Ch. 4 "The Carbohydrates: Sugars, Starches, & Fiber" - 4.3 "Glucose in the Body"

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Fasting Blood Glucose Range - Prediabetes:

100-125 mg/dL

How much of the body's total glycogen stores is in the liver?

25%

How many grams of carbs per day does the body need in order to spare body protein & prevent ketosis?

50-100 grams/day

Fasting Blood Glucose Range - Normal:

70-99 mg/dL

How much of the body's total glycogen stores is in muscle cells?

75%

Fasting Blood Glucose Range - Hypoglycemia:

<70 mg/dL

Fasting Blood Glucose Range - Diabetes:

>=126 mg/dL

The equilibrium in the body between acid & base concentrations

Acid-Base Balance

Metabolic disorder characterized by elevated blood glucose resulting from insufficient insulin, ineffective insulin, or both

Diabetes

A hormone of the adrenal gland that modulates the stress response

Epinephrine

A hormone secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response to low blood glucose concentration; Elicits release of glucose from liver glycogen stores

Glucagon

Glucagon or Insulin?: End Results - Glucagon secretion inhibited

Glucagon

Glucagon or Insulin?: End Results - Raised blood glucose

Glucagon

Glucagon or Insulin?: Stimulates the breakdown of glycogen from the liver

Glucagon

Glucagon or Insulin?: Stimulates the release of glucose into the blood

Glucagon

Hormone that brings glucose out of storage when needed

Glucagon

The making of glucose from a noncarbohydrate source such as amino acids or glycerol

Gluconeogenesis

___ fuels the work of most of the body's cells & is the preferred energy source for brain cells, other nerve cells, & developing red blood cells.

Glucose

___ plays the central role in carbohydrate metabolism.

Glucose

A method of classifying foods according to their potential for raising blood glucose

Glycemic Index

The extent to which a food raises the blood glucose concentration & elicits an insulin response

Glycemic Response

An abnormally low blood glucose concentration

Hypoglycemia

A hormone secreted by special cells in the pancreas in response to (among other things) elevated blood glucose concentration; Controls the transport of glucose from the bloodstream into the muscle & fat cells

Insulin

Glucagon or Insulin?: End Results - Insulin secretion inhibited

Insulin

Glucagon or Insulin?: End Results - Lower blood glucose

Insulin

Glucagon or Insulin?: Stimulate the uptake of glucose from the blood to the cells

Insulin

Glucagon or Insulin?: Stimulates the storage of glycogen in the liver & muscles

Insulin

Hormone that moves glucose from the blood into the cells

Insulin

___ moves glucose from the blood into the cells when levels are high; & ___ frees glucose from glycogen stores & releases it into the blood when levels are low.

Insulin; glucagon

Glucagon or Insulin?: Stimulates the conversion of excess glucose into fat for storage

Insuline

Acidic compounds produced by the liver during the breakdown of fat when carbohydrate is not available

Ketone Bodies

___ provide an alternative fuel source during starvation, but when their production exceeds their use, they accumulate in the blood.

Ketone bodies

An undesirably high concentration of ketone bodies in the blood & urine

Ketosis

Describe what liver cells do with excess glucose molecules after a meal.

Liver cells link excess glucose molecules by condensation reactions into long, branching chains of glycogen

When blood glucose levels are higher than normal but below the diagnosis of diabetes

Prediabetes

The action of carbohydrate (& fat) in providing energy that allows protein to be used for other purposes

Protein-Sparing Action

T/F: Glycogen holds water &, therefore, is rather bulky.

T

T/F: People can have dramatically different blood glucose responses to the same foods.

T

T/F: Unlike the liver cells, which can store only enough glycogen to meet about a day's energy needs, fat cells can store seemingly unlimited quantities of fat.

T

How do people who don't attend faithfully to their bodies' carb needs manage w.out glucose from dietary carbohydrate?

The draw energy from the other 2 energy-yielding nutrient, but not simply.

When glucose is abundant, energy metabolism shifts to use more glucose instead of fat. What happens if that isn't enough to restore glucose balance?

The liver breaks glucose into smaller molecules & puts them together into the more permanent energy-storage compound—fat.

What's the primary role of carbs in the body?

To supply the cells w. glucose for energy

Type I or Type II Diabetes: The pancreas fails to produce insulin

Type I Dabetes

The less common type of diabetes in which the pancreas produces little to no insulin; Usually results from autoimmune destruction of pancreatic beta cells

Type I Diabetes

Type I or Type II Diabetes: Less common

Type I Diabetes

Type I or Type II Diabetes: The exact cause is unclear, but some research suggests that in genetically susceptible people, certain viruses activate the immune system to attack & destroy insulin-producing cells in the pancreas as if they were foreign cells.

Type I Diabetes

The more common type of diabetes in which the cells fail to respond to insulin; Usually accompanies obesity & results from insulin resistance coupled with insufficient insulin secretion

Type II Diabetes

Type I or Type II Diabetes: More common

Type II Diabetes

Type I or Type II Diabetes: Tends to occur as a consequence of obesity

Type II Diabetes

Type I or Type II Diabetes: The cells fail to respond to insulin

Type II Diabetes

What do liver cells do w. glycogen when blood glucose falls?

When blood glucose falls, the liver cells break down glycogen by hydrolysis reactions into single molecules of glucose & release them into the bloodstream.

