ch 28-29 APUSH The American Pageant Rogan

Conservation vs. Preservation (pg 668-672)

Conservation was the idea of limiting the use of America's natural resources and wilderness so that future generations could enjoy them as well. Preservation was the complete abstinence of messing with nature in order to achieve basically the same goal. A landmark battle between the two sides came in 1913 when the federal government allowed the city of San Francisco to build a dam for its municipal water supply in the spectacular, high-walled Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite National Park. This was a huge blow to preservationists like John Muir while conservationists like Roosevelt and Pinchot were able to establish their ideals.

Jacob Riis (pg 657)

A keen-eyed and keen-nosed Danish immigrant who as a reporter for the New York Sun shocked middle-class Americans in 1890 with How the Other Half Lives. His account was a damning indictment of the dirt, disease, vice, and misery of the rat-gnawed human rookeries known as New York slums. The book deeply influenced future New York City police commissioner, Theodore Roosevelt, and had an impact in the development of legal codes for proper living conditions within the cities.

Mueller vs. Oregon (pg 662)

A landmark Supreme Court Case in 1908 in which Louis D. Brandeis presented his Brandeis brief. Essentially, Brandeis argued that Supreme Court should accept the constitutionality of laws protecting women workers because of evidence of the harmful effects of factory labor on women's weaker bodies. Progressives at the time hailed Brandeis's achievement as a triumph over existing legal doctrine that gave employers all the control in the workplace.

Submarine Warfare (pg 690)

A method of warfare introduced and used by the Germans in World War I. In an attempt to break the British blockade, the Germans declared a submarine war zone around the British isles. The danger was that any ship that approached the area, even passenger and merchant ships, could be sunk because there was no legislation or code of conduct introduced yet for this cutting-edge technology. Thus, the Germans used this on numerous occasions to try to gain an advantage, but really end up just angering the Americans, who would eventually join the Allies because of actions like this.

Economic Ties (pg 689)

Economically, the Americans traded heavily with both sides, but especially with the British, a fact that was even more true after the British implemented their blockade to prevent the United States from trading with Germany. The British had already controlled the sea routes as well as the transatlantic cables and thus could censor news that spoke ill of the Allies while demonizing the Germans.

Ethnic Ties (pg 689)

Ethnically, many Americans enjoyed cultural and linguistic ties with Great Britain and thus were inclined to join the Allies in the Great War. However, there were also a considerable number of immigrants from the countries that constituted the Central Powers who had a deep connection to the homeland. Ultimately, though, they were happy that they were not caught in all the war and violence that was going on and thus consented to whatever direction the United States decided to choose.

US Steel Suit (pg 667)

In 1907, Roosevelt gave his personal blessing to J.P. Morgan to have U.S. Steel absorb the Tennessee Coal and Iron Company without fear of antitrust reprisals. However, when Roosevelt's hand-picked successor to the presidency, William Howard Taft, launched a suit against U.S. Steel in 1911, the political reaction from Teddy Roosevelt was explosive and was one of the factors contributing to the divide of the Republican Party.

Sussex Pledge (pg 691)

In the Sussex Pledge, The Germans reluctantly agree to President Wilson's ultimatum and agreed not to sink passenger ships and merchant vessels without giving warning. However, the Germans attached a long string to their Sussex pledge: the United States would have to persuade the Allies to modify what Berlin regarded as their illegal blockade. The United States could not do this, but Wilson agreed in principle so as to create a temporary peace. However, with this leeway, the Germans were soon continuing to bombard the various ships that entered this area.

Newlands Act (pg 669)

Passed in 1902, this act gave Washington the authority to collect money from the sale of public lands in the sun-baked western states and then use these funds for the development of irrigation projects. Settlers would repay the cost of reclamation from their now-productive soil and the money was then put into a revolving fund to finance more of the same enterprises. Through this act, several dams, including the giant Roosevelt Dam on Arizona's Salt River, were constructed during this time period and in the ensuing decades over every major river.

