hemorrhage. What clinical manifestations should the nurse expect to observe? (Select all that apply.) a. Headache b. Vomiting c. Irritability d. Cephalhematoma e. Pallor with anemia

ANS: A, B, C The classic clinical picture of an epidural hemorrhage is a lucid interval (momentary unconsciousness) followed by a normal period for several hours, and then lethargy or coma due to blood accumulation in the epidural space and compression of the brain. The child may be seen with varying degrees of impaired consciousness depending on the severity of the traumatic injury. Common symptoms in a child with no neurologic deficit are irritability, headache, and vomiting. In infants younger than 1 year of age, the most common symptoms are irritability, pallor with anemia, and cephalhematoma.

The nurse is preparing to admit a neonate with bacterial meningitis. What clinical manifestations should the nurse expect to observe? (Select all that apply.) a. Jaundice b. Cyanosis c. Poor tone d. Nuchal rigidity e. Poor sucking ability

ANS: A, B, C, E Clinical manifestations of bacterial meningitis in a neonate include jaundice, cyanosis, poor tone, and poor sucking ability. The neck is usually supple in neonates with meningitis, and there is no nuchal rigidity.

The nurse is preparing to admit an adolescent with bacterial meningitis. What clinical manifestations should the nurse expect to observe? (Select all that apply.) a. Fever b. Chills c. Headache d. Poor tone e. Drowsiness

ANS: A, B, C, E Clinical manifestations of bacterial meningitis in an adolescent include, fever, chills, headache, and drowsiness. Hyperactivity is present, not poor tone.

A toddler is admitted to the pediatric unit with presumptive bacterial meningitis. The initial orders include isolation, intravenous access, cultures, and antimicrobial agents. The nurse knows that antibiotic therapy will begin when? a. After the diagnosis is confirmed b. When the medication is received from the pharmacy c. After the child's fluid and electrolyte balance is stabilized d. As soon as the practitioner is notified of the culture results

ANS: B Antimicrobial therapy is begun as soon as a presumptive diagnosis is made. The choice of drug is based on the most likely infective agent. Drug choice may be adjusted when the culture results are obtained. Waiting for culture results to begin therapy increases the risk of neurologic damage. Although fluid and electrolyte balance is important, there is no indication that this child is unstable. Antibiotic therapy would be a priority intervention.

What clinical manifestations suggest hydrocephalus in an infant? a. Closed fontanel and high-pitched cry b. Bulging fontanel and dilated scalp veins c. Constant low-pitched cry and restlessness d. Depressed fontanel and decreased blood pressure

ANS: B Bulging fontanels, dilated scalp veins, and separated sutures are clinical manifestations of hydrocephalus in neonates. A closed fontanel, high-pitched cry, constant low-pitched cry, restlessness, a depressed fontanel, and decreased blood pressure are not clinical manifestations of hydrocephalus, but all should be referred for evaluation.

A 2-year-old child starts to have a tonic-clonic seizure. The child's jaws are clamped. What is the most important nursing action at this time? a. Place a padded tongue blade between the child's jaws. b. Stay with the child and observe his respiratory status. c. Prepare the suction equipment. d. Restrain the child to prevent injury.

ANS: B It is impossible to halt a seizure once it has begun, and no attempt should be made to do so. The nurse must remain calm, stay with the child, and prevent the child from sustaining any harm during the seizure. The nurse should not move or forcefully restrain the child during a tonic-clonic seizure and should not place a solid object between the teeth. Suctioning may be needed but not until the seizure has ended.

What test is never performed on a child who is awake? a. Doll's head maneuver b. Oculovestibular response c. Assessment of pyramidal tract lesions d. Funduscopic examination for papilledema

ANS: B The oculovestibular response (caloric test) involves the instillation of ice water into the ear of a comatose child. The caloric test is painful and is never performed on an awake child or one who has a ruptured tympanic membrane. The doll's head maneuver, assessment of pyramidal tract lesions, and funduscopic examination for papilledema are not considered painful and can be performed on awake children.