The liver can store enough glycogen to provide energy for how long?

about a day

Because most ketone bodies are acidic, ketosis disturbs the body's normal ___.

acid-base balance

Why might paying attention to the glycemic index may be unnecessary?

b.c current guidelines already suggest many low & moderate glycemic index choices: whole grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, milk & milk products

Dietary carbohydrates provide glucose that can do 1 of 3 things:

be used immediately by the cells for energy; be stored by the liver & muscles as glycogen; be converted into fat if intakes exceed needs

When a person doesn't replenish glucose by eating carb, what is broken down to make glucose to fuel the brain & other nerve cells?

body protein, primarily from the liver & skeletal muscles

All of the body's cells depend on glucose; those of the ___ & ___ are espec. dependent on it.

brain; CNS

Which dietary intakes are factors that most influence fluctuations in blood glucose levels?

carbohydrate (quality & quantity); protein; fiber

Describe a low glycemic response.

desirable response: slow absorption, a modest rise in blood glucose, & a smooth return to normal

In some people, blood glucose regulation fails. When this happens, either of 2 conditions can result:

diabetes or hypoglycemia

Why might glycemic index values of a single food vary?

difference in the physical & chemical characteristics of foods, testing methods in labs, & digestive processes of individuals

Symptoms if a person's blood glucose falls below normal:

dizziness; weakness

Tips to slow down digestion & absorption of carbs so that glucose enters the blood gradually, thus balancing w.in the normal blood glucose range:

eat balanced meals w. abundant carbs, including fiber, & a little fat; eat at regular intervals

Where are fats deposited that are made from excess sugars?

either the liver or muscles

Another hormone that signals the liver cells to release glucose is the "fight-or-flight" hormone, ___.

epinephrine

Name the hormone that signals the liver cells to release glucose when a person experiences stress.

epinephrine

What else can the liver convert glucose to, other than glycogen?

fat

What are the 2 ultimate outcomes when carbohydrate intake is abundant?

fat is conserved (by using more carb in the fuel mix); fat is created (by using excess carb to make body fat)

Symptoms if a person's blood glucose rises above normal:

fatigue

Tips for managing type II diabetes & ensure blood glucose levels remain stable:

food portions & choices must be balanced; eat meals & snacks at regularly scheduled times & in similar amounts; eat nutritious foods that support healthy weight

What 2 factors does the maintenance of normal blood glucose depend on?

foods & hormones

Glucagon or Insulin?: Low blood glucose signals the pancreas to secrete ___ into the blood.

glucagon

All of the body's cells depend on ___.

glucose

In general, the amount of insulin released corresponds w. the rise in ___.

glucose

The body needs ___ primarily as an energy nutrient.

glucose

The cells of the brain & the rest of the nervous system depend almost exclusively on ___ for their energy.

glucose

When glucose is abundant, energy metabolism shifts to use more ___ instead of ___.

glucose; fat

Different foods elicit different glycemic responses; the ___ classifies foods accordingly.

glycemic index

The ___ refers to how quickly glucose is absorbed after a person eats, how high blood glucose rises, & how quickly it returns to normal.

glycemic response

Elevated blood glucose returns to normal levels as excess glucose is stored as ___ & ___.

glycogen; fat

What do muscles do with their glycogen stores?

hoard it for themselves, using it during exercise

After a meal, as blood glucose rises, special cells of the pancreas respond by secreting ___ into the blood.

insulin

In diabetes, blood glucose rises after a meal and remains above normal levels b.c ___ is either inadequate or ineffective.

insulin

Blood glucose regulation depends primarily on 2 pancreatic hormones:

insulin & glucagon

By which hormones is blood glucose homeostasis primarily regulated?

insulin & glucagon

Glucagon or Insulin?: High blood glucose signals the pancreas to secret ___ into the blood.

insuline

Ketone bodies provide an alternative fuel source during starvation, but when their production exceeds their use, they accumulate in the blood, causing ___.

ketosis

Describe a high glycemic response.

less desirable: a fast absorption, a surge in blood glucose, & an overreaction that plunges glucose below normal

When insulin reaches the body's cells, receptors respond by ushering glucose from the blood into the cells. most cells take only the glucose they can use right away, but the ___ & ___ cells can assemble the sm. glucose into long, branching chains of glycogen for storage.

liver; muscle

Some studies have shown that selecting foods with a (high/low) glycemic index is a practical way to improve glucose control and lower the risk of diabetes.

low

What's the best preventative measure when it comes to type II diabetes?

maintain a healthy body weight

Benefits of lowering the glycemic index of the diet:

may improve blood lipids, reduce inflammation, & lower the risk of heart diseases; may help w. appetite regulation & weight mgmt.; although research findings are mixed;

Which causes of hypoglycemia require medical intervention?

meds; pancreatic tumors; overuse of insulin; alcohol abuse; uncontrolled diabetes; other illnesses

Perhaps most relevant to real life, a food's glycemic effect differs depending on:

plant variety, food processing, cooking method, time of day, & whether it's eaten alone or w. other foods

What is hypoglycemia most often a result of?

poorly managed type I diabetes - too much insulin, strenuous physical activity, inadequate food intake, illness

Only adequate dietary carbohydrate can prevent the use of protein for energy (gluconeogenesis), & this role of carbohydrate is known as:

protein-sparing action.

What does blood glucose do after a meal?

rises

Sugars attached to a protein change the protein's ___ & ___.

shape; function

What happens when blood glucose levels fall (as occurs between meals)?

special cells of the pancreas respond by secreting glucagon into the blood; glucagon raises blood glucose by signaling liver to break down glycogen; glucose releases into blood for energy use by other cells

To maintain the continuously-needed supply of glucose, a steady stream of blood brings more glucose from either:

the small intestine (food) or the liver (via glycogen breakdown or gluconeogenesis)

When sugars bind to lipids in a cell's membrane, what happens?

the sugars alter the way cells recognize each other

Symptoms of hypoglycemia:

weakness, rapid heartbeat, sweating, anxiety, hunger, trembling

Does the brain store glycogen?

yes, just a small amount; it's though to provide an emergency reserve during times of severe glucose deprivation


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