Teddy Roosevelt (pg 665)

Rising to the presidency after the assassination of McKinley, Roosevelt quickly became one of the most charismatic presidents in history. In the Progressive era, he decided to take on the matter of the public's interests in his "Square Deal" for capital, labor, and the public at large. Broadly speaking, Roosevelt characterized his program with the three C's: control of the corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources.

Impact of TR Presidency (pg 674-675)

Roosevelt had a reputation as a trustbuster but the truly wise ones among the business lords knew they had a friend in the White House. On numerous policies from methods of governing to conservation, Roosevelt was known for taking the middle road. Roosevelt greatly enlarged the power and prestige of the presidency with his big stick mentality. He helped shape the progressive movement and the ensuing liberal campaigns. His Square Deal was essentially a predecessor to the later New Deal during the Great Depression. Most importantly, Roosevelt opened the eyes of Americans to the fact that they shared the world with other nations and had responsibilities as a great power.

Federal Reserve Act (pg 683)

The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 is perhaps the most important piece of economic legislation between the Civil War and the New Deal. The Act provided for a Federal Reserve Board, appointed by the president, that resided over a nationwide system of twelve regional reserve districts, each with its own central bank. Although the banks within this system were owned by the members, the Board provided for a substantial amount of public control. The Reserve would issue paper money that could be circulated as needed. The Federal Reserve Act allowed the United States to survive the Great War economically and move forward into the future.

Hepburn Act (pg 666)

The Hepburn Act of 1906 was a follow-up to the earlier Elkins Act and was more effective. Free passes, with their hint of bribery, were severely restricted. Additionally, the once-infantile Interstate Commerce Commission was expanded, and its reach extended to include express companies, sleeping-car companies, and pipelines. For the first time, the commission was given real molars when it was authorized on complaint of shippers, to nullify existing rates and stipulate maximum rates.

Manchurian Railroad (pg 676)

The Manchurian Railroad was controlled in a two-party monopoly by the Russians and the Japanese. Taft and his supporters felt as though such a monopoly was counter-intuitive to the prosperity of Chinese economic interests and thus to America's Open Door Policy within China. Taft thus made efforts to purchase the railroad and give control back to the Chinese, but his overtures were rejected by the Japanese and the Russians, leaving him looking like a fool.

Meat Inspection Act (pg 668)

The Meat Inspection Act of 1906 was passed by a Roosevelt-led Congress on the backing of a nauseated public. It decreed that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection from corral to can. Although the largest packers resisted certain features of the act, they eventually accepted it so that they could continue in business, especially in selling to the rest of the world by receiving the government's seal of approval on their exports.

Caribbean Intervention (pg 685-686)

The United States involvement in the affairs of the countries surrounding the Caribbean Sea. The brutal assassination of the oppressive Haitian president in 1915 forced Wilson to send marines there to protect American live and property. The marines remained there for nineteen years and made Haiti an American protectorate under the US police force. Marines also took over the debt-cursed Dominican Republic for eight years. In 1917, Wilson purchased the Virgin Islands in the West Indies from Denmark. Resentment in this area was growing to the expanding control of the United States in the Caribbean.

WCTU (pg 664)

The acronym for the Women's Christian Temperance Union, this was perhaps the most recognized of several militant organizations that served as antiliquor campaigners. Under the leadership of founder Frances Willard, the organization was able to mobilize nearly one million women to make the world homelike and build the WCTU into the largest organization of women in the world. The efforts of the WCTU and others eventually led to the passage of the eighteenth amendment that established the prohibition of alcohol.

Upton Sinclair (pg 667)

The author of The Jungle (1906), a book that exposed the uncleanness of the meatpacking industry and led to legislation to control the quality of consumer goods. Sinclair originally intended his revolting tract to focus attention on the plight of the workers, but instead ended up appalling the public with his descriptions of disgustingly unsanitary food products. He aimed for the nation's heart but hit its stomach and as such, was able to bring to light the need for regulation of consumer goods to the eyes of Teddy Roosevelt, who even gave up eating meat for a while.