What effects of an altered pituitary secretion in a child with meningitis indicates syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)? (Select all that apply.) a. Hypotension b. Serum sodium is decreased c. Urinary output is decreased d. Evidence of overhydration e. Urine specific gravity is increased

ANS: B, C, D, E The serum sodium is decreased, urinary output is decreased, evidence of overhydration is present, and urine specific gravity is increased in SIADH. Hypertension, not hypotension, occurs.

What cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis should the nurse expect with viral meningitis? (Select all that apply.) a. Color is turbid. b. Protein count is normal. c. Glucose is decreased. d. Gram stain findings are negative. e. White blood cell (WBC) count is slightly elevated.

ANS: B, D, E The CSF analysis in viral meningitis shows a normal or slightly elevated protein count, negative Gram stain, and a slightly elevated WBC. The color is clear or slightly cloudy, and the glucose level is normal.

school-age child has sustained a head injury and multiple fractures after being thrown from a horse. The child's level of consciousness is variable. The parents tell the nurse that they think their child is in pain because of periodic crying and restlessness. What is the most appropriate nursing action? a. Explain that analgesia is contraindicated with a head injury. b. Have the parents describe the child's previous experiences with pain. c. Consult with a practitioner about what analgesia can be safely administered. d. Teach the parents that analgesia is unnecessary when the child is not fully awake and alert.

ANS: C A key nursing role is to provide sedation and analgesia for the child. Consultation with the appropriate practitioner is necessary to avoid conflict between the necessity to monitor the child's neurologic status and to promote comfort and relieve anxiety. Analgesia can be safely used in individuals who have sustained head injuries. The child's previous experiences with pain should be obtained as part of the assessment, but because of the severity of the injury, analgesia should be provided as soon as possible. Analgesia can decrease anxiety and resultant increased intracranial pressure.

A 10-year-old boy on a bicycle has been hit by a car in front of a school. The school nurse immediately assesses airway, breathing, and circulation. What should be the next nursing action? a. Place the child on his side. b. Take the child's blood pressure. c. Stabilize the child's neck and spine. d. Check the child's scalp and back for bleeding.

ANS: C After determining that the child is breathing and has adequate circulation, the next action is to stabilize the neck and spine to prevent any additional trauma. The child's position should not be changed until the neck and spine are stabilized. Blood pressure is a later assessment. A less urgent but important assessment is inspection of the scalp for bleeding.

hat finding is a clinical manifestation of increased intracranial pressure (ICP) in children? a. Low-pitched cry b. Sunken fontanel c. Diplopia, blurred vision d. Increased blood pressure

ANS: C Diplopia and blurred vision are signs of increased ICP in children. A high-pitched cry and a tense or bulging fontanel are characteristic of increased ICP. Increased blood pressure, common in adults, is rarely seen in children.

After a tonic-clonic seizure, what symptoms should the nurse expect the child to experience? a. Diarrhea and abdominal discomfort b. Irritability and hunger c. Lethargy and confusion d. Nervousness and excitability

ANS: C In the postictal phase, after a tonic-clonic seizure, the child may remain semiconscious and difficult to arouse. The average duration of the postictal phase is usually 30 minutes. The child may remain confused or sleep for several hours. He or she may have mild impairment of fine motor movements. The child may have visual and speech difficulties and may vomit or complain of headache.

What term is used to describe a child's level of consciousness when the child is arousable with stimulation? a. Stupor b. Confusion c. Obtundation d. Disorientation

ANS: C Obtundation describes a level of consciousness in which the child is arousable with stimulation. Stupor is a state in which the child remains in a deep sleep, responsive only to vigorous and repeated stimulation. Confusion is impaired decision making. Disorientation is confusion regarding time and place.

12. What nursing intervention is appropriate when caring for an unconscious child? a. Avoid using narcotics or sedatives to provide comfort and pain relief. b. Change the child's position infrequently to minimize the chance of increased intracranial pressure (ICP). c. Monitor fluid intake and output carefully to avoid fluid overload and cerebral edema. d. Give tepid sponge baths to reduce fevers above 38.3° C (101° F) because antipyretics are contraindicated.