The Jungle (pg 667)

the 1906 book written by Upton Sinclair that exposed the unsanitary conditions of the meatpacking industry in Chicago and led to the passage of legislation to regulate the quality of consumer goods from thereon forth. The book described in noxious detail the filth, disease, and putrefaction in Chicago's damp, ill-ventilated slaughterhouses. Many readers, including President Roosevelt, were so sickened that for a time they found meat unpalatable. The book eventually led the President to appoint a commission to confirm what Sinclair had reported.

John Spargo (pg 659)

the author of The Bitter Cry of the Children (1906), which brought light to the abuses of child labor. Spargo is perhaps best known for his work as a socialist in the United States. He published a biography of Karl Marx in 1908. He believed in equality for all, both in the workplace and in society and pushed for this throughout his life.

Anthracite Coal Strike (pg 665)

The first real test to the Square Deal ideology and legislation came with the Anthracite Coal Strike. Some 140,000 workers in Pennsylvania demanded among other improvements, a twenty percent increase in pay and a reduction of the working day from ten to nine hours. Both sides, the mine owners and the miners union, would not budge and the strike soon began to affect homes and hospitals around the nation as winter approached. To mediate the situation, Roosevelt brought both sides to the White House where a deal was struck that gave the workers a ten percent pay increase and a nine hour workday. The deal was representative of the successes of the Square Deal.

Frances Willard (pg 664)

The founder of the Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU), which used biblical grounds and moral values to call for the abolishment of liquor. Willard herself would often fall to her knees in prayer on saloon floors and was able to mobilize nearly one million women to make the world homelike and build the WCTU into the largest organization of women in the world. Willard was aided in her efforts by the aggressive, well organized, and well financed Anti-Saloon League.

Victoriano Huerta (pg 687-688)

the general who first took over the presidency in Mexico after the assassination of the popular revolutionary president. His ascension to power caused a massive migration of Mexicans to the United States as they feared what the new regime would bring. Wilson refused to push into Mexico, but at the same time did not recognize the Huerta regime. Pushed on by the Mexican arrest of some American sailors in Tampico in April 1914, Wilson decided to intervene and eliminate Huerta by force. This was eventually prevented when the ABC powers of Argentina, Brazil, and Chile offered to step in to mediate.

Hiram Johnson (pg 661)

the governor of California who allowed California to make great strides during the progressive Era. Elected Republican governor in 1910, this dynamic prosecutor of grafters helped break the dominant grip of the Southern Pacific Railroad on California politics and then, like La Follette, set up a political machine of his own. Johnson served as governor up to America's entrance into World War I. Thereafter, he a U.S. senator until the conclusion of World War II. During this time, he even ran for President of the United States, falling on numerous occasions in the 1920's.

William Howard Taft (pg 673-677)

The hand-picked successor of President Theodore Roosevelt, who had earlier promised to not run for another term, Taft was a mild progressive who served as the secretary of war under Roosevelt. TR had long given him opportunities to take the reigns when he was absent and Roosevelt was able to force Taft's nomination through the Republican convention in Chicago for the 1908 election. It was expected that Taft would follow after Roosevelt's policies, but that could not be further from the truth as Taft appeared to join the Old Guard, prompting Roosevelt to return to the political scene.

Square Deal (pg 665)

The ideology and subsequent legislation that was passed in the Progressive Era under President Theodore Roosevelt when the President decided to address the matter of the public's interests, which had long been drowned out in a drifting sea of indifference. The Square Deal consisted mainly of the three C's, which President Roosevelt enumerated as the control of corporations, consumer protection, and conservation of natural resources.

Robert La Follette (pg 661)

the governor of Wisconsin who was given the nickname "Fighting Bob" because he fought against corruption in politics. Though he was undersized as a man, he was an overbearing crusader who emerged as one of the most militant progressive Republican leaders. La Follette fought against entrenched monopoly and wrested considerable control from the crooked corporations by routing the lumber and railroad interests. This power was returned back tot he people and La Follette also developed a system for regulating public utilities, while working in close association with experts on the faculty of the State university at Madison.

Progressives (pg 656)

the new crusaders of the reform movement who waged war on many evils, notably monopoly, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice. The battle cry was to strengthen the state and the real heart of the movement was to use government as an agency of human welfare. The roots of the Progressives were found in the Greenback Labor Party of the 1870s, which transitioned into the Populists of the 1890s. Eventually, the progressives included those who had mounting unrest throughout the land as grasping industrialists concentrated more and more power in fewer and fewer hands. Progressives believed that the people could no longer employ laissez-faire policies because the times had changed.

Problems in US Society (pg 657)

The problems in US society were many at the turn of the century and included the various monopolies that had developed in different industries. These monopolies controlled the market and thus consumers were at the mercy of their price scales and abuses of workers and other things. Corruption was abundant in both industry and politics and many people lived in dirty slums that made it easy to contract fatal diseases while being cramped into inadequate shelters. Working and living conditions needed to be addressed as well as the right of the people to really have a say in their government, including the women.

Reform Tradition (pg 656)

The reform tradition was raised up anew by the Progressives as they engaged in a reform movement that the nation had not seen since the 1840s. The new crusaders of the reform movement waged war on many evils, notably monopoly, corruption, inefficiency, and social injustice. The reform tradition grew out of the Greenback Labor Party of the 1870s and the Populists of the 1890s. This time around with the progressives, the goal was to strengthen the state and the real heart of the movement was to use government as an agency of human welfare.

Split of Republican Party (pg 677)

The rift in the Republican Party began as early as 1908 with the election of William Howard Taft and was in full-blown effect as the elections of 1912 neared and would cost the Republicans the election.

Lusitania (pg 690)

The sinking of the Lusitania was one of the major turning points in American involvement in World War I. The Lusitania was a British passenger line that was sunk on May 7, 1915, taking 1,198 lives, 128 of which were Americans. The reaction back home was intense anger and want of retaliation against the Germans, but Wilson held off per the ideology of his moral diplomacy in foreign affairs. However, increasingly, the Germans were painted as mass murderers and pirates after this point.

Initiative (pg 659)

The term given to the legal process in which voters could directly propose legislation themselves, thus bypassing the boss-bought state legislatures. The concept of the initiative was first developed in the Populist period, but was finally manifested in the Progressive era. Today, the initiative has developed into the proposition system that we use in California.

Clayton Antitrust Act (pg 684)

This act lengthened the shopworn Sherman Acts list of business practices that were deemed objectionable, including price discrimination and interlocking directorates. The Clayton act also conferred long-overdue benefits on labor. Conservative courts had unexpectedly been ruling that trade unions fell under the antimonopoly restraints of the Sherman Act. The Clayton Act therefore sought to exempt labor and agricultural organizations from antitrust prosecution, while explicitly legalizing strikes and peaceful picketing. Union leader Samuel Gompers recognized the act as the Magna Carta of labor.

Good vs. Bad Trusts (pg 666)

Trusts had become a fighting word in the progressive era but Roosevelt believed that these industrial behemoths, with their efficient means of production, had arrived to stay. Thus, he concluded that their needed to be a differentiation between good and bad trusts. Essentially, good trusts conducted business with and eye towards the public conscience while bad trusts lusted greedily for power at the expense of the public. Roosevelt was determined to respond to the popular outcry against the trusts but was also determined not to throw out the baby with the bathwater by indiscriminately smashing all large businesses.

Panic of 1907 (pg 673)

a short but punishing panic that descended on Wall Street in 1907 that created a financial flurry featuring frightened runs on banks, suicides, and criminal indictments against speculators. The financial world hastened to blame Roosevelt for the developments, claiming that he had unsettled the industry with his boat-rocking tactics. Conservatives criticized him for meddling and labeled the recession the "Roosevelt panic." The President quickly retorted that these people had deliberately engineered the monetary crisis to force the government to relax its assaults on trusts. The panic did help to pass long-overdue fiscal reforms with the Aldrich-Vreeland Act of 1908, which helped to establish a more flexible currency that the government could issue in times of need.