ANS: C Often comatose patients cannot cope with the quantity of fluids that they normally tolerate. Overhydration must be avoided to prevent fatal cerebral edema. Narcotics and sedatives should be used as necessary to reduce pain and anxiety, which can increase ICP. The child's position should be changed frequently to avoid complications such as pneumonia and skin breakdown. Antipyretics are the method of choice for fever reduction.

The nurse is teaching the parents of a 3-year-old child who has been diagnosed with tonic-clonic seizures. What statement by the parent should indicate a correct understanding of the teaching? a. "I should attempt to restrain my child during a seizure." b. "My child will need to avoid contact sports until adulthood." c. "I should place a pillow under my child's head during a seizure." d. "My child will need to be taken to the emergency department [ED] after each seizure."

ANS: C Parents should try to place a pillow or folded blanket under the child's head for protection. The parent should not try to restrain the child during the seizure. The child does not need to go to the ED with each seizures; the nurse can teach parents certain criteria for when their child would need to be seen. Discussing what will happen in adulthood is not appropriate at this time.

A 5-year-old girl sustained a concussion when she fell out of a tree. In preparation for discharge, the nurse is discussing home care with her mother. What sign or symptom is considered a manifestation of postconcussion syndrome and does not necessitate medical attention? a. Vomiting b. Blurred vision c. Behavioral changes d. Temporary loss of consciousness

ANS: C The parents are advised of probable posttraumatic symptoms that may be expected. These include behavioral changes, sleep disturbances, emotional lability, and alterations in school performance. If the child is vomiting, has blurred vision, or has temporary loss of consciousness, she should be seen for evaluation.

The nurse is teaching the parents of a child with a seizure disorder about the triggers that can cause a seizure. What should the nurse include in the teaching session? (Select all that apply.) a. Cold b. Sugared drinks c. Emotional stress d. Flickering lights e. Hyperventilation

ANS: C, D, E The most common factors that may trigger seizures in children include emotional stress, sleep deprivation, fatigue, fever, and physical exercise. Other precipitating factors include sleep, flickering lights, menstrual cycle, alcohol, heat, hyperventilation, and fasting. Cold and sugared drinks are not triggers for seizures.

A child has a seizure disorder. What test should be done to gather the most specific information about the type of seizure the child is having? a. Sleep study b. Skull radiography c. Serum electrolytes d. Electroencephalogram (EEG)

ANS: D An EEG is obtained for all children with seizures and is the most useful tool for evaluating a seizure disorder. The EEG confirms the presence of abnormal electrical discharges and provides information on the seizure type and the focus. The EEG is carried out under varying conditions—with the child asleep, awake, awake with provocative stimulation (flashing lights, noise), and hyperventilating. Stimulation may elicit abnormal electrical activity, which is recorded on the EEG. Various seizure types produce characteristic EEG patterns: high-voltage spike discharges are seen in tonic-clonic seizures, with abnormal patterns in the intervals between seizures; a three-per-second spike and wave pattern is observed in an absence seizure; and absence of electrical activity in an area suggests a large lesion, such as an abscess or subdural collection of fluid.

A child is admitted for revision of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt for noncommunicating hydrocephalus. What is a common reason for elective revision of this shunt? a. Meningitis b. Gastrointestinal upset c. Hydrocephalus resolution d. Growth of the child since the initial shunting

ANS: D An elective revision of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt would most likely be done to accommodate the child's growth. Meningitis would require an emergent replacement or revision of the shunt. Gastrointestinal upset alone would not indicate the need for shunt revision. Noncommunicating hydrocephalus will not resolve without surgical intervention.

The nurse is discussing long-term care with the parents of a child who has a ventriculoperitoneal shunt. What issues should be addressed? a. Most childhood activities must be restricted. b. Cognitive impairment is to be expected with hydrocephalus. c. Wearing head protection is essential until the child reaches adulthood. d. Shunt malfunction or infection requires immediate treatment.

ANS: D Because of the potentially severe sequelae, symptoms of shunt malfunction or infection must be assessed and treated immediately. Limits should be appropriate to the child's developmental age. Except for contact sports, the child will have few restrictions. Cognitive impairment depends on the extent of damage before the shunt was placed.