Arabic (pg 691)

a British liner that sunk in August of 1815, taking two American lives with it. After the sinking of the Arabic, Wilson agreed in principle, via the diplomatic progress, that Berlin could not sink unarmed and unresisting passenger ships without warning. This was interpreted by Americans to be an end to submarine warfare for all intensive purposes, but the German continued to "make mistakes" in identifying belligerent ships and the attacks continued.

Lincoln Steffens (pg 658)

a brilliant New York reporter who in 1902 launched a series of articles in McClure's titled "The Shame of the Cities." He fearlessly unmasked the corrupt alliance between big business and municipal government. Steffens set the example for others to come after him and criticize long-established techniques and practices. One such person who followed in his footsteps was Ida Tarbell, who took up the fight against Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company.

Pancho Villa (pg 687-688)

a combination of bandit and Robin Hood, the United States supported him in his efforts to bring down both Huerta and Carranza. However, Villa's actions in killing sixteen young American mining engineers and then later, another nineteen Americans in Columbus, New Mexico, prompted a US invasion of Mexico led by General John J. Pershing. The initiative was to seek out Villa as well as break down Carranza's force, but the US troops were unable to capture Villa, who was eventually assassinated in 1923.

Gifford Pinchot (pg 669)

a dedicated conservationist who became the head oft he federal Division of Forestry. He along with President Theodore Roosevelt served as the main stalwarts for the conservationist movement. Pinchot believed that wilderness was a waste and that it should instead by intelligently used for the benefit of the people. Pinchot had to maintain the position against greedy commercial interests that abused nature and against romantic preservationists in thrall to simple "woodman-spare-that-tree" sentimentality. Pinchot would later be involved in a dispute that split the Republican party.

Referendum (pg 659)

a legal device that would place laws on the ballot for final approval by the people, especially the laws that had been railroaded through a compliant legislature by free-spending agents of big business. The concept of the referendum was first developed in the Populist period, but was finally manifested in the Progressive era. Today, the referendum has developed into the proposition system that we use in California.

Recall (pg 659)

a legal measure that would allow voters to remove faithless elected officials, particularly those who had been bribed by bosses or lobbyists, from office. The concept of the recall was first developed in the Populist period, but was finally manifested in the Progressive era. Today, the recall is evident in the impeachment process and the removal of governors to be replaced by another one, as most recently demonstrated by the removal of Gray Davis in California, who was replaced by Arnold Schwarzenegger.

Lochner vs. New York (pg 662)

A 1905 Supreme Court Case that served as a major setback for crusaders of humane measures. In this case, the Supreme Court invalidated a New York Law that established a ten-hour work day for bakers. However, the reformist progressive wave continued to push on and in 1917, the Court upheld a ten-hour law for factory workers, a clear sign of the changing times as the people gained more power.

Sussex (pg 691)

A French passenger steamer that was sunk in March 1916, an event that appeared to violate the prior agreement to not sink passenger ships following the sinking of the Arabic. This third sinking infuriated Wilson, who informed the Germans that unless they renounced the inhuman practice of sinking merchant ships without warning, he would break diplomatic relations, an almost certain prelude to war.

Woodrow Wilson (pg 679)

A brilliant academic lecturer on government who had risen in 1902 to the presidency of Princeton University after becoming a militant progressive. His efforts achieved some sweeping educational reforms within the institution and got him on the radar for the New Jersey Governorship. Little did these bosses know that Wilson was a man fully capable of reforms at the highest level as he quickly engaged on a passionate campaign to attack the trusts and the promise of a returning of state government to the people. His actions as a strong progressive combined with the divide in the Republican Party allowed him to win the election of 1912 and lead the United States into World War I.

Triangle Shirtwaist Fire (pg 662)

A fire in New York city in 1911 that highlighted the dangers of not having a safety code or not enforcing the safety code strongly enough. The workers in the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory, mostly immigrant women, were locked into their work stations on the eighth and ninth stories of a building because the bosses did not want them to get out and go do other things. The problem was that when a fire broke out in the workplace, the women could not escape and nearly all of them either burned to death or were killed when they tried to jump out of the windows. This disaster raised up huge concerns for laws and regulations that improved working conditions so that such a catastrophe would not happen again.

Mexican Civil War (pg 687-688)

A revolution that really took off in 1913 with the assassination of a new revolutionary president and the installation of General Victoriano Huerta. Thereafter, a struggle of power ensued as Huerta competed with his rivals, Venustiano Carrana and Francisco Pancho Villa. American intervention in this war only worsened American relations with Mexico.

City Manager System (pg 661)

A system of government first practiced within Galveston, Texas. Frustrated by the inefficiency and corruption of machine-oiled city governments, the pioneers in this city had appointed expert-staffed commissions to manage urban affairs in 1901. The system eventually came to be called the city-manager system and was designed to take the politics out of municipal administration. Some of these reforms, however, valued efficiency more highly than democracy and thus, control of civic affairs was further removed from the people's hands.

Elkins Act (pg 666)

An act passed in 1903 to address the matter of a railroad monopoly. The sprawling railroad octopus sorely needed restraint because the Interstate Commerce Commission, created in 1887 as a feeble sop to the public, had proved woefully inadequate. Railroad barons could simply appeal the commission's decisions on rates to the federal courts, a process that might take ten years. The Elkins Act of 1903, therefore, attempted to curb the rebate practice by giving heavy fines to the railroads that gave the rebates and to the shippers that accepted them

American Neutrality (pg 689)

At the outset of war, under Wilson's isolationist policy per moral diplomacy, Americans tried to remain neutral. Wilson issued a proclamation to the American people telling them to be neutral not only in action but in thought. However, this was very difficult as many had ties to their homelands and were affected by the actions of countries on either side. As the war dragged on, many Americans began to favor the Allies because the Germans were depicted as being autocratic and ruthless, as represented in their unrestricted submarine warfare.

Ida Tarbell (pg 658)

Following in the footsteps of Lincoln Steffens, Ida M. Tarbell was able to use the outlet of McClure's magazine to express her views about the Standard Oil Company. Tarbell was a pioneering journalist who published a devastating but factual expose of the Standard Oil Company, in part because her father had been ruined by the oil interests. Fearing legal reprisals, the muckraking magazines went to great pains and expense to check their material. Tarbell was one such example and magazines would pay as much as three thousand dollars to verify a single Tarbell article.

Jane Addams (pg 658)

Jane Addams was the first American woman to receive the Nobel Peace Prize. She was known as the founder of Hull House in Chicago, a mansion that she rented out to immigrants who needed a temporary place to settle down as they looked for jobs. She was a leader in women's suffrage and world peace and easily became one of the most prominent women of the Progressive Era. She helped turn the nation to issues of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, public health and world peace. She emphasized that women have a special responsibility to clean up their communities and make them better places to live, arguing they needed the vote to be effective.

Lillian Wald (pg 658)

Lillian Wald was a nurse, social worker, public health official, teacher, author, editor, publisher, activist for peace, women's, children's and civil rights, and the founder of American community nursing. Her unselfish devotion to humanity is recognized around the world and her visionary programs have been widely copied. Wald worked in orphanages and taught new immigrant families how to be a proper nurse. To do so, she often took up harsh living conditions and had to endure many trials. Eventually, she helped found the nursing school at Columbia University.

Northern Securities Case (pg 666)

Roosevelt, as a trustbuster, first burst into the headlines in 1902 with an attack on the Northern Securities Company, a railroad holding company organized by financial titan J.P. Morgan and empire builder James J. Hill. These Napoleonic moguls of money sought to achieve a virtual monopoly of the railroads in the Northwest. The railway promoters appealed tot he Supreme Court, which in 1904 upheld Roosevelt's antitrust suit and order the Northern Securities Company to be dissolved. The Northern Securities decision jolted Wall Street and angered big business but greatly enhanced Roosevelt's reputation as a trust smasher.

Ballinger-Pinchot Controversy (pg 676-677)

Secretary of the Interior Richard Ballinger opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska to corporate development and was criticized by Gifford Pinchot because of this. Roosevelt then dismissed Pinchot on the narrow grounds of insubordination, a move that infuriated many within Roosevelt's camp. This event was one of the last straws in the divide of the Republican Party.