The mother of a 1-month-old infant tells the nurse she worries that her baby will get meningitis like the child's younger brother had when he was an infant. The nurse should base a response on which information? a. Meningitis rarely occurs during infancy. b. Often a genetic predisposition to meningitis is found. c. Vaccination to prevent all types of meningitis is now available. d. Vaccinations to prevent pneumococcal and Haemophilus influenzae type B meningitis are available.

ANS: D H. influenzae type B meningitis has been virtually eradicated in areas of the world where the vaccine is administered routinely. Bacterial meningitis remains a serious illness in children. It is significant because of the residual damage caused by undiagnosed and untreated or inadequately treated cases. The leading causes of neonatal meningitis are the group B streptococci and Escherichia coli organisms. Meningitis is an extension of a variety of bacterial infections. No genetic predisposition exists. Vaccinations are not available for all of the potential causative organisms.

A 6-year-old child is admitted for revision of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt for noncommunicating hydrocephalus. What sign or symptom does the child have that indicates a revision is necessary? a. Tachycardia b. Gastrointestinal upset c. Hypotension d. Alteration in level of consciousness

ANS: D In older children, who are usually admitted to the hospital for elective or emergency shunt revision, the most valuable indicators of increasing intracranial pressure are an alteration in the child's level of consciousness, complaint of headache, and changes in interaction with the environment.

A 23-month-old child is admitted to the hospital with a diagnosis of meningitis. She is lethargic and very irritable with a temperature of 102° F. What should the nurse's care plan include? a. Observing the child's voluntary movement b. Checking the Babinski reflex every 4 hours c. Checking the Brudzinski reflex every 1 hour d. Assessing the level of consciousness (LOC) and vital signs every 2 hours

ANS: D Observation of vital signs, neurologic signs, LOC, urinary output, and other pertinent data is carried out at frequent intervals on a child with meningitis. The nurse should avoid actions that cause pain or increase discomfort, such as lifting the child's head, so the Brudzinski reflex should not be checked hourly. Checking the Babinski reflex or child's voluntary movements will not help with assessing the child's status.

The nurse is assessing a child who was just admitted to the hospital for observation after a head injury. What clinical manifestation is the most essential part of the nursing assessment to detect early signs of a worsening condition? a. Posturing b. Vital signs c. Focal neurologic signs d. Level of consciousness

ANS: D The most important nursing observation is assessment of the child's level of consciousness. Alterations in consciousness appear earlier in the progression of an injury than do alterations of vital signs or focal neurologic signs. Neurologic posturing is indicative of neurologic damage.

The nurse is closely monitoring a child who is unconscious after a fall and notices that the child suddenly has a fixed and dilated pupil. How should the nurse interpret this? a. Eye trauma b. Brain death c. Severe brainstem damage d. Neurosurgical emergency

ANS: D The sudden appearance of a fixed and dilated pupil(s) is a neurosurgical emergency. The nurse should immediately report this finding. Although a dilated pupil may be associated with eye trauma, this child has experienced a neurologic insult. One fixed and dilated pupil is not suggestive of brain death. Pinpoint pupils or fixed, bilateral pupils for more than 5 minutes are indicative of brainstem damage. The unilateral fixed and dilated pupil is suggestive of damage on the same side of the brain.

What is a nursing intervention to reduce the risk of increasing intracranial pressure (ICP) in an unconscious child? a. Suction the child frequently. b. Turn the child's head side to side every hour. c. Provide environmental stimulation. d. Avoid activities that cause pain or crying.

ANS: D Unrelieved pain, crying, and emotional stress all contribute to increasing the ICP. Disturbing procedures should be carried out at the same time as therapies that reduce ICP, such as sedation. Suctioning is poorly tolerated by children. When necessary, it is preceded by hyperventilation with 100% oxygen. Turning the head side to side is contraindicated for fear of compressing the jugular vein. This would block the flow of blood from the brain, raising ICP. Nontherapeutic touch and environmental stimulation increase ICP. Minimizing both touch and environmental stimuli noise reduces ICP.