Payne-Aldrich Tariff (pg 676)

Taft had campaigned to lower the tariff in accordance with progressive principles that the tariff was the protector of the hated trusts. Early on, it appeared that Taft was keeping true to his word by calling Congress into a special session in March 1909. The House passed a moderately reductive bill, but the Senate, led by Nelson W. Aldrich of Rhode Island tacked on hundreds of upward tariff revisions that ended up increasing the tariffs on various goods. This was one of the contributing factors to the divide of the Republican Party.

Caribbean Intervention (pg 676)

Taft hoped to head off trouble in this area by pumping dollars into the financial vacuums in Honduras and Haiti to keep out foreign funds. Under the Monroe Doctrine, the United States would not allow foreign nations to intervene and consequently felt obligated to put its money where its mouth was to prevent economic and political instability. Control in the Caribbean was also crucial to protect American interests in the Panama Canal.

Taft and Trusts (pg 676)

Taft managed to gain some fame as a trustbuster although not as much as the charismatic Roosevelt. Ironically, Taft was the greater trustbuster in reality, bringing ninety suits against the trusts during his four years in office while Roosevelt only brought up some forty-four during his seven and a half years in power as the President. Under Taft, the Standard Oil Company was broken up and the idea of the "rule of reason" was established as a guideline for determining whether an industrial monopoly should be broken up.

Dollar Diplomacy (pg 675)

Taft's approach to foreign policy was to boost American political interests abroad by using American investments in these territories. In this way, America would be economically and financially bound to these areas and would thus have a say in matters that were brought up. This dollar diplomacy replaced Roosevelt's Big Stick Policy and attempts to put it into practice occurred in the Far East and in the regions surrounding the Panama Canal.

Pure Food and Drug Act (pg 668)

The Pure Food and Drug At of 1906 was passed in conjunction with the Meat Inspection Act and was designed to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals. It, like the Meat Inspection Act, was inspired by the revelations of the unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry of Chicago by Upton Sinclair's The Jungle.

Charles Evans Hughes (pg 692-693)

The Supreme Court Justice who ran as the Republican candidate in the election of 1916. Hughes was out of place as a presidential candidate, as demonstrated by his assailing Wilson for not standing up to the kaiser in anti-German areas while taking a softer line in isolationist areas. This waffling earned him the name "Charles Evasive Hughes." Hughes was also bogged down by the influence and presence of Roosevelt in the background of the Republican Party. Thus, even though he carried the East and seemed destined to win the election of 1916, he was unable to carry the West, where Wilson eked out a victory in California.

Underwood Tariff (pg 682)

The Underwood Tariff Bill provided for a substantial reduction of rates and was passed after Wilson personally appealed to Congress. When a swarm of lobbyists descended on the Senate seeking to disembowel the bill, Wilson promptly issued a combative message to the people, urging them to hold their elected representatives in line. The tactic worked and the force of public opinion, as aroused by the president's oratory, secured late in 1913 the final approval of the bill. The tariff substantially reduced import fees and implemented a graduated income tax per the Sixteenth Amendment.

Outbreak of WWI (pg 688-689)

The outbreak of WWI was caused by a variety of factors, including militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism. The entire situation was set into motion by the assassination of archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary at the hands of a Serbian nationalist group known as the Black Hand. The system of alliances set up beforehand brought basically all of Europe into the conflict and developed into World War I or the Great War.

Venustiano Carranza (pg 687-688)

The chief rival to General Victoriano Huerta, Wilson was pressured to support him so that Huerta could be removed from office. This became true when pressure from within and without in the form of the ABC powers eventually forced Huerta to step down and be supplanted by Carranza. However, US sentiment soon changed again as there was a call to support Pancho Villa. Eventually, the Americans invaded with the intent of taking all of them out.

Election of 1908 (pg 674)

The election of 1908 pitted the hand-picked successor to Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, for the Republicans, against William Jennings Bryan for the Democrats. Taft used cut-and-dried speeches while Bryan used his amazing oratory skills to gripe that all of Roosevelt's policies had originally come from him. Despite the disparity in speaking ability, Taft was elected to the presidency as people looked to establish some coherency and stability with the supposedly Roosevelt-controlled Taft.

Election of 1912 (pg 680-681)

The election of 1912 was made interesting by the emergence of Woodrow Wilson for the Democrats and the developing divide within the Republican Party that led to the nomination of Taft and the creation of the third party Bull Moose Party headed by Roosevelt. Even though, the Republicans had an overwhelming advantage as far as the popular votes went, the split in the party caused them to divide the vote and allow for Wilson to win as a minority president. It is notable that the Socialists, under the banner of Eugene V. Debs were able to poll almost one million votes in this election.

Election of 1916 (pg 691-694)

The election of 1916 was contested between Supreme Court Justice Charles Evans Hughes for the Republicans and the renominated Woodrow Wilson for the Democrats. The campaign centered largely around the prospect of war in addition to some other economic issues and at first, it seemed like Hughes would easily win the presidency because he swept all the important Eastern States. However, Wilson carried the West, notably the important state of California, which he won by only 3,800 votes out of one million to take a 277 to 254 lead in electoral votes to seal his victory. Ironically, it was likely the conception that Wilson would keep the country out of war that won him the presidency, but Wilson brought the United States into the war just months after his reelection.

Bull Moose Party (pg 680)

The name given to Roosevelt's Progressive Republican Third Party. Roosevelt had not garnered enough votes at the Republican convention to completely win the nomination and thus, he decided to form his own third party. The name of the party came from Roosevelt's boast that he felt "as strong as a bull moose." Unfortunately, the presence of the Republican Taft split the vote of the Republicans and the Bull Moose Party fell short of the presidency. However, it did demonstrate the capabilities of a third party to make a significant run at the presidency.

Triple Wall of Privilege (pg 682)

The name given to the three items that Wilson wanted to address during his presidency: the tariff, the banks, and the trusts. Wilson believed that these three items were severely limiting the continued growth of the American people into greater economic and social freedom. Therefore, he came into the Whit House with perhaps a clearer program that was able to be achieved than any other president in United States history.

Muckraker (pg 658)

The name given to young and dissenting reporters by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906. Roosevelt was annoyed by their excess of zeal and the compared the mudslinging magazine dirt-diggers to the figure in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress who was so intent on raking manure that he could not see the celestial crown dangling overhead. At the same time, Roosevelt realized the need for such individuals to expose the inherent problems within American society, particularly the matter of big business and trusts. Roosevelt just wanted to ensure that the criticism did not get out of hand and was constructive criticism that aided the overall growth of the nation.

New Freedom (pg 680)

The new platform on which Wilson campaigned and was based off of stronger antitrust legislation, banking reform, and tariff reductions. Wilson's New Freedom favored small enterprise, entrepreneurship, and the free functioning of unregulated and unmonopolized markets. The Democrats believed in healthy competition and the keynote of Wilson's campaign was not regulation but fragmentation of the big industrial combines, chiefly by means of vigorous enforcement of the antitrust laws.

Moral Diplomacy (pg 685-688)

Wilson's conception of foreign policy, which was founded on the belief that Americans should remain anti-imperialistic and stay out of the affairs of other countries unless incited to action on moral grounds. This was a sharp contrast to the Big Stick policy of Roosevelt or the dollar diplomacy of Taft. Indeed, an attempted venture of dollar diplomacy into China was immediately canceled upon Wilson's taking of office. Wilson used moral diplomacy hesitatingly and often only when provoked or urged on by the public.

17th Amendment (pg 660)

an amendment to the U.S. Constitution that was approved in 1913 that established the direct election of U.S. Senators. The process of bringing about such a constitutional amendment was a long one and had rough sledding in Congress because the plutocratic members of the Senate were happy with existing methods. What eventually pushed the amendment through was the fact that a number of states established primary elections in which the voters expressed their preferences for the Senate. The local legislatures, then, when choosing senators, found it politically wise to heed to the voice of the people.